Indian History

Indian History

Major Periods of Indian History

  • Indian history is divided into several major periods based on archaeological findings:

  1. Lower Palaeolithic: This period began about 2 million years ago and is characterized by the use of simple stone tools.

  2. Middle Palaeolithic: This period started around 80,000 years ago and saw the development of more advanced stone tools.

  3. Upper Palaeolithic: This period began approximately 35,000 years ago and is marked by the emergence of cave paintings and sculptures.

  4. Mesolithic: This period started around 12,000 years ago and is characterized by the use of microliths, small stone tools.

  5. Neolithic: This period began about 10,000 years ago and is marked by the development of agriculture and pastoralism.

  6. Chalcolithic: This period started around 6,000 years ago and is characterized by the first use of copper.

  7. Harappan Civilization: This civilization flourished in the Indus River Valley around 2600 BC. It had a writing system, urban centers, and a diverse social and economic system.

  8. Megalithic Burials: These burials, associated with the early use of iron, date back to around 1000 BC.

  9. Early Historic: This period spans from 600 BC to 400 CE and is marked by the rise of various kingdoms and empires.

Ancient India

Indus Valley Civilization (2600-1900 BC)

  • One of the earliest great civilizations emerged along the Indus River Valley in Punjab and Sindh around 2600 BC.
  • This civilization had a writing system, urban centers, and a diverse social and economic system.

The Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization was a very old civilization that existed in the region of present-day India and Pakistan. Some of the important sites of this civilization include Lothal near Ahmedabad in Gujarat, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Banwali in Haryana, Ropar in Punjab, Mohenjodaro in Sindh, Pakistan, and Harappa in Punjab, Pakistan.

This civilization covered a large area of more than 12,99,600 square kilometers, stretching from the borders of Baluchistan to the deserts of Rajasthan, and from the foothills of the Himalayas to the southern tip of Gujarat.

Different historians have proposed different dates for the Indus Valley Civilization. Some of these dates include:

  • Marshall: 3250 to 2750 BC
  • Mackay: 2800 to 2500 BC
  • DP Aggarwal: 2300 to 1750 BC
  • Wheeler: 2500-1700 BC
  • Dales: 2900-1900 BC
  • MS Vats: 3500 to 200 BC

The Publication division documents and NCERT estimates the dates of the Indus Valley Civilization to be 2600 to 1900 BC.

The ancient name given to the Indus region by the Mesopotamians was Meluha.

The dating system used in various history books and documents is BC (Before Present or Before Christ).

Before the Harappan Civilization

  • Before the Harappan civilization, there were many different cultures in the region. Each culture had its own unique pottery, farming methods, and crafts. Most of these cultures lived in small settlements, and there were no large cities.

Harappan Diet

  • The Harappans ate a variety of plants and animals, including fish.
  • They grew wheat, barley, lentils, chickpeas, and sesame seeds. Millet was grown mostly in Gujarat, and rice was grown rarely.
  • The Harappans also raised animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo, and pigs. They also hunted wild animals such as boar, deer, and gharial.

Harappan Writing

  • Most Harappan writing was done on seals.
  • The Harappans were the first people to make cotton.
  • Harappan seals were probably used for trade.
  • Mesopotamian cylindrical seals and cuneiform inscriptions have been found in Mohenjo-Daro.

Harappan Sites and Irrigation

  • Harappan sites are found in dry areas where farming likely needed irrigation.
  • Canals have been found at Shortughai, an Harappan site in Afghanistan, but not in Sind or Punjab.
  • Houses in Kalibangan, an Indus Valley site, had wells.
  • Water reservoirs in Dholavira, Gujarat, may have been used for agriculture.

Stone and Metal Tools

  • The Harappan people used stone tools, but it’s not known if they used stone blades in wooden handles or metal tools.

The Rise and Fall of the Harappan Civilization

  • The Harappan civilization reached its peak around 1800 BC.
  • After that, the cities declined and eventually disappeared.
  • Each urban phase was marked by careful city planning, extensive brickwork, writing, bronze tools, and red pottery with black designs.

Excavations and Explorations:

  • In 1946, Wheeler conducted excavations at Harappa.
  • In 1955, S. R. Rao began excavations at Lothal.
  • In 1960, B. B. Lal and B. K. Thapar started excavations at Kalibangan.
  • In 1974, M. R. Mughal started explorations at Bahawalpur.
  • In 1980, a German and Italian team conducted surface exploration at Mohenjodaro.
  • In 1986, a US team carried out excavations at Harappan.
  • In 1990, R. S. Bisht led excavations at Dholavira.

Vedic Period: The Aryans

Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC):

  • The word “Aryan” comes from the Sanskrit word “Arya,” which means “a good family.”
  • The Aryans were semi-nomadic people who lived partly by herding animals and partly by farming.
  • They originally came from the region around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia.
  • Around 1500 BC, they migrated to India in search of pastures, traveling through the passes in the Hindu Kush Mountains.
  • On their way to India, they first appeared in Iran.
  • The Aryans initially settled in Punjab and later moved eastward, spreading across the Gangetic plains.
  • They are believed to be the founders of the Hindu civilization.
  • Being largely pastoral, they relied on cattle for food, transportation, and wealth. - Aryans were nature lovers and worshipped the sun, water, fire, etc.
  • Different historians have suggested various places as their origin, including the Arctic region, Greenland, Sweden, Germany, Danube valley, Siberia, Central Asia, and India.
  • In the excavations at Boghazkoi in Asia Minor, which dates back to 1400 BC, inscriptions were found with the names of deities like Indira, Varuna, and Nasatya.
  • The Aryans had six religious books that revealed their beliefs, customs, and culture.
  • The Vedas were four books: Rig Veda (prayers to gods), Sama Veda (music), Yajur Veda (sacrifices and rituals), and Atharva Veda (medicine).
  • The Upanishads were philosophical texts that discussed the nature of the universe and the soul.

The Vedas: Source of Indian Philosophy and Theology

The Vedas are a collection of ancient Indian texts that are considered the foundation of Indian philosophy and theology. They are believed to have been composed by sages and seers in the ancient past and are considered to be sacred and authoritative.

The Four Vedas

The Vedas are divided into four main parts:

  1. The Rigveda: This is the oldest and most important of the Vedas. It contains hymns of praise to the gods and goddesses of the Vedic religion.
  2. The Yajurveda: This Veda contains formulas and rituals for use in religious ceremonies.
  3. The Samaveda: This Veda contains melodies and chants for use in religious ceremonies.
  4. The Atharvaveda: This Veda contains spells and charms for use in healing and protection.

The Brahmanas

The Brahmanas are a collection of texts that explain the rituals and ceremonies described in the Vedas. They also contain discussions of philosophy and theology.

The Aranyakas

The Aranyakas are a collection of texts that were composed in the forests by sages and seers who had renounced the world. They contain discussions of mysticism and philosophy.

Manu Smriti

The Manu Smriti is a legal text that contains laws of inheritance, duties of the kings and his subjects, and other social and religious regulations.

The Puranas

The Puranas are a collection of religious and historical texts that contain discourses on legends, rituals, traditions, and moral codes.

Concepts of Vedic Philosophy

The Vedas contain a number of important philosophical concepts, including:

  • Atma (soul): The Atma is the essential self or soul of a person. It is believed to be eternal and unchanging.
  • Karma (deeds): Karma refers to the actions of a person and the consequences of those actions. Good deeds lead to good results, while bad deeds lead to bad results.
  • Pap and punya (sins and merits): Pap and punya are the Sanskrit words for sins and merits. Sins are actions that go against the dharma (righteousness), while merits are actions that are in accordance with the dharma.
  • Punarjanma (rebirth): Punarjanma is the belief that the soul is reborn after death into a new body. The type of body that a person is reborn into is determined by their karma.

Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)

The Later Vedic Period was a time of great change and development in Indian society and culture. The tiny tribal settlements of the early Vedic period were replaced by strong kingdoms, and there was a growth of big cities like Ayodhya, Indraprastha, and Mathura. This period was also called the Brahmanical age, and it saw the development of the modern form of Hinduism.

The society of the Later Vedic Period was divided into four castes:

  • Brahmins (priestly class): The Brahmins were the highest caste and were responsible for performing religious rituals and ceremonies.
  • Kshatriyas (military class): The Kshatriyas were the warrior class and were responsible for protecting the kingdom.
  • Vaishyas (merchant class): The Vaishyas were the merchant class and were responsible for trade and commerce.
  • Shudras (laboring class): The Shudras were the lowest caste and were responsible for manual labor.

The Later Vedic Period was a time of great intellectual and cultural activity. The Vedas were compiled and edited, and new philosophical and religious texts were composed. This period also saw the development of the Upanishads, which are some of the most important philosophical texts in Indian history.

Social Classes in Ancient India

In ancient India, society was divided into four main classes:

  1. Brahmins (priests and scholars)
  2. Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers)
  3. Vaishyas (businesspeople and traders)
  4. Shudras (laborers)

The Dravidians

The Dravidians were a group of people who lived in southern India. They had a different social system than the Aryans, who lived in northern India. The Dravidians had a matriarchal society, which means that women were the heads of families. The Aryans had a patriarchal society, which means that men were the heads of families.

The Epic Age

The Epic Age was a period of time when the Aryan tribes established themselves in northern India. The two great epics of this period are the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.

The Rise of Brahmanism

During the later Vedic period, the observance of religion became very complicated with the addition of several rituals. Consequently, only Brahmins could perform religious ceremonies.

The Revolt Against Brahmanism

As Brahmins monopolized religion, the other castes revolted against the Brahmanical exploitation.

Emergence of Kingdoms or Mahajanapadas

From the sixth century BC, the widespread use of iron in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Western Bihar facilitated the formation of large territorial states.

Buddhist In the sixth century BC, there were 16 major kingdoms known as Mahajanapadas. Here is a list of these kingdoms and their capital cities:

  1. Magadha Kingdom (South Bihar): Capital - Pataliputra
  2. Anga and Vanga Kingdoms (East Bihar): Capital - Champa
  3. Malla Kingdom (Gorakhpur region): Capital - Kushinagar
  4. Chedi Kingdom (Yamuna and Narmada belt): Capital - Tisvathirati
  5. Vatsa Kingdom (Allahabad): Capital - Kausambi
  6. Kashi Kingdom (Banaras): Capital - Varanasi
  7. Kosala Kingdom (Ayodhya): Important town - Ayodhya
  8. Vajji Kingdom (North Bihar): Capital - Vajji
  9. Kuru (Thaneswar, Meerut, and present-day Delhi): Capital - Indraprastha
  10. Panchala Kingdom (Uttar Pradesh): Capital - Kampila
  11. Matsya Kingdom (Jaipur): Capital - Viratanagar
  12. Surasena Kingdom (Mathura): Capital - Mathura
  13. Assaka Kingdom (Godavari): Capital - Potali
  14. Gandharva Kingdom (Peshawar and Rawalpindi): Capital - Taxila
  15. Kamboj Kingdom (North-east Kashmir): Capital - Rajapure
  16. Awanti Kingdom (Malwa): Capital - Ujjain

The Decline of Vedic Philosophy

The Vedic religion, which was based on the Vedas, became more complicated and lost its original purity. People started to believe in superstitions and perform useless rituals, which wasted time and resources.

The Rise of Buddhism and Jainism

During the sixth century BC, two new religions emerged in India: Buddhism and Jainism.

Buddhism

Buddhism was founded by Gautama Siddhartha, a prince from the Saka clan. At the age of 29, he left his family to search for the truth. He wandered for about six years, seeking answers to his questions about life and suffering.

Gautama was born in 563 BC (or 576 BC, according to some historians) in Lumbini, which is near Kapilvastu, the capital of the Saka republic in Nepal. He attained enlightenment under a pipal tree at Bodh Gaya, delivered his first sermon at Sarnath, and spread his message for about 45 years. He attained mahaparinirvana (final liberation from the cycle of birth and death) at Kusinara (Kushinagar) in 483 BC at the age of 80.

Five important events in Buddha’s life are:

  • Lotus and Bull: His birth
  • Horse: The great renunciation
  • Bodhi tree or Pipal tree: Nirvana
  • Dharmavhakra or wheel: First sermon
  • Stupa: Parinirvana or death

Buddhism

Buddhism is a religion that began in India over 2,500 years ago. It is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, who is also known as the Buddha. Buddhism teaches that the way to end suffering is to follow the Eightfold Path.

The Eightfold Path

The Eightfold Path is a set of eight principles that can help people live a more ethical and fulfilling life. The principles are:

  1. Right view: This means having a correct understanding of the world and our place in it.
  2. Right intention: This means having good intentions and motivations.
  3. Right speech: This means speaking kindly and truthfully.
  4. Right action: This means acting in a way that is ethical and harmless.
  5. Right livelihood: This means earning a living in a way that is honest and does not harm others.
  6. Right effort: This means putting in the effort to live a good life.
  7. Right mindfulness: This means being aware of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.
  8. Right concentration: This means focusing our minds on the present moment.

Buddhist Scriptures

The Buddhist scriptures are a collection of texts that contain the teachings of the Buddha. The scriptures are divided into three main parts:

  1. The Vinaya Pitaka: This part contains the rules and regulations for monks and nuns.
  2. The Sutta Pitaka: This part contains the discourses of the Buddha.
  3. The Abhidhamma Pitaka: This part contains the philosophical teachings of the Buddha.

Other Buddhist Beliefs

In addition to the Eightfold Path and the scriptures, Buddhists also believe in the following:

  • The Four Noble Truths: These are four truths about the nature of suffering and how to end it.
  • Nirvana: This is the state of liberation from suffering that is the goal of Buddhist practice.
  • Karma: This is the law of cause and effect.
  • Ahimsa: This is the principle of non-violence.

Types of Buddhist Architecture:

  • Stupa: These are structures built to preserve the relics of important monks.
  • Chaitya: These are prayer halls where Buddhists gather to worship.
  • Vihara: These are residences for Buddhist monks.

Famous Bhikkus During Buddha Era:

  • Sariputta: He had the deepest understanding of the Buddhist teachings.
  • Moggalana: He had great supernatural powers.
  • Ananda: He was the Buddha’s closest disciple and constant companion.
  • Mahakassapa: He was the president of the first Buddhist council.
  • Anuruddha: He was a master of mindfulness meditation.
  • Uppali: He was a master of the Buddhist monastic code of conduct.
  • Rahul: He was the Buddha’s son.

Buddhist Councils:

  • First Buddhist Council: Held in 483 BC at Sattapanni cave near Rajagriha. The Dhamma Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka were compiled during this council.
  • Second Buddhist Council: Held in 383 BC at Vaisali. The Buddhist community split into two groups, the Sthaviravadins and the Mahasangikas, during this council.
  • Third Buddhist Council: Held in 326 BC at Patliputra. The scriptures were revised under the leadership of Moggliputta Tissa during this council.
  • Fourth Buddhist Council: Held in 29 BC at Tambapanni. It was realized that most monks could no longer memorize the entire Tripitaka, which led to the writing down of the teachings.
  • Fifth Buddhist Council: Held in Kashmir under the patronage of King Kanishka.

Buddhism

  • In 72 AD, there was a significant event that led to the division of Buddhists into two main groups: the Mahayanists and the Hinayanists.

Sacred Buddhist Shrines

  • There are eight important Buddhist shrines known as the Ashtamahasthanas. These include Lumbini, Bodhgaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar, Sarasvati, Pajgriha, Vaishali, and Sankasya.
  • Other important Buddhist centers are located in various parts of India, including Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.

Jainism

  • Jainism became a major religion under the leadership of Vardhamana Mahavira, who was the 24th Tirthankara or prophet of Jainism.
  • Vardhamana Mahavira was a great Kshatriya, belonging to the royal family of Magadha.
  • Jainism is a non-Brahmanical religion, like Buddhism, and was founded by Rishabha, the father of King Bharata, the first Chakravartan of India.
  • Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 540 BC in Kundagrama (Vaishali) in Bihar. At the age of 42, he renounced worldly life and became a monk. - He achieved perfect knowledge and enlightenment, known as Kaivalya.
  • He passed away at the age of 72 in 468 BC.
  • Jainism’s Teachings:
  1. The path to Nirvana (freedom from rebirth) is through the TriRatna (three jewels):
    • Right faith: having the correct beliefs and understanding of Jainism.
    • Right knowledge: gaining deep insights and wisdom about the world and the self.
    • Right conduct: living an ethical life based on Jain principles.
  2. Ahimsa (non-violence) is a core principle, extending to all living beings in thought, word, and action.
  3. Belief in karma, the law of cause and effect, and the rejection of the concept of a creator God and the importance of rituals.
  • Jainism has two main sects:
  1. Swethambaras: Followers of the 23rd Tirthankara, Parasvanatha, they are more flexible in their approach and wear white garments.
  2. Digambaras: Followers of the 24th Tirthankara, Mahavira, they believe in strict penance, including self-mortification and nudity, and do not wear any clothing.
  • Jain Councils:
  1. The first Jain Council was held in Patliputra in the third century BC.
  2. During this council, 14 ancient texts (Purvas) were replaced with 12 new sections (Angas).
  3. The Swethambaras accepted these changes, while the Digambaras largely rejected them.

Jain Sacred Literature:

  • Jain religious texts are written in a language called Arsha or Ardha Magadhi.
  • These texts are divided into different categories:
    • 12 Angas: These are the most important texts and cover various topics such as philosophy, ethics, and rituals.
    • 12 Upangas: These are supplementary texts that provide additional information on the Angas.
    • 10 Prakirnas: These are miscellaneous texts that cover a wide range of topics, including poetics, economics, and love.
    • 6 Chhedasutras: These are short texts that discuss specific topics in detail.
    • 4 Mulsutras: These are fundamental texts that provide the basic principles of Jainism.

Decline of Buddhism and Jainism:

  • The rise of the Rajputs as a military force led to the decline of both Buddhism and Jainism.
  • Muslim invasions in the eleventh and twelfth centuries further contributed to the disintegration of these religions.

Important Teachers:

  • Besides Buddha and Mahavira, there were many other important teachers during this time, including:
    • Nigantha Nataputta
    • Pakudha Kacchayana
    • Purana Kassapa
    • Sanjaya Belatthaputta
    • Makkhali Gosala
    • Ajita Kesakambali

Important Sects:

  • There were also many different sects of Jainism during this era, including:
    • Ajivika
    • Tedandikas
    • Jatilaka
    • Munda savaka
    • Parivrajakas
    • Mangandikas
    • Gotamakas - The western part of India was taken over by the Persian Achaemenid Empire and became one of its provinces.
  • This location was good because it allowed control over the entire Gangetic plain.
  • It started as a small kingdom with its capital in Patliputra, but it grew into a major power in northern India, including the Patna and Gaya districts in Bihar.
  • The first ruler, Bimbisara, became very wealthy and powerful because of the good location, fertile soil, and nearby copper and iron ore deposits. He built a new capital called Rajagriha near Patna.
  • Some important rulers of Magadha were Bimbisara (545-493 BC), Ajatshatru (492-460 BC), Udayan (460-444 BC), the Haryanka Kings (462-430/413 BC), the Shishunaga Dynasty (430/413-364 BC), and the Nanda Dynasty (364/345-324 BC).
  • The Magadha empire grew and became stronger until the reign of Mahapadma Nanda.
  • The last Nanda ruler, Bhadrasala Nanda, was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya.
Alexander’s Invasion (Greek Invasion 326 BC)
  • Alexander the Great, a Greek king, invaded India in 326 BC.

Alexander’s Invasion of India (326 BC)

  • Alexander, the son of King Phillip of Macedonia (Greece), invaded India in 326 BC.
  • Ambhi, the king of Taxila, surrendered to Alexander without fighting.
  • Alexander’s most important battle in India was the Battle of Hydaspes, which he fought against Porus, the king of Punjab. Porus fought bravely, but Alexander was impressed by his courage and made him an ally. Alexander gave Porus his kingdom back.
  • Alexander wanted to march further into India, but his soldiers were tired and afraid. They were worried about being so far from home and didn’t want to fight anymore. Alexander listened to his soldiers and turned back.
  • Alexander stayed in India for about 19 months (326-325 BC). He died in Babylon in 323 BC.
  • Alexander’s invasion of India was important because it opened up trade and cultural exchange between India and the West.

Mauryan Empire (321-289 BC)

  • The Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BC. Chandragupta overthrew the Nanda dynasty, which had been ruling India at the time.
  • Chandragupta was helped by his advisor, Chanakya, to build up an army and defeat the Nandas.
  • Chandragupta ruled India for 24 years (321-297 BC). He was a powerful and successful ruler who expanded the Mauryan Empire and made it one of the largest empires in the world.

Ashoka the Great (273-231 BC)

  • Ashoka was the grandson of Chandragupta and the son of Bindusara. He is considered one of the greatest kings in history.
  • He was the first ruler to have direct contact with the people and ruled for over 40 years.
  • He became king in 273 BC, but his official coronation took place four years later, in 268 BC. - There is a debate about what happened during the first four years of Ashoka’s rule.
  • For the first 13 years of his rule, Ashoka followed the traditional policy of expanding India’s territory and maintaining friendly relations with other countries.
  • In the 13th year of his reign, Ashoka conquered Kalinga.
  • The Kalinga War: In 265 BC, Ashoka invaded Kalinga (Orissa) and took control of it after causing a lot of destruction and bloodshed. This event led to Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism.
  • Ashoka had three brothers named Sumana, Tisya, and Vitasoka. He had five wives: Devi Vedisa, Karuvaki, Asandhimitra, Padmavati, and Tisyaraksita. He had four sons: Mahendra, Tivara, Kunala, and Jalauka. He had two daughters: Sanghamitra (who married Agnibrahma) and Charumati (who married Devapala Kshtriya). He had three grandsons: Dashratha, Samprati, and Sumana (Sanghamitra’s son).
  • Ashoka’s focus on Buddhism weakened his administration and led to the decline of the Mauryan empire.
  • Ashoka’s edicts and inscriptions are arranged in eight groups, in chronological order:
  1. Two minor rock edicts (258 BC)

Pre-Gupta Period

Inscriptions

  • Babru edicts (257 BC)
  • Fourteen rock edicts (257 to 256 BC)
  • Kalinga inscriptions (256 BC)
  • Barabar rock edicts in caves near Gaya (250 BC)
  • Tarai’s two minor pillar edicts (249 BC)
  • Seven pillar edicts (243 BC)
  • Four minor pillar edicts (232 BC)

Literary Sources

  • Arthasastra (Kautilya)
  • Indica (Megasthense)
  • Chadragupta Katha (Chanya)
  • Mudra Rakshasha (Visakhadatta)
  • Puranaa
  • Vamsathapakasini, Digha Nikaya, and Jatakas (Buddhist literature)
  • Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (Ceylonese chronicles)
  • Divyavadana (Tibetan sources)
  • Parisistaparvan (Jaina works)

Archaeological Excavations

  • B. B. Lal (Hastinapur)
  • Hohn Marshall (Taxila)
  • G. R. Sharma (Ghositearam Monastery)
  • A. S. Altekar (Kumrahar Pillered Hall)

Other excavations were also carried out at Rajagriha and Pataliputra.

Sunga Dynasty

  • The Sunga dynasty was founded by a ruler named Pushyamitra Sunga.
  • During the Sunga period, the stupa built by Ashoka at Sanchi was made twice as big.

Kanvas Dynasty

  • Vasudeva, a minister to the last Sunga ruler, killed his king and started the Kanvas dynasty.

Satavahana Dynasty

  • Pulamayi III, a Satavahana ruler, defeated the last Kanvas ruler and established the Satavahana dynasty.
  • During the Satavahana period, stupas were also built in southern India, with the most important ones being in Amravati, Bhattiprolu, Gantasala, and Nagarjunkonda.

Decline of Satavahanas

  • By 220 AD, the Satavahanas lost power to local governors who were supported by Saka rulers from the western regions.
  • This period marked the beginning of feudal practices in India.

Hellenistic Art and Indo-Greeks

  • During this time, Hellenistic art influences can be seen in northwestern India.
  • The Indo-Greeks were the first foreign rulers of northwestern India after the Mauryan Empire. Menander was the most well-known Indo-Greek ruler.

Gold Coins

  • Gold coins were introduced for the first time in India during this period.

Saka

  • The Sakas were another group of foreign rulers who came to India during this time. In western India, the Saka rulers gained power under the leadership of King Moga, who was the first Saka king, and Rudradaman I. Other significant Saka rulers included Mahapana, Ushavadatta, Ghamatika, and Ghastana.

The Parthians, who originated from Iran, defeated the Sakas. Gondophernes was a notable Parthian ruler. Later, the Kushans defeated the Parthians, and Kanishka emerged as their most prominent ruler. The Kushans belonged to one of the five Yenchi clans from Central Asia.

Kanishka introduced the Saka era in 78 AD. However, the last Kushan ruler, Vasudeva I, was defeated by the Naga rulers.

Gupta Dynasty (320-550 AD)

The Gupta dynasty is regarded as the Golden Age or the Classical Age of ancient India. During this period, foreign rule was eliminated, and peace and prosperity flourished. The following were the influential rulers of the Gupta Dynasty:

  • Chandragupta I (320-335 AD)
  • Samudragupta (335-380 AD)
  • Chandragupta II (380-415 AD)
  • Kumaragupta I (415-455 AD)
  • Skandagupta (455-467 AD)
  • Purugupta (467-469 AD)
  • Buddha Gupta (477-500 AD) The Gupta Dynasty is known as the Golden Age of Sanskrit language and the Classical Age of ancient India for several reasons:
  1. There was political unity, foreign rule was completely removed, and peace and prosperity prevailed.
  2. The government was enlightened, with light taxes and mild punishments.
  3. Hinduism was revived, while other religions were tolerated.
  4. Sanskrit developed and art and literature flourished during this period.
  5. Fa-hien, a Chinese pilgrim who visited India during Vikramaditya’s reign, gave a positive account of the Gupta Dynasty and the country’s prosperity.

Table 1.1 lists the Nine Gems in the Court of Chandragupta II, along with their contributions and famous works. In the 4th century AD, India experienced a golden age under the rule of the Gupta Empire. The Guptas established their power in Magadha, controlling valuable iron resources from the Barabar Hills. The reign of Chandragupta II marked the peak of Gupta power and cultural achievements.

During this time, Kalidasa wrote his famous play, Abhijnana Sakuntalam. Other notable figures of the Gupta era include:

  • Amarasimha, who wrote the Amarakosha, a glossary of Sanskrit words.
  • Varahamihira, an astrologer who wrote the Brihadsamhita.
  • Vararuchi, a grammarian who wrote the Vyakarana, a Sanskrit grammar.
  • Sanku, an architect who wrote the Shilpashastra, a treatise on architecture.
  • Vetalabhatta, a magician who wrote the Mantrashastra, a book on magic spells.
  • Harisen, a poet who wrote several works, including the Ratnavali.

During the Gupta era:

  • Buddhism and Jainism were supported by the rulers.
  • Cave art and sculptures reached their peak.
  • Trade and Buddhism led to increased interactions between India, China, and Southeast Asia.
  • The Gupta Empire relied on taxes from farmers’ harvests as its main source of income.
  • After the Gupta Empire fell, North India went back to being divided into many small kingdoms.
  • Yoga, one of the six main schools of Hindu philosophy, is still studied today.
  • Unlike the North, South India’s political system was not made up of centralized bureaucratic states competing with each other.

Harshavardhana (606-647 AD):

  • After the Gupta Empire fell apart, the kingdom of Sthaneswar, led by King Pushpabhuti, rose to power in the Kanauj (Thaneswar) region.
  • Harshavardhana was the last Hindu king of North India.

Harshavardhana (AD 606-647)

  • Harshavardhana was a powerful king who ruled over North India. He came to power in 606 AD after defeating Devagupta, the king of Malwa.
  • He built a large empire that included Bengal, Malwa, eastern Rajasthan, and the entire Gangetic plain up to Assam.
  • A Chinese traveler named Hieun Tsang visited India during Harshavardhana’s reign and wrote a detailed account of the country.
  • Banabhatta, one of Harshavardhana’s court poets, wrote a biography of the king called Harshacharita.

Rajputs (AD 650-1200)

  • After Harshavardhana’s death, the Rajputs became a powerful force in Western and Central India.
  • They established small kingdoms in Gujarat and Malwa.
  • The Rajputs fought to maintain their independence from the Muslim invaders, but they were eventually defeated.

Other Important Dynasties

Kalachuris of Chedi:

  • The Kalachuris were a powerful dynasty that ruled over the Chedi region in central India.

Chauhans of Ajmer:

  • The Chauhans were a Rajput dynasty that ruled over the Ajmer region in Rajasthan.

Solankis of Gujarat:

  • The Solankis were a Rajput dynasty that ruled over the Gujarat region in western India.

Guhilotas of Mewar:

  • The Guhilotas were a Rajput dynasty that ruled over the Mewar region in Rajasthan.

Prithviraj Chauhan:

  • Prithviraj Chauhan was a brave ruler who ruled over Delhi and Agra. He was defeated and killed by Muhammad Ghori in the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192.

Jai Chand Rathor:

  • Jai Chand Rathor was the last Rajput king of Kannauj. He was defeated and killed by Muhammad Ghori in the Battle of Chandawar in 1194.

Gujara-Partiharas:

  • The Gujara-Partiharas were a branch of the Partiharas dynasty that ruled over the Gurjara region in western India.
  • Some important rulers of the Gujara-Partiharas dynasty include Nagabhatta I, Vatsaraja, Nagabhatta II, Ramabhadra, Bhoja, and Mahendrapala.

Rashtrakutas:

  • The Rashtrakutas were a powerful dynasty that ruled over the Deccan region in southern India.
  • Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. He succeeded in capturing a large part of the Deccan from the Chalukyas.
  • Dhruva was an important ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty who led successful campaigns against the Palas and the Partiharas in northern India.

Important Rulers of the Palas:

  • Gopala: He founded the Pala dynasty and ruled in the third quarter of the eighth century. His kingdom included the regions of Gauda, Vanga, Radha, and Magadha.
  • Dharampapa: He ruled from 770 to 810.
  • Devapala: He ruled from 810 to 850.
  • Vigrahapala: He ruled from 850 to 854.
  • Narayanapala: He ruled from 854 to 908.

Important Rulers of the Senas of Bengal:

  • Vijayasena: He ascended the throne in 1095 AD after defeating the last Pala king, Mandanpala.
  • Ballasena: He ruled from 1158 to 1187.
  • Lakshmanasena: He ruled from 1187 to 1205.
  • Visvarupasena: He was one of the later rulers of the Sena dynasty.

The Fall of the Senas:

  • Muhammad-bin-Bhakhtyal-Khalji defeated Lakshhmanasena and captured Nadia.

  • Later, he conquered north Bengal and established Muslim rule in Radha and Ganda.

  • By the mid-thirteenth century, the Senas were overthrown by the Deva dynasty reigning in Samantata. ## Andhras

  • The Andhras, also known as the Shathavahanas, were among the earliest rulers of the Deccan region in India. They gained independence after the death of the great emperor Ashoka.

  • Simukha, the founder of the Andhra dynasty, is mentioned in Jain texts. Some of the important rulers of this dynasty include Shathakarni I (ruled from 184-130 BC), Pulumayi II (ruled from 130-145 AD), and the last king Yagnashathakarni (ruled from 175-225 AD). ‘Krishna’ was one of their earliest rulers who lived during the same time as Ashoka.

Chalukyas (Sixth century AD to Twelfth century AD)
  • The Chalukyas were a powerful dynasty that ruled over the Karnataka region in India. Their history can be divided into three eras:
  1. Early Western Era: This era is also known as the Chalukyas of Badami.
  2. Later Western Era: This era is also known as the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
  3. Eastern Chalukya Era: This era is also known as the Chalukyas of Vengi.

Some of the important rulers of the Chalukya dynasty include Pulakesin I (ruled from 543-567 AD), Pulakesin II (ruled from 610-642 AD), Vinyaditya (ruled from 681-696 AD), and Vikramaditya II (ruled from 733-745 AD).

Chola Dynasty
  • The Chola Dynasty was founded by Rajaraja I (ruled from 985-1014 AD). He ruled over the Madras region and parts of Karnataka, with Tanjore as his capital.

The Last Chola Ruler

  • The last ruler of the Chola dynasty was Rajendra III. He ruled from 1246 to 1279.
  • Rajendra III was a weak ruler. He lost many battles to the Pandyas, another powerful dynasty in South India.
  • Eventually, Rajendra III surrendered to the Pandyas. This marked the end of the Chola dynasty.

The Delhi Sultanate

  • Muhammad Ghori was a Muslim ruler from Afghanistan. He invaded India in the 12th century and conquered large parts of the country.
  • Ghori’s conquests laid the foundation for the Delhi Sultanate, which was the first Muslim dynasty to rule over India.
  • The Delhi Sultanate lasted for over 300 years. During this time, there were five different dynasties that ruled over the sultanate.
  • The first three dynasties were of Turkish origin. The last two dynasties were of Afghan origin.

The Five Dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate

  1. The Ilbari or Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)
  • The Ilbari Dynasty was founded by Qutub-ud-din Aibak. He was a former slave of Muhammad Ghori.
  • Aibak ruled from 1206 to 1210. He was succeeded by Aram Shah, who was defeated and deposed by Iltutmish.
  • Iltutmish was the most powerful ruler of the Ilbari Dynasty. He ruled from 1210 to 1236.
  • Other notable rulers of the Ilbari Dynasty include Razia Sultan, the only Muslim lady ruler of India, and Balban.

1. The Delhi Sultanate

  • Iltutmish was the first sultan to introduce coins made entirely of Arabic and adopt standard coins called the silver Tanka.
  • Balban believed that a king should not show favoritism to his relatives and said, “Kingship knows no kinship.”
  • Amir Khusro (1253-1325), known as the “parrot of India,” was a poet and musician who lived in Balban’s court.

2. The Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)

  • Sultan Jalal-ud-din Khilji founded the Khilji Dynasty in 1290. He conquered many Rajput kingdoms and brought them under his control.
  • Alaud-din Khilji was Sultan Jalal-ud-din’s nephew. He killed his uncle and took the throne in 1296.
  • Alaud-din Khilji took back many types of land grants, such as Inams and Waqfs.
  • In 1320, Khusro Khan killed Qutub-ud-din Mubarak Shah, who was Ala-ud-din Khilji’s successor. This ended the Khilji Dynasty.

3. The Tughlak Dynasty (1320-1414)

  • Ghiasuddin Tughlak founded the Tughlak Dynasty in 1320.
  • Other important rulers of the Tughlak Dynasty included:
  1. Mohammed-bin Tughlaq (1325-1351), who introduced coins made of brass and copper.
  2. Firoz Shah Tughlak (1351-1388), during whose reign the African traveler Ibn Batuta visited India.

The Delhi Sultanate: A Simplified Overview

1. The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)

  • Muhammad bin Tughlaq became the Sultan of Delhi in 1325.
  • He introduced several reforms, including a new currency and a land revenue system.
  • However, his policies were unpopular and led to rebellions.
  • Timur, a Turkic conqueror, invaded India in 1398 and sacked Delhi, ending the Tughlaq Dynasty.

2. The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)

  • Khizr Khan, a former governor under Timur, became the Sultan of Delhi in 1414.
  • The Sayyid Dynasty was a relatively peaceful period for Delhi.
  • The last Sayyid Sultan, Alam Shah, abdicated in 1451 in favor of Bahlol Lodhi.

3. The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)

  • Bahlol Lodhi, an Afghan chieftain, founded the Lodhi Dynasty in 1451.
  • The Lodhis were strong rulers who expanded their territory and defeated several rebellions.
  • Sikandar Lodhi and Ibrahim Lodhi were two of the most famous Lodhi Sultans.

4. The First Battle of Panipat (1526)

  • In 1526, Babur, the ruler of Kabul, invaded India and defeated Ibrahim Lodhi at the First Battle of Panipat.
  • Babur established the Mughal Dynasty in India, which would rule for the next three centuries.

5. Decline of the Delhi Sultanate

  • The Delhi Sultanate declined due to several factors, including:

    • Internal conflicts and rebellions
    • Economic problems
    • The rise of regional powers
    • The invasion of Timur
    • The rise of the Mughal Empire

    The Decline of the Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate faced several challenges that led to its decline:

  1. Despotic and military rule: The sultans ruled with an iron fist and did not have the trust of the people.
  2. Degeneration of the sultans: The later sultans were weak and incompetent, which further weakened the sultanate.
  3. Vast territory: The sultanate became too large to be effectively controlled from Delhi.
  4. Financial instability: The sultanate faced financial problems, including a large number of slaves who were a burden on the treasury.
  5. Slave population: The number of slaves increased to 1,80,000 during Firoz Shah’s time, which put a strain on the treasury.

The Mughal Dynasty (1526-1540 and 1555-1857)

  • Babur (1526-1530) is considered the founder of the Mughal Empire. He defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and became the emperor of Delhi in 1527 after defeating the Afghans in the Battle of Gorge.
  • Humayun (1530-1540) was Babur’s son and succeeded him to the throne in 1530.
  • Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545) was an Afghan who briefly ruled the country after defeating Humayun. He introduced several reforms, including a new land revenue policy and the issuance of a new coin called the ‘Rupia’. He also built the Grand Trunk Road.

Akbar (1556-1605)

  • Akbar was the eldest son of Humayun.
  • He is considered the real founder of the Mughal empire because he was able to consolidate it, unlike his father and grandfather.
  • Akbar was the first ruler to separate religion from politics.
  • He was very tolerant of Hindus.

Jehangir (1605-1627)

  • Jehangir was Akbar’s son.
  • He became emperor after Akbar’s death in 1605.
  • Jehangir was known for his strict administration of justice.
  • He married Mehr-un-nisa in 1611, who later became known as ‘Nur Jahan’.

Shahjahan (1628-1658)

  • Shahjahan was Jehangir’s son.
  • He became emperor after his father’s death in 1628.
  • Shahjahan’s beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died in 1631.
  • To honor her memory, he built the Taj Mahal in Agra.
  • Shahjahan was a great patron of art, culture, and architecture.
  • He built many magnificent structures, including the Red Fort and Jama Masjid.
  • Shahjahan’s declining health led to a war of succession among his sons.

Shahjahan’s Sons and Aurangzeb’s Rule

Shahjahan had four sons. His third son, Aurangzeb, became the emperor in 1658. He kept his father, Shahjahan, imprisoned until he died in 1666.

Aurangzeb ruled for 50 years. He was a strict Muslim who destroyed many Hindu temples and stopped religious festivals. He also killed Guru Teg Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru, because he refused to convert to Islam.

Second Battle of Panipat (1556)

The second battle of Panipat was fought between Hemu, a Hindu leader, and Bairam Khan, the regent of Akbar. Hemu was defeated and killed on November 5, 1556. This victory gave the Mughals control of Delhi and Agra.

Battle of Haldighati (1576)

This battle was fought in 1576 between Rana Pratap Singh of Mewar and the Mughal army led by Man Singh of Amber. Rana Pratap Singh was defeated, but he kept fighting and never gave up.

Decline of Mughal Empire

  • In 1739, while Mohammed Shah was the ruler, a Persian king named Nadir Shah attacked India and broke up the Mughal empire.
  • He took many valuable things from Delhi, including the Kohinoor diamond, and took them back to Afghanistan.

Vijayanagar Empire, Sikhs, and Marathas

Vijayanagar Empire

  • The Vijayanagar Empire was started in 1336 by a man named Harihara I. He wanted to fight against the Tughlaq rulers in southern India.
  • The Vijayanagar Empire had different periods of rule:
  1. Sangam Dynasty (1336-1485 AD): This period includes rulers like Harihara I, Bukka I, Harihara II, Bukka II, Devaraya I, Vira Vijaya, Devaraya II, Mallikarjuna, Virupaksha, and Prauda Deva.
  2. Saluva Dynasty (1485-1505 AD): This period includes rulers like Saluva Narasimha, Timmaraya, and Immadi Narasimha.
  3. Tuluva Dynasty (1505-70): This period includes rulers like Vir Narasimha, Krishnadeva Raya, Achyta Raya, Venkta I, and Sadasiva.

Aravidu Dynasty (1570-1652)

  • The Aravidu Dynasty ruled the Vijayanagar Empire from 1570 to 1652.
  • The dynasty was founded by Tirumala, who ruled from 1570 to 1572.
  • Other notable rulers of the dynasty include Sri Ranga (1572-1585), Venkata II (1585-1614), Sri Ranga II (1614), Ramadeva (1614-1630), Ventata III (1630-1642), and Sri Ranga III (1642-1652).

Vijayanagar-Bahamni Conflict

  • The Vijayanagar-Bahamni conflict was a major struggle between the Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahamni Sultanate.
  • The conflict began in 1367 AD during the reign of Bukka-I of Vijayanagar.
  • The conflict was over three main areas: the Tungabhadra doab, the Krishna-Godavari delta, and the Marathwada country.
  • The Vijayanagar Empire was defeated at the Battle of Talikota in 1565 AD by a coalition of Bahamni sultanates.

Sikhs and Marathas

Sikhs

  • The Sikhs emerged as a strong community in the fifteenth century.
  • In 1675, Aurangzeb, the Mughal emperor, captured Guru Teg Bahadur, the ninth guru of the Sikhs.
  • Guru Teg Bahadur was executed by Aurangzeb for refusing to convert to Islam.

Sikhs:

  • The Sikhs were upset with the Mughals because they didn’t respect their religion.
  • Guru Gobind Singh, the son of Guru Teg Bahadur, created a group of soldiers called the Khalsa to get revenge for his father’s death.
  • But in 1708, Guru Gobind Singh was killed by an Afghan man in the Deccan.
  • Banda Bahadur, who took over after Guru Gobind Singh, kept fighting the Mughals, but he was also killed.

Marathas:

  • After Nadir Shah left, the Marathas became very powerful.
  • Shivaji was a big part of freeing India from Muslim rule.
  • He came up with the idea of guerilla warfare, which is fighting in small groups and using surprise attacks.

War with Shivaji:

  • Shivaji was the strongest Maratha king and Aurangzeb’s biggest enemy.
  • When Aurangzeb couldn’t beat Shivaji, he made a plan with Jai Singh of Amber, a Rajput, to get rid of Shivaji.
  • In 1665, Shivaji went to Aurangzeb’s court because Jai Singh promised he would be safe. But Aurangzeb put Shivaji in jail. Shivaji escaped and became king again in 1674.

Shivaji Maharaj’s Legacy

Shivaji Maharaj established himself as a powerful and independent ruler. After his death in 1680, his son Sambhaji took over as the ruler. However, Sambhaji was captured and executed by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.

After Sambhaji’s death, his brother Rajaram became the ruler. When Rajaram died in 1700, his widow Tarabai continued to lead the resistance against the Mughals.

Rise of Autonomous States

As the Mughal Empire weakened in the 18th century, several autonomous states emerged in India. Some of the important ones included:

  • Bengal under Murshid Quli Khan
  • Oudh (Awadh) under Sadat Khan Barhan-ul Mulk
  • Hyderabad under Nizam-ul-mul Asaf Jah
  • Carnatic under Saadatullah Khan
  • Mysore under Hyder Ali
  • Jats under Churaman and Surajmal
  • Sikhs under Ranjit Singh

Arrival of the Europeans

European traders began arriving in India in the 16th century. The Portuguese were the first to arrive, followed by the Dutch, English, and French. They all came to India for trade, but eventually, the English became the dominant power in India.

In 1498, a Portuguese sailor named Vasco da Gama made a big discovery.

  • He found a sea route to India by going around the Cape of Good Hope.
  • He reached a place called Calicut on May 27, 1498.

The Portuguese quickly became powerful along the west coast of India.

  • After Vasco da Gama, a man named Captain General Alfonso de Albuquerque took over.
  • He conquered a place called Goa in 1510.

The Dutch arrived in India in 1595.

  • They formed a company called the Dutch East India Company in 1602.
  • But their influence didn’t last long.

The Dutch set up trading centers in different parts of India.

  • They started with a factory in Masulipattam in 1605.
  • Then they opened more factories in places like Pulicat, Surat, Bimilpatam, Karikal, Chinsura, Kasimbazar, Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, and Cochin.

Pulicat was their main trading center until 1690.

  • After that, they moved their main operations to Negapatnam.

The Dutch and the English were fierce rivals.

  • They competed for control of trade in India.
  • The rivalry was at its peak in the late 1600s and early 1700s.
  • In the end, the English defeated the Dutch in a battle, and the Dutch lost their power in India. In 1759, the English East India Company was a powerful trading company that had been operating in India for over 150 years. They had established trading centers in many cities, including Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras. The English were also expanding their control over the Indian subcontinent, and in 1759 they defeated the French in the Battle of Plassey. This victory gave the English control over Bengal, a large and wealthy province in eastern India. In 1686, the English and the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb went to war. The English lost control of their settlements and factories in India to the Mughals in 1688-1689.

In 1690, the Mughal Emperor pardoned the British who had surrendered. In 1691, Aurangzeb gave the English a ‘farman’, which meant they didn’t have to pay customs duties in Bengal.

In 1717, Faruk Siyar gave the British another ‘farman’, which extended the same privilege to them in Gujarat and Deccan.

The French arrived in India in 1664 and set up trading centres near Madras and Chandernagore on the Hooghly River.

They also built naval bases on the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius in the Indian Ocean.

The French were doing well until 1706, but then they started to decline. It wasn’t until after 1720, under governors Lenoir and Dumas, that the French were able to regroup in India.

However, in 1742, the French governor Dupleix began pushing back against the English, which led to the Carnatic Wars. In the end, the French lost.

English Conquest of Bengal
  • Nawab Alivardi Khan was the ruler of Bengal from 1740 to 1756.
  • He allowed European merchants to trade in Bengal.
  • Alivardi Khan did not have a son, so he named his grandson Siraj-ud-Daula as his heir. Alivardi Khan died in April 1756.
  • The British East India Company built fortifications in Calcutta and broke the rules that allowed them to trade.
  • Siraj-ud-Daula was angry and took over a British factory in Kasimbazar. He then captured Calcutta in June 1756.
Black-Hole Tragedy
  • The British prisoners were put in a small room with only one small window on a hot summer night on June 20, 1756. Many of the prisoners died from lack of air and from their injuries.
  • In December 1756, Colonel Clive and Admiral Watson came to Bengal from Madras and took back Calcutta.
  • Mir Jafar, Siraj-ud-Daula’s brother-in-law, Siraj-ud-daula, who was the Nawab of Bengal at that time, did not like it. He asked the Britishers to stop the fortification and scale down their military. They plainly refused the Nawab’s request. Seeing his authority being flouted, that too in his own dominions, further compounded the Nawab’s anger. He launched an attack against the Britishers. After a feeble resistance of five days, the Britishers surrendered. By that time, most of them had managed to escape. Those few, who remained, were caught and taken as prisoners.

Alivardi Khan’s Secret Pact with Clive

  • Alivardi Khan, the Nawab of Bengal, secretly made a deal with Clive, the British commander. Clive promised to help Alivardi keep his throne in exchange for control of Bengal.

Mir Jafar’s Support for Siraj-ud-Daula

  • Despite his secret pact with Clive, Mir Jafar also promised to support Siraj-ud-Daula, Alivardi’s grandson and successor, against the British.

Battle of Plassey (1757)

  • On June 23, 1757, Clive led the British forces against Siraj-ud-Daula’s army. With the help of Mir Jafar’s betrayal, Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daula and captured Bengal.

Mir Jafar Becomes Nawab of Bengal

  • After the Battle of Plassey, Mir Jafar was installed as the new Nawab of Bengal. He gave the British control over 24 Parganas, a region near Calcutta, and paid them a large sum of money as compensation.

Battle of Buxar (1764)

  • Mir Jafar’s successor, Mir Qasim, turned against the British and formed an alliance with the Nawab of Awadh and the Mughal emperor. Clive led the British forces to victory in the Battle of Buxar in 1764, securing British control over Bengal and much of northern India.

Carnatic Wars

First Carnatic War (1746-1748)

  • The French and British companies fought each other in Carnatic. Dupleix was the leader of the French Company in Pondicherry at that time.
  • The French started the war by attacking Fort St George and forcing all the British people to leave.
  • The Nawab of Carnatic sent an army to fight the French, but the French won the battle.

Second Carnatic War (1751-1754)

  • The British were able to become stronger by taking control of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
  • The French and British fought another battle in 1760, and the French lost.
  • The war ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1763, which stopped the French from building an empire in India.

War with Marathas

  • The First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782) happened when Warren Hastings was the governor-general.
  • The war ended with the Treaty of Salbai in 1782, and everything went back to how it was before the war.

Mysore War

  • Mysore was a powerful state under

Haider Ali and the Anglo-Mysore Wars

Haider Ali was a powerful ruler in southern India during the 18th century. He fought several wars against the British East India Company, which was trying to expand its control over the region.

In 1769, the first Anglo-Mysore war took place. The British were defeated in this war, and Haider Ali captured a large part of the Carnatic region.

However, in 1781, Haider Ali was defeated by the British at the Battle of Porto Novo. This battle saved the city of Madras from being captured by Haider Ali.

After Haider Ali’s death, his son Tipu Sultan continued the war against the British. A peace treaty was signed between the two sides in 1784.

However, in 1789, another war broke out between the British and Tipu Sultan. This war ended in 1792 with the defeat of Tipu Sultan.

First Governor of Bengal

In 1758, Robert Clive was appointed as the first governor of Bengal by the East India Company. Clive played a key role in establishing British rule in India.

He returned to England in 1760 and came back to India in 1765. During this time, the Mughal emperor granted the Diwani (the right to collect taxes) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the East India Company.

Notable Rulers in India (1720-1949)

  • Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (1722-1739): He was the Nawab of Awadh.
  • Safdar Jung (1739-1754): He was the Nawab of Awadh.
  • Shuja-ud-daulah (1754-1775): He was the Nawab of Awadh.
  • Asaf-ud-daulah (1775-1797): He was the Nawab of Awadh.
  • Wazir Ali (1797-1798): He was the Nawab of Awadh.
  • Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah (1724-1748): He was the Nizam of Hyderabad.
  • Nasir Jung (1748-1750): He was the Nizam of Hyderabad.
  • Muzaffar Jung (1750-1751): He was the Nizam of Hyderabad.

Hyderabad:

  • Salabat Jung (1751-1760)
  • Nizam Ali (1760-1803)
  • Sikandar Jah (1803-1829)
  • Nasir-ud-daulah (1829-1857)
  • Afjal-ud-daulah (1857-1869)
  • Mahabat Ali Khan (1869-1911)
  • Osman Ali Khan (1911-1949)

Mysore:

  • Hyder Ali (1761-1782)
  • Tipu Sultan (1782-1799)

Punjab:

  • Ranjit Singh (1792-1839)

Nawabs of Bengal (1717-1772):

  • Murshid Quli Khan (1717-1727)
  • Suja-ud-din (1727-1739)
  • Sarfraz Khan (1739-1740)
  • Alivardi Khan (1740-1756)
  • Siraj-ud-daulah (1756-1757)
  • Mir Jafar (1757-1760)
  • Mir Qasim (1760-1763)
  • Mir Jafar (1763-1765)
  • Najm-ud-daulah (1765-1772)

British Rule:

Governor-Generals of India and Reforms:

Warren Hastings (1772-1785):

  • Warren Hastings became the first governor-general of India in 1772 after Clive.
  • He introduced several changes, including setting up civil and criminal courts and courts of appeal.
  • He also passed the Regulating Act of 1773, which gave the company a legal framework to operate in India.

The Pitt’s India Act of 1784:

  • The British Parliament passed a law called the Pitt’s India Act in 1784.
  • This law was made to ensure that the British government had complete control over the affairs of the East India Company.

Governors Between Clive and Hastings:

  • After Robert Clive left as the governor of Bengal in 1760, John Zephaniah Holwell took his place.
  • But Holwell was replaced by Henry Vansittart in the same year.
  • Vansittart was the governor until 1765 when Robert Clive returned for his second term.
  • Clive’s health got worse in 1765, so Harry Verelst became the governor from 1767 to 1769.
  • Then, John Cartier was the governor from 1769 to 1772.
  • After that, Warren Hastings was sent to India in 1772.

Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793):

  • Lord Cornwallis became the governor after Hastings in 1787.
  • He introduced a new system for collecting taxes called the Permanent Settlement of Bengal in 1793.
  • This system was meant to make sure that the amount of tax paid by landowners didn’t change and to create a group of landowners who were loyal to the British.
  • This system stopped the regular auctions of land for tax collection.

Lord Wellesley’s Rule (1798-1805)

  • During Lord Wellesley’s time as governor-general, the Fourth Mysore War happened in 1799. This was the last war with Mysore.
  • Tipu Sultan had gotten stronger again and wanted to kick the British out of India with help from Napoleon and the Persian king.
  • Lord Wellesley saw the danger and made alliances with the Nizam and the Marathas. Together, they defeated Tipu Sultan in 1799. Tipu Sultan fought bravely but died in the battle.
  • Besides fighting wars, Wellesley used a system called “subsidiary alliances” to expand British territories. In this system, the ruler of a state that made an alliance with the British had to let a British army stay in their territory permanently. They also had to pay money to support the army. Sometimes, the British would take some of the state’s land instead of money.
  • The ruler also had to accept a British official called a “resident” who would live in their state.

The British Controlled Indian States

  • The British did not allow Indian states to hire Europeans without their permission.
  • They also had to consult the British governor-general before making any agreements with other Indian rulers.
  • This meant that the Indian states lost control over their foreign policy and had to follow the British lead.
  • The British also interfered in the internal affairs of the Indian states through their residents, who were posted in each state.
  • This meant that the Indian rulers lost control over their own territories.

Lord Hastings’ Reforms

  • During his time as governor-general, Lord Hastings defeated Nepal in 1814 and gained control of Garhwal and Kumaon.
  • He also defeated the Marathas in the Third Anglo-Maratha War in 1818, which ended their hopes of regaining independence.
  • Hastings also introduced several reforms, including the Ryotwari settlement, which allowed farmers to pay taxes directly to the government instead of through a middleman.
  • This system was based on the quality of the soil and the amount of land being farmed.

Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)

  • Lord Bentinck was known for the important changes he made in Indian society.
  • He stopped the practice of Sati (burning widows alive), ended the Thuggee cult (robbers who killed travelers), and worked to stop female infanticide and human sacrifices.
  • He also made English the main language for higher education in India.
  • Lord Bentinck made an agreement with Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the ruler of Punjab.
  • In 1833, the British East India Company changed from being a trading company to a governing body.
  • He also made some improvements to the civil service, although it was Lord Cornwallis who started the British Civil Service in India.

Raja Rammohun Roy

  • Raja Rammohun Roy lived at the same time as Lord Bentinck.
  • He was a religious and social reformer who helped Bentinck stop the practice of Sati.
  • In 1829, Rammohun Roy started a new group called Brahmo Samaj, which focused on reforming Hinduism.

Here is the rewritten content in simpler language:

Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856)

  • Lord Dalhousie became the governor-general after Lord Hardinge in 1848. During his time, the Second Sikh War happened in 1849. The Sikhs lost again, and Lord Dalhousie was able to add the entire Punjab region to British rule.
  • Lord Dalhousie introduced the Doctrine of Lapse. This meant that if an Indian ruler didn’t have a son to inherit his kingdom, the British would take over the land. These rulers were not allowed to adopt a son to succeed them.

Reforms

  • The first railway line in India was built between Bombay and Thane in 1853. In the same year, the telegraph line was set up between Calcutta and Agra. These improvements made it easier for people to travel and communicate.

Other Reforms:

  • The government created a Public Works Department (PWD) to improve infrastructure.
  • The Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 allowed widows to remarry, which was previously forbidden.

Social and Religious Movements:

  • Keshav Chandra Sen established the “Indian Reform Association” in 1870 to promote social reforms.
  • Debendranath Tagore published a Bengali monthly magazine called “Tattvabodhini Patrika” to spread knowledge and ideas.
  • Dayanand Saraswati wrote a pamphlet called “Gaukarunanidhi” in 1881, which focused on religious beliefs and practices.
  • G. G. Agarkar, along with B. G. Tilak, founded the Deccan Education Society and started the journals “Kesri” and “Mahratta.” Gopal Krishan Gokhale was an active member of this society.
  • In 1892, the “Young Madras Party” established a Hindu Social Reform Association in Madras.
  • Shibli Numani founded the Nadwah-ul-ulama in 1894, an Islamic educational institution.

Ramakrishna and Vivekananda:

  • Ramakrishna Paramahansa (1836-1886) was a priest at a temple in Dakshineshwar near Calcutta. He taught that there are many paths to God and that serving others is the same as serving God.
  • His famous disciple, Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), spread Ramakrishna’s teachings and represented India at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893.

Arya Samaj:

  • The Arya Samaj was started in 1875 by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. He wanted to make changes to the Hindu religion in northern India.
  • Swami Dayanand thought there was only one God and that people should worship Him in their hearts, not through idols or images. He also wrote a book called Satyarth Prakash.
  • In 1892, there was a big disagreement within the Arya Samaj about what kind of education system to follow.

Indian Freedom Struggle:

First War of Independence:

  • This war is also known as the Sepoy Mutiny or the Revolt of 1857.
  • On March 29, 1857, during the time when Lord Canning was the Viceroy of India, an Indian soldier named Mangal Pandey from the 34th regiment killed two British officers during a parade in Barrackpore.
  • The other Indian soldiers at the parade refused to follow orders to arrest Mangal Pandey. But he was later caught, put on trial, and hanged.
  • News of this event quickly spread to all the military camps in the country, and soon there was a rebellion of soldiers all over India.

The Sepoy Mutiny

On May 10, 1857, soldiers in Meerut refused to use the new Enfield rifle cartridges. They believed the cartridges were greased with animal fat, which was against their religious beliefs.

The soldiers, along with other civilians, went on a rampage. They broke open jails, killed Europeans, and marched to Delhi.

The next morning, the marching soldiers arrived in Delhi. This sparked a revolt among the local soldiers. They besieged the city and declared the 80-year-old Bahadur Shah Zafar as the Emperor of India.

The British Response

The British were determined to put down the revolt. They captured Delhi on September 20, 1857, and imprisoned Emperor Bahadur Shah.

The British then dealt with the rebels in each center one by one. The Rani of Jhansi died fighting on June 17, 1858. Nana Saheb escaped to Nepal in January 1859, hoping to continue the fight. Kunwar Singh died in May 1858 while trying to escape from the British.

The End of the Revolt

The British eventually defeated the rebels. The revolt was a major turning point in Indian history. It led to the end of the Mughal Empire and the establishment of British rule in India.

Tantia Tope’s Capture and Death: Tantia Tope, a skilled leader who fought against the British using guerrilla tactics, was betrayed by a fellow rebel in April 1859. The British captured him and executed him, which helped them regain control of India.

Reasons for the Mutiny’s Failure:

  • Disunity and Poor Organization: Indians lacked unity and had poor organization, which made it difficult to effectively challenge the British.
  • Incomplete Nationalism: Some Indian rulers, like Scindia, Holkars, and the Nizam, actively supported the British instead of joining the rebellion.
  • Lack of Coordination: There was no proper coordination between different groups involved in the revolt, such as sepoys, peasants, zamindars, and others.
  • Different Motives: Participants in the revolt had different reasons for joining, which made it challenging to maintain a united front against the British.

British Rule After the Revolt:

  • Government of India Act (1858): Queen Victoria declared in 1858 that India would be directly governed by the British Crown. This proclamation was seen as a symbol of freedom and rights for Indians.
  • Indian National Congress: In 1885, A. O. Hume, a retired British civil servant, helped establish the Indian National Congress. This organization played a crucial role in India’s struggle for independence.

Leaders:

  • In December 1885, a conference was held in Pune.
  • All Indian leaders agreed to change the name of the Indian National Union to the Indian National Congress (INC).
  • The first meeting of the Congress was held in Bombay, with W. C. Banerjee as the president.
  • The Indian National Congress was formed, and the fight for India’s independence began.

Moderate Period (1885-1906):

  • At first, the Congress was a moderate, constitutional movement.
  • The party met once a year to talk about political issues.
  • They asked the government to fix problems, but they didn’t have any official power.
  • Some Congress members were also in the Legislative Assembly, which helped the viceroy and the executive committee make new laws.
  • The Indian National Congress quickly became popular among middle-class Indians.

The Early Years of the Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. In the beginning, the Congress was a small and cautious organization. Its leaders were mostly moderate in their demands and believed that the British would eventually grant India independence if they were patient and respectful.

The Indian Council Act of 1892

In 1892, the British passed the Indian Council Act. This act allowed some Indians to be elected to the Indian Legislative Council, but the British still maintained control of the government.

The Partition of Bengal

In 1905, the British partitioned Bengal into two provinces: East Bengal and West Bengal. This decision was made to weaken the political power of the educated middle class in Bengal. The partition sparked widespread protests and led to the rise of the Swadeshi movement.

The Swadeshi Movement

The Swadeshi movement was a boycott of British goods. It was started in 1905 and lasted for several years. The movement was successful in disrupting the British economy and raising awareness of the Indian independence movement. In all the major cities, foreign goods were sold on a large scale. The British government tried to cause conflict between Hindus and Muslims by introducing the slim policy.

Home Rule Movement (1915-1916)

  • Dr. Annie Besant, inspired by the Irish rebellion, started a movement in India in September 1916 to gain self-government from British rule.
  • The movement quickly spread, and branches of the Home Rule League were set up all over India.
  • Bal Gangadhar Tilak strongly supported the movement and joined forces with Dr. Besant. He also convinced the Muslim League to support the program.

Indian National Congress During World War I

  • The Congress supported the British during World War I but was disappointed after the war when Britain limited political activities in India.
  • Under Mahatma Gandhi’s leadership, the Congress demanded complete independence and organized non-violent protests.
  • Despite the imprisonment of its leaders, Britain made some concessions in the 1930s.

Lucknow Pact (1916)

  • The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was an agreement between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League.
  • The pact aimed to unite Hindus and Muslims in the struggle for independence and outlined a plan for self-government in India.
  • The pact included the idea of separate electorates for Muslims, which allowed them to elect their own representatives to the Central Legislative Assembly.

1916: A Milestone in Hindu-Muslim Unity

In 1916, two significant events occurred that played a crucial role in fostering unity between Hindus and Muslims in India.

Lucknow Sessions: Igniting Anti-British Sentiments

Both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League held their annual sessions in the city of Lucknow. During these sessions, strong anti-British sentiments were expressed, particularly among the Muslim community. This collective opposition to British rule helped to bridge the gap between Hindus and Muslims, creating a sense of shared purpose and solidarity.

British Policy Shift: Empowering Indian Associations

In response to the growing discontent and anti-British sentiments, the British government announced a significant policy change in 1916. This policy aimed to increase the participation of Indians in various associations and gradually introduce local self-government. By empowering Indian organizations and allowing greater involvement in decision-making, the British hoped to appease the growing demands for self-governance and reduce tensions.

August Declaration of 1917: Promise of Democracy

During World War I, the British government proclaimed its commitment to protecting democracy worldwide. Inspired by this declaration, Indians who had fought alongside the British in the war began to demand the same democratic rights and representation for their own country.

In response to these demands, the British Secretary of State for Indian Affairs, Edwin Samuel Montague, presented the August Declaration before the House of Commons on August 20, 1917. In this declaration, Montague announced the British government’s intention to gradually introduce reforms in India to satisfy local demands and provide greater representation to the Indian people. These reforms aimed to transfer more control over internal affairs to Indian hands, marking a significant step towards self-governance. The British government agreed to gradually give control of India to the Indian people. This was because of the unity between Hindus and Muslims, which was shown by the Lucknow Pact.

Gandhian Era (1918-1947)
  • Mahatma Gandhi was the most important leader in Indian politics from 1918 to 1947.
  • Gandhi’s philosophy of non-violent resistance, called Satyagraha, was very effective in getting the British to leave India.
Montague-Chelmsford Reforms
  • Lord Montague visited India for 6 months and met with many people from the government and outside the government.
  • He worked with the Governor-General, Lord Chelmsford, to create a report on how to change the government of India.
  • The report was approved by the British Parliament and became the Government of India Act of 1919.
  • This law is often called the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms.
Rowlatt Act 1919
  • When Lord Chelmsford was the viceroy, the British passed a law called the Rowlatt Act.

Elmsford:

  • The government created a special committee to look into sedition (actions or words that encourage rebellion against the government).

Rowlatt Act (1919):

  • The Rowlatt Act gave the government a lot of power to arrest and jail people without a trial.
  • Gandhiji thought this law was unfair and decided to fight against it. He called for a peaceful protest called Satyagraha.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919):

  • Two leaders, Dr. Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal, were arrested on April 10, 1919, under the Rowlatt Act. This made people in Punjab very angry.
  • On April 13, 1919, a big public meeting was held in Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. Thousands of people, including women and children, gathered there.
  • Before the meeting could start, a British General named Dyre ordered his soldiers to shoot at the crowd without warning. Hundreds of people were killed, and over 1200 were injured.
  • This event was a turning point in the relationship between India and Britain. It made people even more determined to fight for independence.

Khilafat Movement (1920):

  • During World War I, the British threatened Turkey’s safety and well-being. This weakened the position of the Sultan of Turkey, who was also the Caliph (religious leader) of Muslims.
  • Many Muslims in India were upset about this and started a movement called the Khilafat Movement. They wanted to protect the Caliph’s power and the safety of Turkey.
  • Two brothers, Mohammed Ali and Shaukat Ali, started a movement against the British in 1920. They called it the Khilafat Movement.
  • Maulana Abul Kalam Azad also led the movement. Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress supported it. This helped bring Hindus and Muslims together.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)

  • Seeing the Hindu-Muslim unity, Gandhi started a new movement. He called it the Non-Cooperation Movement.
  • In this movement, people were asked to give up their British titles, resign from government jobs, and boycott foreign goods.

Significance of the Movement

  • This was the first time that almost all sections of Indian society came together for a common cause. Peasants, teachers, students, women, and merchants all participated in the movement.
  • As the movement spread across the country, it gained a lot of support from the masses.
  • The Indian National Congress also became more popular because of this movement. It was now seen as the true representative of the Indian people. The Non-Cooperation Movement was not just a group of people talking about independence. It was an organization that took action to achieve its goals.
  • The movement helped create a sense of unity among Indians and made them willing to make sacrifices for their country’s independence.

The movement had four phases:

  1. Educational boycott and boycott of law courts (January-March 1921): During this phase, people stopped sending their children to schools and colleges run by the British government. They also stopped going to British courts.

  2. Operation Tilak Swaraj Fund (April-June 1921): This was a campaign to raise money for the independence movement. People all over India donated money to the fund.

  3. Picketing of shops selling foreign cloth and boycott of foreign cloth (July-September 1921): During this phase, people started picketing shops that sold foreign cloth. They also stopped buying foreign cloth.

  4. Kisan movement and many local movements (November 1921-February 1922): During this phase, farmers and other groups organized movements to fight for their rights.

The movement was going well when a violent incident happened in Chauri Chaura, near Gorakhpur. A mob of villagers clashed with the police and burnt down a police station, killing 22 policemen.

This incident made Gandhiji call off the Non-Cooperation Movement on 12th February 1922.

After the movement was called off, some members of the Congress Party decided to form the Swaraj Party. They wanted to fight for independence through elections.

Simon Commission (1927)

  • The British government created a group called the Simon Commission in November 1927. Their job was to look at how much of a say Indian people could have in their own government.

  • All the people in the Simon Commission were from Europe, so Indian leaders decided not to cooperate with them. They protested and shouted, “Simon, go home!”

  • During one of these protests in Lahore, the police hit Lala Lajpat Rai so hard that he later died from his injuries.

Lahore Session (1929)

  • In December 1929, the Indian National Congress met in Lahore. They decided that their goal was to have complete independence from British rule.

  • Mahatma Gandhi was the one who made the final decision to make complete independence the goal. In 1930, Mahatma Gandhi led a significant march known as the Dandi March or ‘Salt Satyagraha’ from Sabarmati Ashram. His aim was to break the Salt Law by heading towards the village of Dandi. This movement was so powerful that it even inspired Indian soldiers to feel patriotic.

Shortly after, the British authorities responded with harsh measures such as mass arrests, beatings with sticks (lathi-charge), and other repressive actions. As a result, approximately one hundred thousand people were sent to jail.

Later that same year, Gandhi launched another civil disobedience movement with the goal of achieving complete independence for India. Initially, he presented an 11-point ultimatum to the authorities, which addressed common grievances of the Indian people but did not include a demand for complete independence.

The 11 demands included:

  1. Two demands related to peasants: abolishing the salt tax and reducing land revenue.
  2. Three demands related to workers: reducing military expenditure, introducing prohibition, and protecting the cotton textile industry.
  3. Six demands related to the general public: releasing political prisoners, granting civil liberties, holding an impartial inquiry into police excesses, reducing the salaries of high officials, introducing free and compulsory primary education, and abolishing the system of special privileges for the British in India.

Government of India Act 1935

  • The Government of India Act of 1935 was a law that changed the way India was governed. It was based on the recommendations of the Simon Commission. The act created a federal system of government, which means that power was divided between the central government and the states.

World War II and the Indian Political Situation

  • Just before World War II started, the Congress party said that it did not want to work with the British government.
  • The Congress also made three demands:
    • Coastal shipping should be reserved for Indian companies.
    • The Indian textile industry should be protected from foreign competition.
    • The exchange rate between the rupee and the British pound should be fixed so that the rupee would not lose value.
  • The Congress also had other complaints, such as:
    • The Central Intelligence Department should be changed.
    • Political prisoners should be released.
    • Alcohol should be banned.
    • Military spending should be cut in half.
    • Civil administration spending should be cut in half.
    • The Arms Act should be changed so that citizens could carry guns to protect themselves. - The British government did not clearly state why India was involved in the war or what its goals were.
  • The British Prime Minister said that they were fighting to protect democracy and the right of every country to choose its own government.
  • On September 3, 1939, Britain declared war on Germany.
  • The governor-general of India, Lord Linlithgow, sent Indian soldiers to fight in the war without asking Indian leaders.
  • The governor-general also declared an emergency in India to stop any problems or riots.
  • The Congress party told the British government that if they were fighting for democracy, they should give India full democracy first.
  • On October 10, 1939, the Congress party demanded that India be freed after the war.

1939: British Government’s Promise to India

In 1939, the British government made an official statement. They promised to give India the status of a dominion (a self-governing country within the British Empire). They also said that they would review the Government of India Act of 1935 after the war.

Indian National Congress During World War II

During World War II, the Indian National Congress (INC) was not happy with the British government. They refused to support Britain in the war. Because of this, the British government suppressed the INC.

However, the INC had shown how popular it was among the Indian people. After the war, in 1947, Britain granted independence to India.

Demand for Pakistan (1940)

In March 1940, the Muslim League, led by Mr. Jinnah, met in Lahore. They demanded that Pakistan be created as a separate country for Muslims.

Cripps Mission

In 1942, the British government sent a mission to India led by Sir Stafford Cripps. The Cripps Mission made several important points:

  • General elections would be held in the provinces of India after the war.
  • A new Indian dominion would be created, which would be associated with the United Kingdom.
  • Provinces that did not want to join the new dominion would be allowed to form their own separate governments.

Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

  1. If they didn’t join the dominion, minorities could form their own separate union.
  2. Minorities were supposed to be protected.

However, both the Congress and the Muslim League rejected these proposals. Jinnah didn’t like the plan because it didn’t give Pakistan.

Quit India Movement (1942-1945)

  • On August 8, 1942, the Congress passed a resolution called the ‘Quit India’ resolution.
  • Gandhiji told the British to leave India and asked his countrymen to “do or die.”

Gandhi’s Fast

  • Mahatma Gandhi went on a 21-day fast in jail. After 13 days, he got very sick, and everyone thought he would die. But he survived and finished the 21-day fast.
  • This was his way of responding to the government, which kept telling him to condemn the violence people were doing during the Quit India Movement.
  • Gandhi didn’t just refuse to condemn people who were using violence; he also said the government was responsible for it.
  • People reacted right away when they heard about the fast.

Impact of the Quit India Movement:

  • The Quit India Movement had a significant impact on the country. It led to widespread demonstrations and strikes across the nation.
  • The movement successfully boosted public morale and intensified anti-British sentiments.
  • It provided an opportunity for political activism and brought the demand for independence to the forefront of the national movement.
  • Students, especially school girls, played a crucial role in the struggle. Notable women leaders like Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kripalani, and Usha Mehta actively participated in the agitation.
  • The Quit India Movement marked a turning point in the national movement, as it made it clear that independence was no longer a matter of negotiation but an immediate demand.

Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army, INA)

  • Origin and Purpose:

    • Subhash Chandra Bose, also known as ‘Netaji’, did not agree with the Congress party’s peaceful approach to gaining independence from British rule.
    • He believed that using force was the only way to make the British leave India.
    • In 1942, Netaji formed the Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army) in Singapore. He gave a famous call to action, “Dilli chalo” (March to Delhi).
    • The INA’s goal was to fight for India’s independence. Many Indian people living in Southeast Asia, as well as Indian soldiers and officers captured by the Japanese in Malaysia, Singapore, and Burma, joined the INA.

  • Rise and Decline:

    • Subhash Chandra Bose set up the INA’s headquarters in two places: Rangoon and Singapore.
    • The INA recruited civilians, collected funds, and even formed a women’s regiment called the Rani Jhansi Regiment.
    • One INA battalion joined the Japanese Army in the Imphal campaign on the Indo-Burma front.

The Indian National Army (INA)

  • The INA was formed in 1942 by Indian soldiers who had been captured by the Japanese during World War II.
  • The INA fought alongside the Japanese against the British in the hopes of gaining independence for India.
  • However, with the defeat of Japan in 1945, the INA was disbanded and its leader, Subhas Chandra Bose, is believed to have died in a plane crash.

Achievements of the INA:

  • Despite not achieving its goal of independence, the INA had a significant impact on India’s freedom struggle.
  • It promoted communal harmony and transformed the freedom struggle from a local issue to an international one.
  • The INA also influenced the Indian Army, making them question their loyalty to the British.
  • It showed the Congress party that non-violent methods alone might not be enough to achieve independence.

Cabinet Mission Plan:

  • In 1945-1946, the British government sent a delegation known as the Cabinet Mission to India to discuss the country’s future.
  • The mission met with representatives from various political parties and proposed a plan for India’s independence.

Formation of the Constituent Assembly

  • A group of people called the Constituent Assembly was formed in December 1946 to write the rules for how the country should be run. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was chosen to lead the group. But a group called the Muslim League didn’t join them.

Mountbatten Plan

  • A man named Lord Mountbatten had an idea on June 3, 1947, to solve the problem of the Muslim League not joining the Constituent Assembly.
  • He made a detailed plan to divide the country into two parts. Both the Congress and the Muslim League agreed to this plan, and Pakistan was born.

Partition of India

  • On August 15, 1947, India was divided into two countries, India and Pakistan, based on the Mountbatten Plan and the Indian Independence Act of 1947.
  • Lord Mountbatten became the leader of India, and M. A. Jinnah became the leader of Pakistan.

India After Independence

  • After Lord Mountbatten left, Sir In 1948, C. Rajagopalachari became the first and only Indian governor-general of India.

  • Pt Jawaharlal Nehru became the first prime minister of India.

  • Mahatma Gandhi went on a fast to support the rights of Muslims. Sadly, on January 30, 1948, he was killed by Nathuram Vinayak Godse during a prayer meeting at Birla House in Delhi.

  • Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was responsible for bringing all the princely states into the Indian Union. He merged all the states with neighboring provinces. The states of Kashmir, Hyderabad, and Mysore joined later.

  • On September 13, 1948, the Indian Army went into Hyderabad after violent actions by the Tazakars. As a result, the state became part of the Indian Union.

  • On November 26, 1949, the Constituent Assembly approved the new constitution of India. On January 26, 1950, India was declared a republic.

  • Dr. Rajendra Prasad became the first president of India, Dr. S. Radhakrishnan became the vice president, and Pt Jawaharlal Nehru continued as the first prime minister of India.

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