Human Genome Project (HGP):

1. Introduction:

   • The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international research effort aimed at mapping and sequencing the entire human genome.
   • It officially began in 1990 and was completed in 2003.

2. Objectives:

   • To determine the sequence of all the DNA base pairs in the human genome.
   • To identify and map all the genes within the genome.
   • To study the function of genes and their roles in health and disease.
   • To provide a reference genome for further biological research.

3. Significance:

   • The HGP has greatly advanced our understanding of genetics, genomics, and human biology.
   • It has led to the identification of thousands of genes responsible for various genetic disorders.
   • It has paved the way for personalized medicine and genetic testing.
   • It has contributed to the development of biotechnology and pharmaceuticals.

DNA Fingerprinting:

1. Definition:

   • DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting, is a forensic technique used to identify individuals based on their unique DNA patterns.

2. Principle:

   • It relies on the fact that every individual’s DNA, except identical twins, is unique.
   • Specific regions of the DNA, such as short tandem repeats (STRs), are amplified and analyzed to create a distinctive DNA profile.

3. Applications:

   • Criminal investigations (e.g., identifying suspects and victims)
   • Paternity testing
   • Immigration cases
   • Wildlife conservation
   • Historical and anthropological research

Molecular Markers:

1. Definition:

   • Molecular markers are identifiable and heritable DNA sequences, genes, or variations that can be used to track the presence or absence of specific genes or alleles in individuals or populations.

2. Types of Molecular Markers:

   • Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)
   • Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs)
   • Microsatellites (short tandem repeats)
   • Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLPs)

3. Applications:

   • Genetic mapping
   • Marker-assisted selection in breeding programs
   • Population genetics studies
   • Disease diagnosis (e.g., identifying disease-related genetic variations)

Shortcut Methods:

Human Genome Project (HGP):

• Aim: Map and sequence the entire human genome.
• Timeline: Started in 1990, completed in 2003.
• Objectives: Determine DNA base pair sequences, identify and map genes, study gene functions, provide a reference genome.
• Significance: Advanced genetics, identified genes for disorders, personalized medicine, biotechnology, and pharmaceutical development.

DNA Fingerprinting:

• Definition: Forensic technique to identify individuals based on unique DNA patterns.
• Principle: Relies on individual DNA uniqueness (except identical twins) and uses specific DNA regions like STRs.
• Applications: Criminal investigations, paternity testing, immigration cases, wildlife conservation, historical and anthropological research.

Molecular Markers:

• Definition: Identifiable DNA sequences used to track specific genes or alleles.
• Types: SNPs, RFLPs, microsatellites (STRs), AFLPs.
• Applications: Genetic mapping, breeding selection, population genetics, disease diagnosis.