Notes from Toppers
Atomic Models
1. John Dalton’s Atomic Theory:
- Indivisibility of atoms.
- Relative weights of atoms.
- Law of multiple proportions.
References:
- NCERT Chemistry Class 11 (Part I), Chapter 1: Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry.
2. Cathode Rays and Discovery of Electrons:
- Experiments by William Crookes.
- Discovery of electrons by J.J. Thomson.
- Properties and characteristics of cathode rays.
References:
- NCERT Physics Class 12 (Volume I), Chapter 2: Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance.
3. Positive Rays and Identification of Protons:
- Experiments related to positive rays by Eugen Goldstein.
- Identification of protons.
- Properties and characteristics of positive rays.
References:
- NCERT Physics Class 12 (Volume I), Chapter 15: Nuclei.
4. Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment:
- Experimental setup and observations.
- Discovery of the atomic nucleus.
- Rutherford’s model of the atom.
References:
- NCERT Physics Class 12 (Volume I), Chapter 15: Nuclei.
5. Rutherford’s Model of the Atom:
- Key features of the nuclear model.
- Central nucleus with protons.
- Mostly empty space in the atom.
References:
- NCERT Physics Class 12 (Volume I), Chapter 15: Nuclei.
6. Nuclear Size and Scattering Experiments:
- Determination of nuclear size.
- Scattering experiments and results.
- Calculation of nuclear radius.
References:
- NCERT Physics Class 12 (Volume I), Chapter 15: Nuclei.
7. Bohr’s Model of the Atom:
- Introduction of quantized energy levels.
- Electron orbits and energy states.
- Limitations of Bohr’s model.
References:
- NCERT Physics Class 12 (Volume I), Chapter 15: Nuclei.
8. Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom:
- Limitations of Bohr’s model.
- Development of quantum mechanics.
- Wave-particle duality and uncertainty principle.
References:
- NCERT Chemistry Class 12 (Part I), Chapter 2: Structure of the Atom.
9. Quantum Numbers:
- Four quantum numbers (n, l, ml, and ms).
- Significance in describing electron properties.
- Quantum number values and their implications.
References:
- NCERT Chemistry Class 12 (Part I), Chapter 2: Structure of the Atom.
10. Electron Configurations:
- Aufbau principle and Hund’s rule.
- Arrangement of electrons in orbitals.
- Electron configurations of elements.
References:
- NCERT Chemistry Class 12 (Part I), Chapter 2: Structure of the Atom.
11. Periodic Trends:
- Trends in atomic radii.
- Trends in ionization energies.
- Trends in electronegativity.
- Trends in electron affinity.
References:
- NCERT Chemistry Class 11 (Part I), Chapter 3: Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties.