States of India:

• Arunachal Pradesh
• Assam
• Bihar
• Chhattisgarh
• Goa
• Gujarat
• Haryana
• Himachal Pradesh
• Jammu and Kashmir
• Jharkhand
• Karnataka
• Kerala
• Madhya Pradesh
• Maharashtra
• Manipur
• Meghalaya
• Mizoram
• Nagaland
• Odisha
• Punjab
• Rajasthan
• Sikkim
• Tamil Nadu
• Telangana
• Tripura
• Uttarakhand
• Uttar Pradesh
• West Bengal

Union Territories of India:

• Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• Chandigarh
• Dadra and Nagar Haveli
• Daman and Diu
• Delhi
• Lakshadweep
• Puducherry

Geographical Features of India:

• India is located in South Asia and is separated from the rest of Asia by the Himalayas and the sea.

• It is the seventh largest country in the world in terms of area and has a population of over 1.3 billion people, making it the second most populous country in the world.

• India is located on the Indian Plate and is part of the Indo-Australian Plate. The largest countries in the world by area are:

• Russia (17,124,442 square kilometers)

• Canada (9,984,670 square kilometers)

• China (9,706,961 square kilometers)

• United States (9,629,091 square kilometers)

• Brazil (8,515,767 square kilometers)

• Australia (7,692,924 square kilometers)

India’s area:

• India’s total area is 32,87,263 square kilometers.
• Land area: 29,73,193 square kilometers
• Water area: 3,14,070 square kilometers
• India’s water area makes up about 9.55% of its total area.

Comparisons:

• India is 12 times larger than the United Kingdom.
• India is 8 times larger than Japan.
• India is about 3/4th the size of the European Union (all 28 member nations combined). - Kanyakumari is the southernmost point of the mainland of India. It is located where three seas meet and narrows before ending in the Indian Ocean. The southernmost point of India is actually Indira Point, which is located on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, not far from Indonesia. However, Indira Point was submerged during the 2004 tsunami.
• The Lakshadweep Islands are a group of islands that are closer to the Indian coast compared to other island groups.
• India has a very long coastline, which is almost as long as the radius of the Earth.
• The distance from north to south and east to west in India is almost the same in degrees (about 30 degrees), but in kilometers, the north-south distance (about 3200 km) is longer than the east-west distance (about 3000 km).
• Because India is so spread out from east to west, there is a two-hour time difference between the easternmost and westernmost points.
• The Standard Meridian of India (82 degrees 30 minutes East) passes through The Tropic of Cancer, an imaginary line at 23 degrees 30 minutes north of the equator, divides India into two almost equal parts.

The northern part is a vast region that stretches from east to west, made up of flat plains and the majestic Himalayan mountains.

The southern part, below the Tropic of Cancer, is shaped like a triangle, with its base in the north and its tip pointing south. This region mainly consists of the peninsular plateau, but it also includes the coastal areas on the east and west.

From the state of Gujarat in the west to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east, there is a two-hour difference in time. To ensure uniformity, the time along the Standard Meridian of India (82 degrees 30 minutes east), which passes through Mirzapur in the state of Uttar Pradesh, is taken as the standard time for the entire country.

As you move from south to north in India, the length of the day and night changes due to the country’s latitudinal extent (its position relative to the equator).

The coastline of mainland India, excluding the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands, stretches for approximately 5,423 kilometers. - The distance from north to south in India is about 2093.6 kilometers.

• The mainland coast of India has different types of beaches. About 43% of the coast is sandy, 11% is rocky with cliffs, and 46% is marshy.
• The highest point in India is K2, which is 8611 meters high. However, K2 is located in the Gilgit-Baltistan region, which is currently part of Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. Kangchenjunga in Sikkim is the highest point within India’s current borders, and it is 8598 meters high.
• The Thar desert is the ninth largest subtropical desert in the world. It covers an area of more than 200,000 square kilometers.
• The soil in the Thar desert is sandy to sandy-loam in texture.
• India is surrounded by the Indian Ocean to the south, the Arabian Sea to the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal to the southeast.
• India’s territorial waters extend 12 nautical miles (about 22.2 kilometers) into the sea.
• The Maldives, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia are island nations located to the south of India. This map is just a rough sketch, not drawn to scale. It’s here to help you understand the concept better.

Dimensions

• Distance from north to south: 3214 kilometers

• Distance from east to west: 2933 kilometers

• Length of coastline: 7516.6 kilometers

• Length of land frontier: 15,200 kilometers

• Total geographic land area: 32,87,263 square kilometers

• Percentage of earth’s surface covered by India: 2.4%

• Percentage of world’s population living in India: 17.5%

• India’s territorial sea: 12 nautical miles

• India’s contiguous zone: 24 nautical miles

• India’s exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles

• India’s longest river: Ganga

• India’s largest lake: Lake Chilka

• India’s highest point: Mt. K-2 (8611 meters)

• India’s highest point of Himalayas: Kangchenjunga (8598 meters)

• India’s lowest point: Kuttanad (-2.2 meters)

• India’s northernmost point: Siachi Glacier near Karakoram:

• India’s southernmost point is Indira Point, located in the Great Nicobar Island of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• India’s westernmost point is located west of Ghur Mota in the state of Gujarat.

• India’s easternmost point is Kibithu, situated in the state of Arunachal Pradesh.

• The highest point in India is Kangchenjunga, located in the state of Sikkim.

• The lowest point in India is Kuttanad, situated in the state of Kerala.

Frontiers:

• In the north, India is separated from Tibet by the Himalayan mountain range. India shares borders with China (border length: 4057 kilometers), Bhutan (border length: 699 kilometers), and Nepal (border length: 1751 kilometers).
• The Siliguri Corridor, located between the borders of Bhutan, Nepal, and Bangladesh, connects mainland India with the northeastern states.
• The boundary line between India and China is known as the McMahon Line.
• The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India is almost the same in degrees, both being around 30 degrees. However, in terms of kilometers, the north-south distance (approximately 3200 kilometers) is greater than the east-west distance.
• In the east, India shares borders with the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills. India’s International Borders:

North-East:

• India shares a border with Myanmar (also known as Burma) to the far north-east. The border is marked by densely forested mountains.

East:

• Bangladesh is separated from India by the watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic plain, the Khasi hills, and the Mizo Hills. The border between India and Bangladesh is 4,096 kilometers long.

West:

• Pakistan lies on the Punjab Plain and the Thar desert. The border between India and Pakistan is 3,323 kilometers long.
• Afghanistan lies on the north-west. The border between India and Afghanistan is 106 kilometers long.

South:

• India is surrounded by the Indian Ocean to the south.
• Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Straits.

States Sharing International Borders:

• Afghanistan: Jammu and Kashmir (Pakistan occupied area)

• Bangladesh: West Bengal, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tripura, Assam

• Bhutan: West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam

• China: Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh

• Nepal: Bihar, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal

• Myanmar: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland India’s States:

• India has 28 states.

• Some of the states in India are:

  • Maharashtra
  • Gujarat
  • Rajasthan
  • Punjab
  • Jammu and Kashmir
  • Manipur
  • Mizoram

Pakistan’s States:

• Pakistan has 4 states.
• Some of the states in Pakistan are:
  • Jammu and Kashmir
  • Punjab
  • Rajasthan
  • Gujarat

Physical Features of India:

• India can be divided into three main parts:

  1. The Himalayas and the mountains around them
  2. The Indo-Gangetic plains
  3. The peninsular India

• There is also a fourth part, the coastal plains, which surround the peninsula.

• The Himalayas are the youngest fold mountains in the world. They surround India on the north, northwest, and northeast.

• The Himalayas and the mountains around them are made up of very old rocks that were formed under the sea.

• The Indo-Gangetic plains are located to the south of the Himalayas. They are made up of soil that was brought by rivers from the Himalayas.

• The peninsular India is the oldest part of India. It is made up of very hard rocks.

• The coastal plains surround the peninsular India. They are made up of sand and clay that was brought by rivers from the mountains. The Himalayas and the Karakoram Mountains

The Himalayas and the Karakoram Mountains are two of the most impressive mountain ranges in the world. They are located in Asia and run along the northern border of India.

The Karakoram Mountains have several ranges, including the Zaskar, Ladakh, and Pirpanjal ranges. The Jhelum River flows through this region.

The Himalayas have three main ranges: the Himadri, Himachal, and Siwalik ranges. They are about 2400 kilometers long and vary in width from 240 to 320 kilometers.

The Greater Himalayas, or northern range, is the highest part of the Himalayas. It contains three of the highest mountains in the world: Mount Everest (8848 meters), K-2 or Mount Godwin Austin (8611 meters), and Kanchenjunga (8598 meters).

These high altitudes make it difficult to travel through the Himalayas. There are only a few passes that allow people to cross the mountains. Some of the most famous passes include Shipki La, Jelep La, and Nathu La. The Himalayas

The Himalayas are a mountain range in Asia. They are the highest mountains in the world. The Himalayas are divided into three parts: the Greater Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas, and the Outer Himalayas.

The Greater Himalayas

The Greater Himalayas are the highest part of the Himalayas. They are covered in snow all year round. The Greater Himalayas are home to several glaciers, which are the sources of rivers like the Ganges and the Yamuna. The core of the Greater Himalayas is made of granite.

The Lesser Himalayas

The Lesser Himalayas are located south of the Greater Himalayas. They are not as high as the Greater Himalayas, but they are still very tall. The Lesser Himalayas are home to many valleys, including the famous Kashmir Valley. The Lesser Himalayas are also home to many health resorts.

The Outer Himalayas

The Outer Himalayas are the lowest part of the Himalayas. They lie between the Lesser Himalayas and the Indo-Gangetic Plains. The Outer Himalayas are made up of highly compressed and altered rocks. The lesser Himalayas in the far east are connected by continuous ranges. The longitudinal valley between the lesser Himalayas and the Shiwaliks is called Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun, and Patli Dun are some well-known Duns.

These ranges are made up of loose sediments brought down by rivers from the main Himalayan ranges further north. These valleys are covered with thick gravel and alluvium.

The Northern Plains or the Indo-Gangetic Plains are formed by the valleys of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. They are about 2400 km long and 240-320 km wide.

These plains cover one-third of India’s land and are the most fertile region. Based on terrain features, this plain has two parts.

The Indo-Gangetic region is a very young feature formed only during the Quaternary Period.

It has little high relief and mostly consists of rolling plains carved by well-developed rivers. River System

• The surface of the river system is covered with sediments from the middle to late Pleistocene and Holocene or Recent Age.

• On the west, it includes the vast stretch of the Thar Desert.

• The upland plains above the flood level are made of alluvial soil. It is one of the most fertile areas in the world.

• The low lands are prone to flooding during floods.

• The great plains consist of leveled land to the south of the great mountains of the north made up of fertile alluvial soil.

• The great plains are bordered by the northern mountains on the east, north, and west and the peninsular plateaus on the south.

• The Assam plains include the Brahmaputra valley; the eastern plains cover the Bengal basin and Bihar; the northern plains are spread over the Uttar Pradesh-Punjab doabs, and the Indus plains cover the areas of the Punjab and Sind watered by the great river.

• So it consists of the Indus Basin, Ganga Basin, and Brahmaputra Basin. River Indus and its tributaries-Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej-form the Indus Basin. The tributaries of the Ganga River:

• Some of the tributaries of the Ganga River start in the Himalayas, while others start in the peninsular plateau.

• The Himalayan tributaries include the Yamuna, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, and Tista rivers.

• The peninsular plateau tributaries include the Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, Son, Ken, and Damodar rivers.

The Brahmaputra River:

• The Brahmaputra River starts beyond the Himalayas.

The Deccan Plateau:

• The Deccan Plateau is located south of the northern plains.
• It is bordered by the Eastern and Western Ghats mountain ranges.
• The Deccan Plateau is made up of Precambrian rocks, which are some of the oldest rocks on Earth.
• The highest peaks in the Deccan Plateau are the Nilgiri Hills, which reach over 2,500 meters in height.
• The topography of the Deccan Plateau is rugged, but not as rugged as the Himalayas.
• Most of the hills in the Deccan Plateau were formed by erosion, rather than by tectonic activity. 4. Coastal Plains:
• The western coastal plain is divided into two parts: the Konkan in the north and the Malabar coast in the south.
• The eastern coastal strip is called the Coromandel coast.

The Great Plateau of Peninsular India:

• The large plateau of peninsular India is located south of the great plains. It is made up of hard igneous rocks.
• The plateau has two parts:
  • The Malwa plateau in the north slopes towards the north.
  • The Deccan plateau in the south.

The Great Indian Desert:

• To the northwest of the Malwa plateau lies the Great Indian Desert. It is a region of inland made up of rocks and sand.

The Deccan Plateau:

• The Deccan plateau is located south of the Narmada River. It is enclosed by the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats.

• The Western Ghats are old mountains formed by four major hills that run parallel to the Arabian Coast.

• The Eastern Ghats are low and discontinuous. They are near the Bay of Bengal coast.

• Many rivers flow through the plateau, either towards the Arabian Sea or the Bay of Bengal. Coastal Plains

• The western coastal plains are narrow and divided into the Konkan coast and the Malabar coast. They have estuaries and lagoons.

• The eastern coastal plains are wider and divided into the northern circars and the Coromandal Coast. They have fertile deltas.

Aravallis and Deccan Mountains

1. The Aravallis:

   • The oldest mountain range in India.
   • Highest peak: Guru Shikhar at Mount Abu, rising to 1722 meters.
   • Located near the border with Gujarat.

2. The Vindhyas:

   • Separate southern India from northern India.
   • Extend 1050 kilometers.
   • Average elevation: 3000 meters.

3. The Satpuras:

   • Located between the Narmada and Tapti rivers.
   • Extend 900 kilometers.
   • Many peaks rise above 1000 meters.
   • Run parallel to the Vindhya Range to the north.
   • These two east-west ranges divide the Indo-Gangetic plain from the Deccan plateau north of the river. Narmada River:

• The Narmada River is a major river in India.
• It flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
• It is the fifth-longest river in India.
• It is considered a sacred river by Hindus.

Western Ghats:

• The Western Ghats are a mountain range in India.
• They run along the western edge of India’s Deccan plateau.
• They separate the Deccan plateau from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea.
• The range runs approximately 1600 kilometers.
• The average elevation of the Western Ghats is about 915-1220 meters.

Eastern Ghats:

• The Eastern Ghats are a mountain range in India.
• They are not as tall as the Western Ghats.
• Some of the peaks of the Eastern Ghats are over 1000 meters in height.
• The average elevation of the Eastern Ghats is about 610 meters.
• The Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu lie at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats.

Islands:

• There are two groups of islands in India:

  • Andaman and Nicobar Group:
    • The Andaman and Nicobar Group is a group of islands in the Bay of Bengal.
    • The northern cluster of 204 small islands comprises the Andamans.
    • The southern cluster of 19 small islands are the Nicobar islands.
  • Lakshadweep:
    • Lakshadweep is a group of 27 coral islands in the Arabian Sea.
    • They are located about 300 kilometers west of Kerala.
    • The Lakshadweep group is entirely built by coral. Deserts

• The Thar desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is a large, dry area in the northwestern part of India and Pakistan. It forms a natural border between the two countries.

• The Thar desert is very different from the fertile plains of the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers. Because of this, it is considered a separate geographical region.

• The Thar desert starts at the Sutlej river and ends at the Indus river. The Aravalli mountains are to the southeast of the desert, and the Rann of Kutch, a salt marsh, is to the south.

• Most of the Thar desert is in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It also touches the southern parts of Haryana and Punjab and the northern part of Gujarat. The Cholistan desert in Pakistan is next to the Thar desert.

Soils in India

1. Alluvial Soil:

• Alluvial soil is found in the Indo-Gangetic plain, which covers almost a quarter of India.
• This soil is very fertile and is used to grow a variety of crops. Types of Soil in India

1. Alluvial Soil: This soil is found in the northern plains of India and is formed by the deposition of sediments brought by rivers. It is fertile and suitable for cultivation of a variety of crops.

2. Black Soil: This soil is found in the Deccan Plateau and is formed by the weathering of volcanic rocks. It is rich in minerals and is suitable for cotton cultivation.

3. Red Soil: This soil is found in the southern and eastern parts of India and is formed by the weathering of crystalline rocks. It is less fertile than alluvial soil but is suitable for cultivation of pulses and coarse grains.

4. Laterite Soil: This soil is found in the coastal areas of India and is formed by the weathering of laterite rocks. It is acidic and less fertile, but can be used for cultivation of certain crops such as cashew and coconut.

Other types of soil found in India include:

• Saline and alkaline soils
• Peat and marshy soils
• Arid or desert soils
• Forest soil

River Systems of India

India has a number of major river systems, which play a vital role in the country’s economy and culture. The major river systems are:

• The Ganga River System
• The Indus River System
• The Brahmaputra River System
• The Godavari River System
• The Krishna River System
• The Mahanadi River System
• The Narmada River System
• The Tapi River System The rivers of India are divided into different groups.

1. The Himalayan System: These rivers start in the Himalayas and are fed by snowmelt. During the rainy season, they flood and carry most of the water from the rivers into the sea. The three main Himalayan rivers are the Indus, Sutlej, and Beas.

Table 3.1 shows information about the Himalayan River System.

Name	Source	Length	Enters into
Indus River System	Mount Kailash in Tibet (near Mansarovar Lake)	$2900\mathrm{km}$	Arabian Sea
Sutlej	Mansarovar Rakas Lakes	$1050\mathrm{km}$	Chenab
Beas	Near Rohtang Pass	$470\mathrm{km}$	Sutlej
Ravi	Near Rohtang Pass	$720\mathrm{km}$	Chenab
Chenab	Near Lahol Spiti Districts	$960\mathrm{km}$	Indus
	of H.P.	$725\mathrm{km}$	Chenab

(Continued)

*The holy Ganges is the longest Rivers in India

India has many rivers. The longest river in India is the Brahmaputra, which is 2900 kilometers long. But only one-third of the river flows through India.

The Deccan System is a group of rivers that depend on rainfall. They carry about 30% of the total water that flows in Indian rivers. The Godavari is the largest river in this system. The Kaveri is the southernmost river in India.

The Coastal River System is a group of smaller rivers that flow into the sea. There are more than 600 of these rivers on the west coast, but only a few of them flow into the sea near the delta on the east coast.

The Third River System

The third river system includes the Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, and Pennar rivers. The Godavari is the largest river in this system and it flows for 1450 kilometers before entering the Bay of Bengal. The Krishna is the second longest river in this system and it flows for 1290 kilometers. The Kaveri is the third longest river in this system and it flows for 760 kilometers. The Pennar is the fourth longest river in this system and it flows for 560 kilometers. Rivers of the Deccan Plateau

River	Source	Length (km)	Mouth
Damodar	Chota Nagpur Plateau	592	Bay of Bengal
Narmada	Amarkantak Plateau	1290	Arabian Sea
Tapti	Betul Plateau	724	Arabian Sea
Sharawathy	Western Ghats	124	Arabian Sea
Netravati	Western Ghats	-	-
Bhartapuzha	Western Ghats	250	-
Periyar	Western Ghats	300	-
Pamba	Western Ghats	176	-

Rivers of the Inland Drainage Basin

These are small rivers in sandy areas of Rajasthan called ‘rivers of inland drainage basins’. They do not have an outlet in the sea, except for the Luni River, which drains into the Rann of Kutch. Other prominent rivers in this category include the Machchu, Rupen, Saraswati, Banas, and Ghaggar.

Lakes

The map provided is a sketch only, not drawn to scale. It is presented for reference and to aid understanding of the concept. The Himalayas have many lakes.

• Most lakes are less than 5000 meters above sea level. The higher the altitude, the smaller the lakes.
• The largest lake is Pangong Tso. It is on the border of India and Tibet. It is 4600 meters above sea level, 8 kilometers wide, and 134 kilometers long.
• The highest lake is Gurudogmar in North Sikkim. It is 5370 meters above sea level.

There are different types of lakes in India:

• Tectonic Lakes: These are old lakes from the Pleistocene era in Kashmir and Kumaon Himalayas.
• Crater Lakes: These are formed by volcanoes.
• Glacial Lakes: These are found in big mountains.
• Alluvial Lakes: These are oxbow lakes in the Ganga plains.
• Aeolian Lakes: These are formed by small depressions or hollows.
• Lagoons: These are formed by sandbars along the seacoast.

Some examples of lagoons in India are:

• Chilka Lake in Orissa

• Pulicat Lake in Andhra Pradesh

• Several Kayals on the Malabar coast of Kerala Important Lakes of India

• Lakes of Kashmir: Dal, Wular, Shesh Nag, Verinag, Manasbal, Nagin, etc.

• Lakes of Kumaon: Nainital, Bhimtal, Khurpatal, Sattal, Punatal, etc.

• Lakes of Rajasthan: Udaisagar, Fatehsagar, Jai Samand, Pichol, and Sambhar Salt Lakes.

• Other Important Lakes: Lake Lonar in Maharashtra, Chilka in Orissa, Lake Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh), and Nakkital (Mount Abu).

Indian States and Union Territories

States	Union Territories
Uttar Pradesh	NCT of Delhi
Sikkim	Puducherry
Rajasthan	Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Goa	Lakshadweep
Arunachal Pradesh has the lowest population density, with 17 people per square kilometer. Andaman and Nicobar Islands has 46 people per square kilometer.
Kerala has the highest sex ratio, with 1084 females per 1000 males. Puducherry has 1038 females per 1000 males.
Haryana has the lowest sex ratio, with 877 females per 1000 males. Daman and Diu has 616 females per 1000 males.
Kerala has the highest literacy rate, with 93.91%. Lakshadweep has 92.28%.
Bihar has the lowest literacy rate, with 63.82%. Dadar and Nagar Haveli has 77.65%.

Union Territories

Uttar Pradesh touches the most other states, including Haryana, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Bihar. States:

• Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar, Chhatisgarh, Rajasthan (total of eight states)

Largest District:

• Kachchh (Gujarat) with an area of 45,652 square kilometers

Smallest District:

• Mahe (Puducherry) with an area of 9 square kilometers

Tropic of Cancer:

• Passes through eight states: Mizoram, Tripura, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Gujarat

Indian Standard Meridian:

• Passes through five states: Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh

Note:

• Area measurements are in thousands of square kilometers.
• Figures are based on 2011 census estimates.
• Delhi is a National Capital Territory (NCT).

Disclaimer:

• The map is a rough sketch, not drawn to scale. It is presented for reference and to help understand the concepts discussed. Telangana is carved out of Andhra Pradesh. Climate and Forest Resources

The Indian Meteorological Department recognizes four seasons:

• Winter (December-March)
• Summer (April-May)
• Monsoon (June-September)
• Season of retreating southwest monsoon (October-November)

The climate of India is influenced by two rain-bearing winds:

1. The Southwest Monsoon (June-September): These monsoons bring 86% of the total rainfall in India. They start on the west coast around the beginning of June and continue till September, with rainfall decreasing as they move inland.
2. The Northeast Monsoon (November-December): These are also called winter monsoons and are limited to a smaller area, particularly the east coast. It is Tamil Nadu’s primary monsoon.

Regions of Heavy Rainfall (above 200 cm)

• Assam, Arunachal, Meghalaya, Sikkim, and northern parts of West Bengal

• The Western Ghats

• The Himalayan slopes Regions with low rainfall (less than 50 cm):

• Kutch and western Rajasthan

• Southern Haryana, southeast Punjab, and Ladakh

Forest cover in India:

• Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover (11.25%), followed by Arunachal Pradesh (9.75%), Chhattisgarh (8.09%), Maharashtra (7.33%), and Orissa (7.07%).

• The northeastern states, which make up only 7.76% of India’s land area, have about 25% of the country’s total forest cover.

• In the northeastern states, forests cover about 66.81% of the land, much higher than the national average of 21.02%.

• Since 2005, the northeastern states have gained 598 square kilometers of forest cover.

• For the first time, forest cover has been assessed in different altitude zones.

• Areas between 1000 and 2000 meters above sea level have the most forest cover (72.19%).

• More than half of India’s forest cover is found in areas between 1 and 500 meters above sea level. Forest Cover in India

• For the first time, we have information about the forest cover in different types of forests in India.

• About one-third of India’s forests are tropical moist deciduous, while tropical dry deciduous forests make up 30.16%.

• Tropical wet evergreen forests cover 8.75% of India’s land.

• West Bengal has almost half of the mangrove forests in India.

• India’s mangrove cover has increased by 58 square kilometers.

• The decrease in mangrove cover in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is because of the tsunami.

• Maharashtra has the largest tree cover in India (9466 square kilometers), followed by Gujarat (8390 square kilometers), Rajasthan (8274 square kilometers), and Uttar Pradesh (7381 square kilometers).

• There is a lot of deforestation in the areas where rivers start in the Himalayan region.

• We need to protect our natural vegetation to keep our environment healthy. To protect our forests, we need to take some important steps.

1. We need to stop people from cutting down trees without thinking about the consequences.
2. We need to make sure that animals don’t eat too much grass and plants in the forests.
3. We need to be careful not to start forest fires.
4. We need to stop a type of farming called “Jhuming,” where people burn down forests to clear land for farming.
5. We need to plan how we use our cities and towns so that they don’t take over too much forest land.
6. We need to encourage people to plant trees for commercial purposes and to get involved in taking care of forests.

According to a report from 2011, India has a total forest cover of 6,92,027 square kilometers, which is about 21% of the country’s total land area. Out of this, 83,471 square kilometers are very dense forests, 32,073 square kilometers are moderately dense forests, and the rest are open forests. India’s Forest Cover:

• India’s forest area is about 6,92,027 square kilometers, which is 21.05% of the country’s total land area.
• The tree cover in India is estimated to be 90,844 square kilometers, which is 2.76% of the total land area. Tree cover includes patches of trees smaller than 1 hectare with a canopy density of over 10%.
• The National Forest Policy of 1988 set a goal to increase the forest cover in India to about 33.3%.
• Compared to the previous assessment in 2009, there has been a net decrease of 367 square kilometers of forest cover in the country. However, after considering changes in the assessment methods, there is actually a net increase of 1128 square kilometers of forest cover compared to 2009.
• Arunachal Pradesh has the highest proportion of its geographical area under dense forest cover, with 20,868 square kilometers.
• Haryana has the lowest area under forest cover, with only 1068 square kilometers. Largest Forest Cover:
• Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under forest cover, which is 77,700 square kilometers.

Highest Percentage of Forest Cover:

• Mizoram has the highest percentage of forest cover compared to its total geographical area. It has 90.68% of its land covered by forests.

Forest Cover in Hill Districts:

• India has 124 hill districts, and 39.74% of their total area is covered by forests.
• However, the forest cover in these hill districts has decreased by 548 square kilometers.
• All districts in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, and Uttarakhand are considered hill districts.
• These nine states together have 63.07% of their geographical area covered by forests.

Forest Cover in Tribal Districts:

• India has 188 tribal districts, and 37.25% of their total area is covered by forests.
• Unfortunately, the forest cover in these tribal districts has also decreased by 679 square kilometers.

Changes in Natural Vegetation:

• As one goes higher up the mountains, the temperature drops, and the type of natural vegetation changes accordingly. In the Himalayas, we can find different types of vegetation at different heights. Up to 500 meters above sea level, we find tropical vegetation. From 500 to 1500 meters, we find sub-tropical vegetation. From 2500 to 3500 meters, we find temperate vegetation. Above 3500 meters, we find cold desert vegetation.

In southern India, the change in vegetation type happens at higher altitudes because it is closer to the equator and has a tropical climate.

Types of Forests in India

Evergreen Forests (Tropical): These forests are found in areas where the rainfall is between 200 and 300 centimeters per year. They are found in the Western Ghats and the sub-Himalayan regions. These forests have coniferous trees, which have needle-shaped leaves. They provide valuable timber such as teak, rosewood, mahogany, pine, and bamboo.

Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests): These forests are found in areas where the rainfall is between 150 and 200 centimeters per year. They are found in parts of the Deccan Plateau, stretching across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. These forests provide fine timber such as teak, sal, and sandalwood.

Dry Forests: These forests are found in the desert regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat. They have thorny trees and shrubs that are adapted to the dry climate. Types of Forests in India

1. Tropical Deciduous Forests:

• Found in areas with rainfall between 75-100 cm per year.
• Trees include Babul, Neem, and Tamarind.

2. Semi-Desert and Desert Vegetation:

• Found in regions with rainfall below 50 cm per year, like central and western Rajasthan.
• Plants include scrubs, thorny bushes, and cactus.

3. Hill Forests:

• Found in southern India and the Himalayan regions.
• Provide timber.
• Major trees include Oak, Deodar, Pines, and Chir.

4. Tidal Forests (Mangrove):

• Found in coastal plains that are often submerged, especially on river deltas on the east coast (Ganges, Mahanadi, Godavari).
• The forests on the Gangetic delta in Bengal are called Sunderbans, named after the Sundari trees found there.
• Mangrove cover in India is 4639 km² (0.14% of India’s geographic area) and is spread across 12 states and union territories.

Forests as Carbon Sinks:

• Over the past two decades, forests have played a crucial role in absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, helping to mitigate climate change. India’s Forest Conservation Efforts

India’s national forestry laws and policies focus on protecting and sustainably managing forests. These efforts have helped to reverse deforestation and turn India’s forests into a significant absorber of carbon dioxide (CO2).

Carbon Dioxide Removal

The CO2 absorbed by India’s forests and trees is enough to offset 11.25% of the country’s total greenhouse gas emissions. This is equivalent to eliminating all CO2 emissions from residential and transportation energy use or 40% of emissions from agriculture.

A Major Carbon Sink

India’s forests and trees play a vital role in mitigating carbon emissions, both for India and the world.

Coral Reef Areas in India

India has an estimated 2375 square kilometers of coral reefs. Coral Reefs for Conservation

Four important coral reef areas have been chosen for special care and management:

1. Gulf of Mannar
2. Gulf of Kachchh
3. Lakshadweep
4. Andaman and Nicobar

Agriculture

• In India, about 65-70% of people work in farming. Over 50% of the country’s land is used for growing crops.

Crop Seasons

• India has two main crop seasons:

1. Kharif
2. Rabi

Kharif Season

• Crops are planted in June or July and harvested in September or October.
• Examples of Kharif crops include rice, jowar, bajra, ragi, maize, cotton, and jute.

Rabi Season

• Crops are planted in October or December and harvested in April or May.
• Examples of Rabi crops include wheat, barley, peas, rapeseed, mustard, and grams.

Main Crops and Producers

• Wheat is mainly grown in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana.
• Rice is mainly grown in West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
• Gram is mainly grown in Madhya Pradesh. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

Crop	Producing States
Barley	Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan
Bajra	Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan
Maize	Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar
Total coarse cereals	Karnataka, Maharashtra, Rajasthan
Total pulses	Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra
Sugarcane	Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu
Poppy	Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh
Potato	Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar
Onion	Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka
Coconut	Kerala, Tamil Nadu
Linseed	Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
Groundnut	Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
Rapeseed and Mustard	Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
Sesame	Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan
Sunflower	Maharashtra, Karnataka
Soyabean	Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan
Total oilseeds	Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat
Cotton	Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab
Jute	West Bengal, Bihar Orissa, Assam

Type	Name	Major Producers
Plants	Silk	Karnataka, Kerala
	Hemp	Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
	Coffee	Karnataka, Kerala
	Rubber	Kerala, Karnataka
	Tea	Assam, Kerala
Spices	Tobacco	Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh
	Pepper	Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
	Cashew nuts	Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
	Ginger	Kerala, Uttar Pradesh
	Turmeric	Andhra Pradesh, Orissa
	Chillies	Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh
	Cloves	Kerala
	Saffron	Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Jammu and Kashmir

Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation.

Note: Telangana is carved out of Andhra Pradesh as the 29th States. The information above has Andhra Pradesh that includes Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.

Green Revolution

• The green revolution was started in 1967-68 to make farming better in two steps: First Green Revolution:

• The first Green Revolution mainly focused on the states of Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, which were already known for their wheat production.

Second Green Revolution:

• In 1983-84, the Green Revolution was expanded to include eastern and central states like West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.

Results of the Green Revolution:

• As a result of the Green Revolution, wheat production more than doubled, and rice production increased by 53%.

Dairy Farming:

• Operation Flood I (1970-81):

  • This program was launched in collaboration with the World Bank.
  • The goal was to gain control of the liquid milk market in big cities.

• Operation Flood II (1981-85):

  • This program was launched in 1981 and expanded to almost all states.

• Operation Flood III (1985-90):

  • This program was launched in 1985 under the Seventh Five Year Plan.

• Implementation:

  • These programs were carried out by the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) and the Indian Dairy Corporation (IDC).

Results of the Dairy Farming Programs: India’s Milk Production and Surplus

India has become the world’s largest producer of milk. As a result, the availability of dairy milk per person has increased from 107 grams to 232 grams. However, this increase has also led to a problem of surplus milk.

Irrigation Methods in India

1. Wells: Wells are the most common method of irrigation in India, accounting for nearly half of the total irrigated area. They are mainly used in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra.
2. Tanks: Tanks are used for irrigation in central and southern India, especially in Andhra Pradesh. They account for about 10% of the total irrigated area.
3. Canals: Canals are the primary source of irrigation in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Haryana. They provide water for about 40% of the total irrigated area.

Mineral Resources of India

India has a wealth of mineral resources, including iron, mica, manganese, and bauxite. The country is also self-sufficient in antimony, building materials, cement materials, clay, chromite, lime, dolomite, and gold. However, India is deficient in copper, lead, mercury, zinc, tin, nickel, petroleum products, sulfur, and tungsten.

Table 3.6: Important Minerals

| Mineral | Formula | Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

Mineral	States where found	India’s status in the world
Iron	Orissa, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Goa	India has the largest reserves of iron in the world, making up about one-fourth of the world’s known reserves.
Coal	Bihar, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Assam	India is the third-largest producer of coal in the world.
Manganese	Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh	India ranks third in the world in manganese production.
Mica	Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu	India has the largest deposits of mica in the world.
Bauxite (aluminium ore)	Jharkhand, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Jammu and Kashmir, Orissa, Rajasthan	India is the third-largest producer of bauxite in the world.
Copper	Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka	India is the fourth-largest producer of copper in the world.

Taka: Found in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat.

Crude oil: Found in Assam, Tripura, Manipur, West Bengal, Ganges Valley, Himachal Pradesh, Kutch, Andhra Pradesh, off West Bengal, Orissa, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.

Lignite: Found in Tamil Nadu, with some deposits also found in Gujarat, Puducherry, Rajasthan, and Jammu and Kashmir. India ranks third in the production of lignite.

Gold: Found in Karnataka, with small quantities found in Andhra Pradesh.

Magnesite: Found in Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, and Karnataka.

Gypsum: Found in Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, and Tamil Nadu.

Lead-zinc: Found in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Sikkim, and Rajasthan.

Chromite: Found in Orissa, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Manipur.

Dolomite: Found in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and Arunachal Pradesh.

Diamond: Found in Madhya Pradesh, with traces found in Andhra Pradesh. National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in India

• National Parks: There are about 94 national parks in India. They cover an area of about 33,988 square kilometers, which is about 1% of India’s total land area.
• Wildlife Sanctuaries: There are about 501 wildlife sanctuaries in India. They cover an area of about 1,07,310 square kilometers, which is about 3% of India’s total land area.

Table 3.7: Important Sanctuaries and Parks

Name	Location	Reserve for	Area
Achanakmar Sanctuary	Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh	Tiger, bear, chital, sambar, bison, hyena, jackal, wild boar, black buck	557.35 square kilometers
Bandipur Sanctuary	Border of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu	Elephant, tigers, panther, sambar, deer, birds	Corbett National Park

• Location: Nainital, Uttaranchal
• Area: 1318.54 square kilometers
• Wildlife: Tigers, leopards, elephants, sambar

Dachigam Sanctuary

• Location: Srinagar/Pulwama, Kashmir
• Area: 141 square kilometers
• Wildlife: Kashmiri stag or Hangul, Himalayan bear, musk deer, exotic Himalayan birds

Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary

• Location: Mandsaur and Neemuch, Madhya Pradesh
• Area: 368.62 square kilometers
• Wildlife: Chital, sambar, chinkara, barking deer, wild birds

Ghana Bird Sanctuary

• Location: Bharatpur, Rajasthan
• Area: 29 square kilometers
• Wildlife: Water birds, black-buck, chital, sambar

Gir Forest

• Location: Junagarh, Gujarat
• Area: 1412.13 square kilometers
• Wildlife: India’s biggest wildlife sanctuary famous for Gir lions

Kaziranga National Park

• Location: Jorhat, Assam
• Area: 430 square kilometers
• Wildlife: Rhinoceros, wild buffalo, swan, deer, hog, elephant, leopard, langoor, python

Pakhal Sanctuary

• Location: Warangal, Andhra Pradesh
• Area: 874.20 square kilometers
• Wildlife: Tiger, panther, sambar, nilgai, chital, spotted deer | Sanctuary | Location | Animals | Area | |—|—|—|—| | Periyar Sanctuary | Idukki, Kerala | Elephants, tigers, panthers, gaurs, nilgais, sambars, Nilgiri tahrs | 7777 km² | | Ranthambore Tiger Project | Sawai Madhopur, Rajasthan | Tigers, leopards, sloth bears, crocodiles | 400 km² | | Sariska Sanctuary | Alwar, Rajasthan | Tigers, panthers, sambars, nilgais, chitals, chinkaras | 765 km² | | Sharawathy Sanctuary | Shimoga, Karnataka | Elephants, tigers, panthers, sambars, gaurs, chitals | 44 km² | | Shikari Devi Sanctuary | Mandi, Himachal Pradesh | Black bears, musk deer, leopards, partridges | 72 km² | | Sunderban Tiger Reserve | South 24 Parganas | Tigers, deer, wild boars, leopards | 4264 km² | | Sonai-Rupai Sanctuary | Sonitpur, Assam | Elephants, sambars, wild boars, one-horned rhinoceroses | 1 km² | Important Towns and Locations

Table 3.8: Indian Cities on River Banks

City	River	State
Agra	Yamuna	Uttar Pradesh
Ahmedabad	Sabarmati	Gujarat
Allahabad	Confluence of the Ganges, Yamuna, and Saraswati	Uttar Pradesh
Alwaye	Periyar	Kerala
Ayodhya	Sarayu	Uttar Pradesh
Badrinath	Gangotri	Uttarakhand
Bhagalpur	Ganges	Bihar
Buxa	Teesta	West Bengal
Chennai	Cooum	Tamil Nadu
Cuttack	Mahanadi	Odisha
Delhi	Yamuna	Delhi
Guwahati	Brahmaputra	Assam
Haridwar	Ganges	Uttarakhand
Jabalpur	Narmada	Madhya Pradesh
Jaipur	Banas	Rajasthan
Kanpur	Ganges	Uttar Pradesh
Kolkata	Hooghly	West Bengal
Lucknow	Gomti	Uttar Pradesh
Mumbai	Mithi	Maharashtra
Mysore	Kaveri	Karnataka
Nagpur	Nag	Maharashtra
Patna	Ganges	Bihar
Pune	Mutha	Maharashtra
Raipur	Mahanadi	Chhattisgarh
Rishikesh	Ganges	Uttarakhand
Surat	Tapi	Gujarat
Varanasi	Ganges	Uttar Pradesh
Vijayawada	Krishna	Andhra Pradesh
Visakhapatnam	Gosthani	Andhra Pradesh

City	River	State
Ganges	Bihar
Kolkata	Hooghly	West Bengal
Cuttack	Mahanadi	Orissa
Delhi	Yamuna	Delhi
Dibrugarh	Brahmaputra	Assam
Guwahati	Brahmaputra	Assam
Haridwar	Ganges	Uttarakhand
Howrah	Hooghly	West Bengal
Hyderabad	Musa	Andhra Pradesh
Jamshedpur	Subarnarekha	Jharkhand
Kanpur	Ganges	Uttar Pradesh
Kota	Chambal	Rajasthan
Leh	Indus	Jammu and Kashmir
Lucknow	Gomti	Uttar Pradesh
Ludhiana	Sutlej	Punjab
Mathura	Yamuna	Uttar Pradesh
Moradabad	Ram Ganga	Uttar Pradesh
Monghyr	Ganges	Uttar Pradesh
Nashik	Godavari	Maharashtra
Patna	Ganges/Sone	Bihar
Srinagar	Jhelum	Jammu and Kashmir
Surat	Tapti	Gujarat
Tiruchirappalli	Cauvery	Tamil Nadu
Ujjain	Shipra	Madhya Pradesh
Vijayawada	Krishna	Andhra Pradesh
Varanasi	Ganges	Uttar Pradesh

Note: Telangana is carved out of Andhra Pradesh as a separate state. The 29th state of India is Andhra Pradesh. The information above includes Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.

Here is a table of important sites and monuments in India:

Name	Location	Famous for
Ajanta Caves	Aurangabad	Buddhist cave temples
Amarnath’s cave	Kashmir	Naturally formed ice Shivlinga
Anand Bhawan	Allahabad	The Nehru family’s ancestral home, which was donated by Late Mrs Indira Gandhi to become a National Museum.
Bibi-ka-Makbara	Aurangabad	The Bibi-ka-Maqbara is a mausoleum of Rabia-ul-Daurani alias Dilras Banu Begum, the wife of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. It was built by Prince Azam Shah in memory of his mother between 1651-61 AD.
Buland Darwaza	Fatehpur Sikri	The highest and biggest gateway of India near Agra, built by Akbar to celebrate his victory in Deccan
Char Minar	Hyderabad	A famous mosque and monument in Hyderabad

• Monuments and Mosques: Famous for its stunning architecture and historical significance.

Dilwara Temples

• Mount Abu: Jain temples known for their intricate carvings and beautiful architecture.

Elephanta Caves

• Mumbai: Located on an island, these caves are famous for their sculptures and rock-cut architecture.

Ellora Caves

• Aurangabad: A UNESCO World Heritage Site, these caves feature Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain temples.

Gandhi Sadan

• Delhi: Also known as Birla House, this is the place where Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated in 1948.

Gateway of India

• Mumbai: A famous monument built in 1911 to commemorate the visit of King George V to India.

Gol Gumbaz

• Bijapur: Known for having the largest dome in India.

Gomteshwara

• Mysore: A 2000-year-old statue of a Jain sage carved from a single stone.

Golden Temple

• Amritsar: The largest Gurudwara (Sikh temple) in the world.

Hawa Mahal

• Jaipur: A beautiful pink castle known for its unique architecture.

Jallianwala Bagh

• Amritsar: A public garden known for the tragic Jallianwala Bagh massacre during the British rule. Jantar Mantar:
• An observatory built in Delhi in 1724 by Maharaja Jai Singh II of Ajmer.

Jama Masjid:

• The largest mosque in Delhi, built by Shah Jahan.

Kanya Kumari:

• A temple dedicated to the Virgin Goddess, located at Cape Camorin in Tamil Nadu.

Kranti Maidan:

• A historical avenue in Mumbai where Mahatma Gandhi gave the call for “Quit India” in 1942.

Khajuraho:

• A group of temples near Bhopal, known for their intricate carvings and sculptures.

Meenakshi Temple:

• A Hindu temple located in Madurai, Tamil Nadu.

Qutab Minar:

• The tallest minaret in Delhi, built by Qutub-ud-din Aibak.

Rajghat:

• The memorial of Mahatma Gandhi on the banks of the Yamuna River in Delhi.

Red Fort:

• A red sandstone fort built by Shah Jahan on the banks of the Yamuna River in Delhi.

Sabarmati:

• A place in Ahmedabad where Mahatma Gandhi founded the Harijan Ashram.

Sarnath:

• A place near Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, known for its Buddhist stupas and monasteries. Pilgrimage: A place where Gautam Buddha gave his first speech after becoming enlightened.

Shaktisthal: A place in Delhi where Mrs. Indira Gandhi was cremated. It is located on the banks of the Yamuna River.

Shantivan: A place in Delhi where Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru’s tomb is located.

Shantiniketan: A famous university in Kolkata founded by Rabindranath Tagore.

Sanchi: A place in Madhya Pradesh known for its ancient Buddhist monuments.

Tower of Victory: A famous tower in Chittorgarh built by Rana Sangha, the King of Mewar, in 1450 AD to celebrate his victory over the Muslim forces of Malwa.

Victoria Memorial: A famous museum in Kolkata.

Vijay Ghat: A place in Delhi where Lal Bahadur Shastri’s tomb is located.

Vir Bhumi: A place in Delhi where Rajiv Gandhi’s tomb is located.

Indian Tribes and Their Habitat:

Name of Tribe	Found in
Abors	Assam, Arunachal Pradesh
Angami	Nagaland, Assam
Ao	Nagaland, Assam
Apatamis	Arunachal Pradesh
Badagas	Tamil Nadu (Nilgiri Hill)
Baiga	Madhya Pradesh

• The Radesh people live in the state of Chhattisgarh.

Bhils:

• The Bhils live in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra.

Bhotias:

• The Bhotias live in the Garhwal and Kumaun regions of Uttarakhand.

Birhor:

• The Birhor people live in the Hazaribagh district of Jharkhand.

Chenchus:

• The Chenchus live in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.

Gaddis:

• The Gaddis live in the states of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.

Gallong:

• The Gallong people live in the North-east Himalayan tract.

Garos:

• The Garos live in the state of Meghalaya.

Gonds:

• The Gonds live in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh.

Khas:

• The Khas people live in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Bengal, Sikkim, and Bhutan.

Khasis:

• The Khasis live in the states of Assam and Meghalaya.

Khonds:

• The Khonds live in the states of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.

Kol:

• The Kol people live in the states of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.

Kolam:

• The Kolam people live in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.

Kotas:

• The Kotas live in the Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu.

Kuki:

• The Kuki people live in the state of Manipur.

Lahora:

• The Lahora people live in the states of Nagaland and Assam.

Lepchas:

• The Lepchas live in the state of Sikkim.

Lushais:

• The Lushais live in the state of Tripura.

Mina:

• The Mina people live in the state of Rajasthan.

Mikirs:

• The Mikirs live in the state of Assam.

Monpa:

• The Monpa people live in the state of Arunachal Pradesh.

Mundas:

• The Mundas live in the state of Jharkhand.

Murias:

• The Murias live in the state of Madhya Pradesh.

Oaraons of Kurukh:

• The Oaraons of Kurukh live in the states of Jharkhand and Orissa.

Onges:

• The Onges live in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Santhals:

• The Santhals live in the states of West Bengal, Jharkhand, and Orissa. Tribes of India

• Ssa: Found in Bihar.

• Sema: Found in Nagaland and Assam.

• Sentinelese: Found in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• Shomens: Found in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• Tangkhul: Found in Nagaland and Assam.

• Todas: Found in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu.

• Uralis: Found in Kerala.

• Warlis: Found in Maharashtra.

Hill Stations in India

• Almora: Located in the Kumaon Hills of Uttarakhand, at an elevation of 5500 feet.

• Cherrapunji: Located 30 miles south of Shillong in Meghalaya, at an elevation of 4455 feet.

• Coonoor: Located in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu, at an elevation of 6740 feet.

• Dalhousie: Located in Himachal Pradesh, at an elevation of 7867 feet.

• Darjeeling: Located in West Bengal, at an elevation of 7168 feet.

• Gulmarg: Located in Jammu and Kashmir, at an elevation of 8850 feet.

• Kalimpong: Located near Darjeeling in West Bengal, at an elevation of 4000 feet.

• Kasauli: Located near Shimla in Himachal Pradesh, at an elevation of 7200 feet.

• Kodaikanal: Located in Tamil Nadu, at an elevation of 7200 feet.

• Kullu Valley: Located in Himachal Pradesh, at an elevation of 3999 feet.

• Lansdowne: Located in Garhwal, Uttarakhand, at an elevation of 5597 feet.

• Mahabaleshwar: Located in Maharashtra, at an elevation of 4500 feet.

• Mt Abu: Located in Rajasthan, at an elevation of 3900 feet. Hill Stations in India:

• Rajasthan:

  • Mount Abu: 4,500 feet above sea level

• Uttarakhand:

  • Mukteshwar: 7,500 feet above sea level
  • Mussoorie: 7,500 feet above sea level
  • Nainital: 6,365 feet above sea level

• Himachal Pradesh:

  • Shimla: 7,000 feet above sea level

• Tamil Nadu:

  • Ootacamund (Ooty): 7,500 feet above sea level

Census 2011:

• Population:

  • Total: 121 crore
  • Males: 62.37 crore
  • Females: 58.65 crore

• Population Growth:

  • Total increase: 18.15 crore
  • Growth rate: 17.64%

• Population Density:

  • Rural: 83.30 crore
  • Urban: 37.71 crore
  • Overall: 382 persons per square kilometer

• Sex Ratio:

  • Rural: 947 females per 1,000 males
  • Urban: 926 females per 1,000 males

• Literacy Rate:

  • Males: 82.14%
  • Females: 65.46% Population Density:

• North East Delhi has the highest population density, with 37,346 people per square kilometer.

• Dibang Valley has the lowest population density, with only 1 person per square kilometer.

Sex Ratio:

• The sex ratio in India is 940 females for every 1000 males.
• Mahe district in Puducherry has the highest sex ratio, with 1176 females per 1000 males.
• Daman district has the lowest sex ratio, with 533 females per 1000 males.

Literacy Rate:

• The literacy rate in India has increased from 64.83% in 2001 to 74.04% in 2011.
• Serchhip district in Mizoram has the highest literacy rate, with 98.76%.
• Alirajpur district in Madhya Pradesh has the lowest literacy rate, with 37.22%.

Population Growth Rate:

• Kurung Kumey district in Arunachal Pradesh registered the highest population growth rate of 111.01%.
• Longleng district in Nagaland registered a negative population growth rate of -58.39%.

Most and Least Populated Districts:

• Thane district in Maharashtra is the most populated district, with a population of 1,10,54,131.

• Dibang Valley in Arunachal Pradesh is the least populated district. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

• Lakshadweep is the Union Territory with the smallest population.

• Sikkim is the state in India with the smallest population (6,07,688).

• Daman and Diu had the highest percentage growth of 55.50%.

• Meghalaya had the lowest percentage growth of -0.47%.

• Delhi NCR has the highest population density of 11,297 people per square kilometer.

• Arunachal Pradesh has the lowest population density of 17 people per square kilometer.

• Kerala has the highest sex ratio, with 1084 females for every 1000 males.

• Daman and Diu has the lowest sex ratio (618) among the union territories.

• Haryana has the lowest sex ratio (877) among the states.

• Kerala has the highest literacy rate of 93.91%.

• Bihar has the lowest literacy rate among states (63.82%), but it had the highest growth in literacy rate during the decade of 2001-11.

Table 3.11: Basic Data

State/Union Territory	Capital	Area (in thousand square kilometers)	Population	Percentage to Total Population of India	Rank
Lakshadweep	Kavaratti	0.03	64,473	0.05%	35
Sikkim	Gangtok	0.71	6,07,688	0.48%	28
Daman and Diu	Daman	0.11	2,43,247	0.19%	34
Meghalaya	Shillong	22.43	29,66,889	2.35%	23
Delhi NCR	Delhi	0.15	1,67,53,235	13.35%	1
Arunachal Pradesh	Itanagar	83.74	13,83,727	1.10%	24
Kerala	Thiruvananthapuram	38.86	3,34,06,061	2.66%	13
Daman and Diu	Daman	0.11	2,43,247	0.19%	34
Haryana	Chandigarh	44.21	2,53,51,462	2.01%	17
Kerala	Thiruvananthapuram	38.86	3,34,06,061	2.66%	13
Bihar	Patna	94.16	10,40,99,452	8.23%	3

State	Capital	Area (in 1000 sq km)	Population	Percentage of India’s Population	Rank
India	New Delhi	3287.3	1,21,01,93,422	100.00	-
National Capital Territory	New Delhi	1.5	1,67,53,235	1.38	18
1. Andhra Pradesh	Hyderabad	275.608	8,46,65,533	7.00	5
2. Arunachal Pradesh	Itanagar	83.743	13,82,611	0.11	27
3. Assam	Dispur	78.4	3,11,69,272	2.58	14
4. Bihar	Patna	94.1	10,38,04,637	8.58	3
5. Chhattisgarh	Raipur	136.0	2,55,40,196	2.11	16
6. Goa	Panaji	3.7	14,57,723	0.12	26
7. Gujarat	Gandhinagar	196.0	6,03,83,628	4.99	10
8. Haryana	Chandigarh	44.3	2,53,53,081	2.09	17
9. Himachal Pradesh	Shimla	55.7	68,56,509	0.57	21
10. Jammu and Kashmir	Srinagar	222.2	1,25,48,926	1.04	15

State | Capital | Area (in sq. km) | GDP (in $)|GDPpercapita(in$) | Rank

1. Jammu and Kashmir | Srinagar | 222.2 | $1,25,48,926 | 1,041 | 19

2. Jharkhand | Ranchi | 74.7 | $3,29,66,238 | 2,724 | 13

3. Karnataka | Bangalore | 191.8 | $6,11,30,704 | 5,052 | 9

4. Kerala | Thiruvananthapuram | 38.9 | $3,33,87,677 | 2,763 | 12

5. Madhya Pradesh | Bhopal | 308.0 | $7,25,97,565 | 6,003 | 6

6. Maharashtra | Mumbai | 307.7 | $11,23,72,972 | 9,294 | 2

7. Manipur | Imphal | 22.3 | $27,21,756 | 221 | 24

8. Meghalaya | Shillong | 22.4 | $29,64,007 | 242 | 23

9. Mizoram | Aizawl | 21.1 | $10,91,014 | 90 | 29

10. Nagaland | Kohima | 16.6 | $19,80,602 | 160 | 25

11. Orissa | Bhubaneswar | 155.7 | $4,19,47,358 | 3,470 | 11

12. Punjab | Chandigarh | 50.4 | $2,77,04,236 | 2,291 | 15

13. Rajasthan | Jaipur | 342.2 | $6,86,21,012 | 5,674 | 8

14. Sikkim | Gangtok | 7.1 | $6,07,688 | 51 | 31

15. Tamil Nadu | Chennai | 130.1 | $7,21,38,958 | 5,964 | 7

16. Tripura | Agartala | 10.5 | $36,71,038 | 367 | 28

Note: The GDP per capita is calculated by dividing the state’s GDP by its population. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

State/Union Territory	Capital	Area (in thousand sq km)	GDP (in $)	GDP per capita (in $)	Rank
26. Uttar Pradesh	Lucknow	243.3	$19,95,81,477	16.49	1
27. Uttarakhand	Dehradun	53.6	$1,01,16,752	0.84	20
28. West Bengal	Kolkata	88.8	$9,13,47,736	7.55	4
1. Andaman and Nicobar	Port Blair	8.2	$3,79,944	0.03	32
2. Chandigarh	Chandigarh	0.1	$10,54,686	0.09	30
3. Dadra and Nagar Haveli	Silvassa	0.5	$3,42,853	0.03	33
4. Daman and Diu	Daman	0.1	$2,42,911	0.02	34
5. Lakshadweep	Kavaratti	0.03	64,429	0.01	35
6. Puducherry	Puducherry	0.5	$12,44,464	0.10	28

*Srinagar (summer capital); Jammu (winter capital).

**As per 2011 provisional figures.

***Seventh UT of India.

Note: Telangana is carved out of Andhra Pradesh as the 29th States. The information above has Andhra Pradesh that includes Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.

Chapter

Indian Economy

Character and Size of the Indian Economy

Character of the Indian Economy Indian Economy

• India follows a mixed economy policy.
• In a mixed economy, both government-owned (public sector) and privately-owned (private sector) businesses exist.
• The goal of a mixed economy is to create a socialist society in a welfare state.
• In a mixed economy, the public sector works to achieve social and economic goals and priorities, guided by an economic plan.
• A mixed economy is always planned, and India is a good example of a mixed economy.
• The public and private sectors are seen as working together.

Size of the Indian Economy

• In 2012-2013, India’s GDP (Gross Domestic Product) at factor cost was $55,03,476 crore (at 2004-2005 prices).
• This was a 5% growth from the previous year (according to revised estimates for 2011-2012).

Agriculture in the Indian Economy

• Agriculture is very important to the Indian economy.

• In 2011-2012, the agricultural sector contributed 14.1% of India’s GDP (at 2004-2005 prices).

• About 10% of the Indian population works in agriculture. Agriculture in India

• About 43% of India’s land is used for farming.

• More than 70% of people in rural areas rely on farming for their main source of income.

• Most farming in India depends on the monsoon season because there aren’t enough irrigation systems.

• Agriculture, along with fishing and forestry, makes up one-third of India’s economy and is the biggest contributor.

• The average size of a farm in India is small and often divided into smaller pieces.

• India sells about 20% of all the things it makes from farming to other countries.

• India is the second-largest producer of farm goods in the world.

• India is the world’s largest producer of milk, cashew nuts, coconuts, tea, ginger, turmeric, and black pepper.

• India has the most cattle in the world, with about 285 million.

• India is the second-largest producer of wheat, rice, sugar, peanuts, and fish from islands. Agriculture in India

• India is the third largest producer of tobacco in the world.

• India is the largest producer of bananas and seprta in the world.

• India produces 10% of all the fruits in the world.

• The government wants the agriculture sector to grow by 4% per year, which is the same goal as the previous five-year plan.

National Income Concepts

• National income is the total value of all goods and services produced in a country during a certain period of time.
• It is different from national wealth, which is the total value of all assets owned by a country’s citizens.
• National income measures how productive an economy is at turning resources into goods and services.
• There are different ways to measure national income, including:

1. Gross National Product (GNP): This is the total value of all goods and services produced by a country’s citizens, regardless of where they are produced.
2. Gross Domestic Product (GDP): This is the total value of all goods and services produced within a country’s borders, regardless of who owns the businesses that produce them. Gross Domestic Product (GDP):

• GDP is the total value of all goods and services produced within a country’s borders by its citizens over a specific time.

Net National Product (NNP):

• NNP is the value of GDP minus the depreciation of assets.

Personal Income:

• Personal income is the income received by individuals in a country.

Disposable Personal Income:

• Disposable personal income is the amount of money individuals have left after paying taxes.

Planning in India:

• Planning in India is based on the country’s objectives and resources. Key points about planning in India:

• Plans are made for all aspects of the economy and society.

• The plans are based on economic data, but sometimes the data is not accurate.

• India has completed 11 Five-Year Plans since 1951.

• The main goals of the Five-Year Plans are:

• Economic growth

• Becoming self-sufficient

• Reducing unemployment

• Reducing income inequality

• Ending poverty and modernizing the country

• Each Five-Year Plan considers the challenges and opportunities of the time and makes necessary adjustments.

• The Planning Commission is a group of experts that helps the government make plans.

• The National Development Council is a group of government officials and experts that helps the government make plans.

• In 1934, M. Visvesvaryya wrote a book called “Planned Economy of India” in which he argued that India needed to have a plan for its economy. History of Planning in India:

• In 1944, a department called the Planning and Development Department was created, led by A. Dalal.

• In 1946, the interim government established the Planning Advisory Board.

• In 1947, the Economic Programme Committee was formed, headed by Jawaharlal Nehru.

Purpose of Five Year Plans:

• India is a diverse and democratic country.
• Making decisions requires agreement and consultation between the central government, state governments, and various organizations.
• Over the past 60 years, planning in India has had three main goals:
  1. To create a shared framework of objectives and strategies for making consistent decisions.
  2. To understand the reasons behind these decisions.
  3. To outline a strategy for faster economic growth and improved well-being for all citizens.

Planning Commission (PC):

• The Planning Commission (PC) was established in 1950 to oversee and guide the planning process in India.

• It is responsible for formulating Five Year Plans, which set out the government’s economic and social policies and priorities for the next five years.

• The PC also monitors the implementation of these plans and makes adjustments as needed. Planning Commission

• In March 1950, the Indian government created a special group called the Planning Commission. The Prime Minister of India is the leader of this group.

• The first person to lead the Planning Commission was Pt Jawaharlal Nehru.

• The Planning Commission’s job was to figure out how much money and resources India had, and then make a plan for how to use them in the best way possible. They also decided which things were most important to focus on.

• The Planning Commission is not part of the official government structure, and it doesn’t have any legal power.

National Planning Council (NPC)

• The NPC is a group of experts who give advice to the Planning Commission. It was started in 1965.
• The NPC includes people who know a lot about different parts of the Indian economy.

National Development Council (NDC)

• The NDC is a group that includes the chief ministers of all the states in India, as well as some other important people.
• The NDC’s job is to give advice to the Planning Commission and the government on how to develop India’s economy. The Planning Commission’s members make up the National Development Council. The Prime Minister of India is in charge of the Council. The NDC was first established in 1952 as an addition to the PC to involve the states in the creation of the plans.

FIVE-YEAR PLANS

The Planning Commission creates development plans to establish India’s economy on a socialistic pattern in successive five-year periods known as the Five-Year Plans. The organization was established to develop fundamental economic policies, create plans, and monitor their progress and implementation. It is made up of:

• Planning Commission of India
• National Planning Council
• National Development Council
• State Planning Commissions

Table 4.1: Five-Year Plans at a Glance

Period	Plan	Remarks
1951-52 to 1955-56	First Plan	Priority given to agriculture and irrigation
1956-57 to 1960-61	Second Plan	Development of basic and heavy industries

Third Plan (1961-62 to 1965-66)

• Focused on the long-term development of India’s economy.

Annual Plan (1966-67 to 1968-69)

• A break in the Five Year Plan due to the Chinese and Pakistani wars.

Fourth Plan (1969-70 to 1973-74)

• Introduced a ‘scientific temper’ to Indian agriculture.

Fifth Plan (1974-75 to 1977-78)

• Terminated early by the Janata Government, which introduced the ‘Rolling Plan’ concept.

Annual Plan (1978-79 to 1979-80)

• Launched by the Janata Government.

Sixth Plan (1980-81 to 1984-85)

• Originally launched by the Janata Government, but abandoned by the new Government. A revised plan for 1981-85 was approved.

Seventh Plan (1985-86 to 1989-90)

• Focused on food, work, and productivity.

Annual Plan (1990-91 to 1991-92)

• Emphasized maximizing employment and social transformation.

Eighth Plan (1992-93 to 1996-97)

• Aimed for faster economic growth and faster growth of employment opportunities. Ninth Plan (1997-98 to 2001-02):

• Focused on agriculture and rural development.
• Aimed to increase the economy’s growth rate.
• Ensured food and nutritional security for all.
• Controlled the population growth rate.
• Empowered women and socially disadvantaged groups.
• Promoted participatory institutions like ‘Panchayati Raj’ institutions, cooperatives, and self-help groups.

Tenth Plan (2002-2007):

• Reduced unnecessary spending.
• Improved the farm sector, financial sector, and judicial system.
• Eliminated harassment, corruption, and red tapism.
• Controlled drought, floods, and population growth. Growth: The economy grew at a faster pace.

FDI and FPIs: More foreign companies invested in India.

Labor and Economic Growth: More people had jobs and the economy grew.

2007-2012 (Eleventh Plan):

• Agriculture, education, and healthcare improved.
• More people had access to safe drinking water and scholarships.
• Development services and the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme reached more people.
• There was a focus on HIV/AIDS, polio, urban development, and care for women and children.
• Communicable diseases were treated.

2012-2016 (Twelfth Plan):

• The goal was faster, more inclusive, and sustainable growth.
• Challenges included energy, water, and the environment.
• The government wanted to create a world-class infrastructure.
• Agriculture needed to perform better for growth to be more inclusive.
• More jobs needed to be created, especially in manufacturing.
• Health and education needed to be improved. Education and skill development are given importance.

We need to make sure that our education system is helping people learn the skills they need to get good jobs.

We need to improve the effectiveness of programs that help the poor.

We need to make sure that the programs we have in place to help people who are struggling are actually working.

We need to create special programs for socially vulnerable groups.

We need to make sure that we are providing support for people who are at a higher risk of poverty, such as women, children, and the elderly.

We need to create special plans for disadvantaged/backward regions.

We need to make sure that we are providing support for areas that are struggling economically. - The number of people living in poverty in India has decreased.

• In some states, like Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, poverty has decreased by a lot.

• In other states, like Assam and Meghalaya, poverty has increased.

• Some large states, like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, have only seen a small decrease in poverty.

• The poorest people in India are from the scheduled tribes and scheduled castes.

• In rural areas, almost two-thirds of scheduled tribes and scheduled castes are poor. - In some states like Manipur, Orissa, and Uttar Pradesh, more than half of the people belonging to certain religious groups are poor.

• Among religious groups, Sikhs have the lowest poverty rate in rural areas (11.9%), while Christians have the lowest poverty rate in urban areas (12.9%).

• In rural areas, Muslims have a very high poverty rate in states like Assam (53.6%), Uttar Pradesh (44.4%), West Bengal (34.4%), and Gujarat (31.4%).

• In urban areas, Muslims have the highest poverty rate in all of India (33.9%).

• Similarly, in urban areas, Muslims have a high poverty rate in states like Rajasthan (29.5%), Uttar Pradesh (49.5%), Gujarat (42.4%), Bihar (56.5%), and West Bengal (34.9%).

• When it comes to different jobs, almost 50% of agricultural workers and 40% of other laborers are below the poverty line in rural areas. In urban areas, the poverty rate for casual laborers is 47.1%.

• As expected, people with regular wage or salaried jobs have the lowest poverty rate. - In the state of Haryana, which is known for its agricultural success, a large number of agricultural workers, about 55.9%, are poor. In comparison, in the state of Punjab, only 35.6% of agricultural workers are poor.

• In urban areas, the number of casual labourers who are poor is very high in certain states. For example, in Bihar, 86% of casual labourers are poor, in Assam, 89% are poor, in Orissa, 58.8% are poor, in Punjab, 56.3% are poor, in Uttar Pradesh, 67.6% are poor, and in West Bengal, 53.7% are poor.

• When we look at the education level of the head of the household, we find that in rural areas, households where the head has only a primary level education or lower have the highest poverty rate. On the other hand, households where the head has a secondary or higher education have the lowest poverty rate.

• In rural areas of Bihar and Chhattisgarh, almost two-thirds of households where the head has only a primary level education or lower are poor. In Uttar Pradesh, this number is 46.8%, and in Orissa, it is 47.5%.

• The trend is similar in urban areas. Households where the head has only a primary level education or lower are more likely to be poor than households where the head has a secondary or higher education.

• When we look at the age and sex of the head of the household, we find that in rural areas, households headed by minors have a poverty rate of 16.7%, households headed by females have a poverty rate of 29.4%, and households headed by senior citizens have a poverty rate of 33.3%. - In cities, families led by children have a poverty rate of 15.7%, while families led by women and senior citizens have poverty rates of 22.1% and 20%, respectively. The overall poverty rate is 20.9%.

• India doesn’t have a single way of measuring poverty.

• The Arjun Sengupta Report says that 77% of Indians live on less than 20 rupees a day.

• The N. C. Saxena Committee report says that 50% of Indians are below the poverty line.

• The Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative says that 645 million people in India live in multi-dimensional poverty.

• The NCAER (National Council of Applied Economic Research) Report says that 48% of Indian households earn more than 90,000 rupees (US $1998) per year.

• The World Bank estimates that about 100 million Indian households (about 456 million people) are below the poverty line.

• Note: The Planning Commission of India has accepted the The Tendulkar Committee report found that almost 37 out of every 100 people in India live in poverty. State-wise Distribution of Industries

• Different industries are not spread evenly across India. Some states have more industries than others.

Major Large-scale Industries

• Large-scale industries include iron and steel, engineering, jute, cotton, textiles, and sugar.

Iron and Steel Industry

• The first steel company in India was the Bengal Iron and Steel Company, which was established in 1870.

• The private sector set up the Indian Iron and Steel Company in 1976.

• The Vishakhapatnam steel plant in Andhra Pradesh was set up under the Sixth Five Year Plan with the help of the Russian Government.

• The Salem steel plant in Tamil Nadu was also set up under the Sixth Five Year Plan.

• The Bhadrawati steel plant in Karnataka was nationalized under the Sixth Five Year Plan. - The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) was the first large-scale steel plant in India. It was set up in Jamshedpur in 1907.

• The Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) was set up in Burnpur, West Bengal in 1919.

• The Bengal Iron Company merged with IISCO in 1936.

• The public sector steel plants in India are managed by the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL).

• The government of India owns most of SAIL’s shares and controls the company.

• SAIL has four integrated steel plants in Bhilai, Durgapur, Rourkela, and Bokaro.

• SAIL also has three special steel plants in West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. Steel Industry in India

• SAIL has three subsidiaries:

  • Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) in West Bengal
  • Maharashtra Elektrosmelt Limited (MEL) in Maharashtra
  • Bhilai Oxygen Limited (BOL) in New Delhi

• The first large-scale steel plant in the private sector is the Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) in Jamshedpur.

• Other major steel producers in India include:

  • Essar Steel
  • NMDC
  • Jindal Vijaynagar Steels Ltd.
  • Jindal Strips Ltd.
  • JISCO
  • Lloyds Steel Industries Ltd.
  • Uttam Steels
  • Ispat Industries Ltd.
  • Mukand Steels Ltd.
  • Mahindra Ugine Steel Company Ltd.
  • Tata SSL Ltd.
  • Usha Ispat Ltd.
  • Saw Pipes Ltd.
  • Kalyani Steels Ltd.
  • Electro Steel Castings Ltd.
  • NMDC
  • Sesa Goa Ltd.

Engineering Industries in India

• Engineering industries in India produce machinery, tools, transport equipment, and consumer durables.

• The automobile sector in India has shown the strengths of Indian labor and capital.

• Several Indian firms have successfully integrated into global production chains and achieved rapid growth. Jute Industry

• Most of India’s jute mills are located in West Bengal.

• The jute industry is important because it brings in foreign money.

Textile Industry

• The textile industry is the oldest and largest employer in India.
• With the end of the quota system under the Multi-Fiber Agreement (MFA) on January 1, 2005, developing countries like India, which have both textile and clothing production, may be able to grow.

Pharma and IT Industry

• These are two of India’s fastest-growing industries.
• The pharmaceutical industry has changed the most in India, while the information technology (IT) industry has made India a well-known brand in the world.
• India has become the best place for business process outsourcing (BPO), which is a big part of the growth of the software and services industries.

Various Organizations Connected with Industries

• Bureau of Indian Standards Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS):
• BIS is a government organization that was created in 1947.
• Its job is to make sure that products made in India meet certain quality standards.
• BIS gives a special mark, called the ISI mark, to products that meet its standards.

National Productivity Council (NPC):

• NPC is an independent organization that was formed in 1958.
• Its goal is to help industries become more productive.
• NPC has offices all over India, and it works with businesses to use modern methods and techniques to increase production.
• NPC also gives out awards every year to the most productive industries in different sectors.

Principal Manufacturing Regions:

• The table shows the main manufacturing regions in India and the industries that are important in each region.
• For example, the Jharkhand-Bengal Industrial Belt is known for its jute, cotton, electrical, and light engineering goods, as well as chemicals.
• The Mumbai-Pune region is known for its petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, and automobiles. Table 4.4: Important Resources

Resource	Jharkhand-Bengal Industrial Belt	Mumbai-Pune	Ahmedabad-Vadodara	Madurai-Coimbatore-Bangalore
Coal	Damodar Valley (Jharkhand), West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Arunachal Pradesh	Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh		Andhra Pradesh
Iron Ore	Singhbhum (Jharkhand)	-	- Extracted from Babbabudan hills	Small iron and steel plants
Cotton	Over one-third of workers	-	Cotton, light consumer goods, light engineering goods	-
Chemicals	-	-	Cotton, chemicals, pottery	-
Engineering	-	-	-	-
Food Processing	-	-	-	-
Printing	-	-	-	-
Consumer Goods	-	-	-	-
Light Engineering	-	-	-	-

Power: Hydro-Electricity from the Damodar Valley.

Important supplies from the Western Ghats: Cauvery, Jog-Nilgiri Project.

Other Raw Materials (Agricultural):

Bengal Jute by water routes meeting Damodar Coal (but much of the best jute has gone to Bangladesh). Cotton, groundnuts on regur soil of the plateau to the East. Cotton from surrounding areas, sugar, soils, salt from salt pans. Some cotton in Madurai and Coimbatore.

Minor Regions and Their Important Industries:

Assam Valley: Processing of local tea, rice, and oilseeds. Darjeeling terrain: Processing of local tea. North Bihar adjoining Uttar Pradesh plains: Manufacturing sugar from local sugarcane. Delhi-Meerut: Manufacturing of sugar from local sugarcane, some textiles, and chemicals. Table 4.6: Important Industries in India

Industry	Location	Products
Chemicals, engineering goods	Indore-Ujjain	Cotton cloth for local markets, handicrafts
Small textiles, iron foundries, railway and general engineering goods, glass and pottery works	Nagpur-Wardha
Cotton textiles for local and other markets, railway and general engineering goods	Dharwar-Belgaum
Local tobacco, sugarcane, rice and oil, cement, small textiles	Godavari-Krishna delta
Textile and clothing, large modern tanneries, leather works, shoe manufacturing	Kanpur
Textiles, light engineering, consumer goods of wide varieties	Chennai
Cashew processing, coconut and oilseeds processing, associated industries (coir manufacturing, soaps) some textiles, numerous handicrafts	Malabar-Kollam Trissur
Important textiles based on cotton grown in local regular soils, engineering centres	Sholapur	Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

Location of Industries in India

• Aircraft industry: Bangalore and Kanpur
• Aluminum: Alwaye (Kerala), Asansol (West Bengal), Belur (Karnataka), Hirakud (Orissa), Renukoot (UP), Muri (Jharkhand), Korba (Chhattisgarh)
• Automobiles: Mumbai, Burnpur (West Bengal), Calcutta, Jamshedpur (Jharkhand), Chennai
• Cables: Rupnarainpur (West Bengal), Rajpura (Punjab)
• Cement: Bhadravati (Karnataka), Churk (UP), Dalmianagar (Bihar), Gwalior, Kymor and Katni (MP), Okha (Gujarat), Sawai Madhopur (Rajasthan), Sahabad (Karnataka), Surajpur (Punjab)
• Coir goods: Alleppey and Kalavoor (Kerala)
• Cotton textiles: Ahmedabad (Gujarat), Bangalore, Mumbai, Kolkata, Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu), Indore (MP), Kanpur (UP), Ludhiana and Amritsar (Punjab), Chennai, Madurai (Tamil Nadu), Nagpur and Sholapur (Maharashtra)
• Cycles: Ludhiana (Punjab)
• D.D.T.: Alwaye (Kerala) and Delhi
• Glass Items:
• Bangles: Firozabad (UP) and Belgaum (Karnataka) Here’s the simplified version of the content:

1. Lampware: Made in Kolkata and Naini (Uttar Pradesh).
2. Thermos flasks: Made in Faridabad (Haryana).
3. Glass bottles: Made in Amritsar (Punjab).
4. Glass lenses: Made in Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh).
5. Glass sheets: Made in Bahjoi, Balawali, Ghaziabad, Jaunpur (Madhya Pradesh), Bangalore, Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, and Chennai.
6. Fertilizer: Made in Nangal, Sindri (Jharkhand), Gorakhpur (Uttar Pradesh), Nahorkatiya (Assam), Neyveli (Tamil Nadu), Rourkela (Orissa), and Trombay (Maharashtra).
7. Hosiery goods: Made in Amritsar, Ludhiana (Punjab), and Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh).
8. Jute goods: Made in Kolkata, Gorakhpur, and Kanpur.
9. Lac: Made in Jhalda and Kossipore (West Bengal), Mirzapur and Bareilly (Uttar Pradesh).
10. Leather goods: Made in Kanpur and Agra (Uttar Pradesh), Batanagar (West Bengal), Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, and Delhi.
11. Locomotives: Made in Chittaranjan (West Bengal), Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh), and Jamshedpur (Jharkhand).
12. Match boxes: Made in Ahmedabad, Bareilly (Uttar Pradesh), Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Pune, Raipur (Chhattisgarh), and Srinagar.
13. Paper: Made in Bhadravati (Karnataka), Dalmianagar, Jagadhari (Haryana), and Lucknow. | Industry | Location | | :— | :— | | Penicillin | Pimpri (Maharashtra) | | Rail coaches | Perambur (Tamil Nadu), Pune (Maharashtra) Kapurthala (Punjab) | | Resin industry | Bareilly (UP), Nahan (Himachal Pradesh) | | Rubber goods | Ambapur (Tamil Nadu), Mumbai (Maharashtra), Thiruvananthapuram | | | (Kerala), Bareilly (UP) | | Salt | Kuchchh (Gujarat), Sambhar lake (Rajasthan) | | Sewing machines | Kolkata, Delhi, Ludhiana (Punjab) | | Shipbuilding | Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh), Kochi, Mumbai, Kolkata | | Silk | Bangalore, Bhagalpur (Bihar), Srinagar | | Sugar | Gorakhpur, Sitapur, Rampur, Moradabad, Bijor, Saharanpur, Meerut, | | | Muzaffarnagar (UP), Gaya (Bihar), Zira, Jagraon (Punjab) | | Sports material | Agra (UP) | The following is a list of public sector industrial undertakings in India, along with their locations:

Chemical and Pharmaceuticals

• Hindustan Organic Chemicals Ltd.: Rasayani, Maharashtra
• Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd.:
• Antibiotics Plant (IDPL): Rishikesh, Uttarakhand
• Synthetic Drugs Project: Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
• Surgical Instruments Plant: Chennai, Tamil Nadu
• Hindustan Antibiotics Ltd.: Pimpri, Maharashtra
• Hindustan Insecticides Ltd.: Alwaye, Kerala and Delhi

Fertilizers

• Fertilizer Corporation of India Ltd.:
• Nangal, Punjab
• Sindri, Jharkhand
• Trombay, Maharashtra Nuclear Power Plants

Name	Location
Gorakhpur	Uttar Pradesh
Namrup	Assam
Durgapur	West Bengal
Neyveli	Tamil Nadu

Heavy Water Plants

Name	Location
Nahorkatiya	Assam
Rourkela	Orissa
Trombay	Maharashtra

Machinery and Equipment

Name	Location
Bharat Dynamics Ltd.	Hyderabad
Bharat Electronics Ltd.	Jalahalli (Karnataka) Ghaziabad (Uttar Pradesh)
Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd.	Ranipur (Uttar Pradesh) Ramachandrapuram (Andhra Pradesh) Tiruchirapalli (Tamil Nadu) Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh)
Bharat Heavy Plate and Vessels Ltd.	Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh)
Central Machine Tools	Bangalore
Chittaranjan Locomotive Works	Chittaranjan (West Bengal)
Cochin Shipyard	Kochi
Diesel Locomotive Works	Marwadeeh, Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh)
Garden Reach Workshop Ltd.	Kolkata
Heavy Electricals Ltd.	Bangalore
Heavy Electricals (India) Ltd.	Bhopal
Heavy Engineering Corpn. Ltd.	Ranchi
Heavy Machine Building Plant	Ranchi

14. Heavy Vehicles Factory: Located in Avadi, Tamil Nadu.

15. Hindustan Cables Factory: Situated in Rupnarainpur, West Bengal.

16. Hindustan Machine Tools: Has multiple locations, including Jalahalli (Karnataka) near Bangalore, Pinjore (Haryana), Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh), Kalamassery (Kerala).

17. Hindustan Shipyard: Found in Visakhapatnam and Kochi.

18. Indian Telephone Industries: Has factories in Bangalore, Naini (Uttar Pradesh), Rai Bareilly (Uttar Pradesh), and Mankapur (Gonda, Uttar Pradesh).

19. Instrumentation Ltd.: Located in Kota (Rajasthan) and Palakkad (Kerala).

20. Integral Coach Factory: Has facilities in Perambur (Tamil Nadu) and Kotkapur (Punjab).

21. Machine Tool Corporation of India: Situated in Ajmer, Rajasthan.

22. Machine Tools Prototype Factory: Located in Ambarnath, Mumbai.

23. Mazagon Docks Ltd.: Found in Mumbai.

24. Mining and Allied Machinery Corporation Ltd.: Situated in Durgapur.

25. Nahan Foundry: Located in Sirmur, Himachal Pradesh.

26. National Instruments Factory: Situated in Kolkata.

27. Praga Tools Corporation: Located in Hyderabad.

28. Triveni Structural Ltd.: Situated in Naini, Himachal Pradesh.

29. Tungabhadra Steel Products Ltd.: Located in Tungabhadra, Karnataka. Products Ltd. is located in Tungabhadra, Karnataka.

Projects:

1. National Mineral Development Corporation is in Hyderabad.
2. Hindustan Zinc Limited is in Udaipur, Rajasthan.
3. Bharat Aluminium Co. Ltd. is in Korba, Madhya Pradesh and Ratnagiri, Maharashtra.
4. Hindustan Copper Ltd. is in Agnigudala, Andhra Pradesh, Dariba, Rajasthan, Malanjkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Rakha, Jharkhand.
5. Bharat Coking Coal Ltd. is in Dhanbad, Jharkhand.
6. Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. is in Kolar, Karnataka.
7. Coal Mines Authority Ltd. is in Kolkata.
8. Neyveli Lignite Corporation is in Neyveli, Tamil Nadu.
9. Zinc Smelter is in Zawar, Rajasthan.

Paper:

1. National Newsprint and Paper Mills Ltd. is in Nepanagar, Madhya Pradesh.

Petroleum:

• Indian Refineries Ltd. is in Barauni, Bihar and Noonmati, Assam.
• Cochin Oil Refinery is in Kochi, Kerala.
• Koyali Oil Refinery is in Koyali, Gujarat.

Steel Plants:

1. Hindustan Steel Ltd. is in Bhilai, Madhya Pradesh.
2. Hindustan Steel Ltd. is in Durgapur, West Bengal. Steel Plants in India

Name	Location
Bhilai Steel Plant	Bhilai (Chhattisgarh)
Durgapur Steel Plant	Durgapur (West Bengal)
Rourkela Steel Plant	Rourkela (Odisha)
Bokaro Steel Plant	Bokaro (Jharkhand)

Other Industries in India

Name	Location
India Explosives Factory	Gomia in Hazaribagh (Jharkhand)
Hindustan Photo Films Manufacturing Co. Ltd.	Ootacamund (Tamil Nadu)

Cottage Industries in India

Name of Industry	States and Cities
Handloom Industry
Sarees and dhotis	Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Varanasi, Karnataka
Prints	Murshidabad, Farrukhabad, Jaipur, Mumbai, Karnataka
Carpets, rugs	Mirzapur, Bhadohi, Ellora, Kashmir, Jaipur, Bangalore
Silk
Silk sarees	Bangalore, Kanjivaram, Karnataka
Tussar silk	Sambalpur, Ahmedabad
Patola silk	Baroda

Metal and Brassware Industry in India

Name of Industry	States and Cities
Brass	Moradabad, Jaipur, Varanasi, Mumbai

• Moradabad is famous for its utensils with engraving.

Brassware/Metalware:

• Jaipur, Kashmir, Varanasi, Madurai, and Tanjore are known for their brassware and metalware.

Ivory Works:

• Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Rajasthan are famous for their ivory works.

Petroleum and Natural Gases:

• In 1867, the first oil well was dug in India.
• In 1889, the first successful oil well was dug in Digboi. This oilfield is still working after more than 100 years.
• Until India’s independence, Assam was the only state in India that produced oil.
• Recently, the Hindustan Oil Exploration Company found oil in the Cambay basin near Palej, Gujarat.
• The seabed oilfields of Mumbai High, which were found recently, are also producing a lot of oil and are now the richest oil fields in India.
• The government is exploring the natural resources of oil and natural gas in the country. Organization Set-Up: The Department of Petroleum, which is part of the Ministry of Petroleum, Chemicals, and Fertilizers, is responsible for finding and getting oil and natural gas out of the ground. They also run refineries and distribute these products.

Oil India Limited (OIL): OIL is a company owned by the Indian government. It was started in 1959 in Duliajan, Assam, in partnership with the Burmah Oil Company (BOC).

Government Takeover: In 1981, the Indian government bought all of the shares that belonged to the Burmah Oil Company. This made OIL a completely government-owned company.

Objectives of OIL: OIL’s main goals are to find and get crude oil (which includes natural gas) and to build pipelines to transport the crude oil to government-owned refineries in Noonmati and Barauni.

Important Oil-Bearing States/Areas: Oil can be found in many places in India, including Assam, Tripura, Manipur, West Bengal, the Ganga Valley, Himachal Pradesh, Kuchchh, Andhra Pradesh, and the offshore areas near West Bengal, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh. States with Oil Reserves:

• Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Gujarat have oil reserves.

Main Oil Fields:

• Oil-bearing wells have been drilled in the following areas:
  • Gujarat: Khambhat, Ankleshwar, Olpad, Sam, Kalori, and Weinad
  • Assam: Digboi, Rudrasagar, Sibsagar
  • Punjab: Adampur, Janauri, Jwalamukhi

Off-Shore Drilling:

• Bombay High, located in the deep waters of the western coast, is an offshore drilling site. Drilling operations are carried out using the drilling platform, Sagar Samrat.

Corporations:

• Indian Oil Corporation (IOC):

  • Established in 1964 by merging Indian Refinery Limited and Indian Oil Company.
  • Has three divisions:
    • Marketing (headquarters in Mumbai)
    • Refining and Pipeline (headquarters in Delhi)
    • Assam Oil (headquarters in Digboi)

• Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (BPCL):

  • Formed in 1976 through the acquisition of Burmah Shell as Bharat Refineries Limited.
  • Name changed to Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. on 1 August 1977.
  • An integrated refining, marketing, and distribution company. Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (HPCL):

• HPCL is a company that works with oil and gas.

• It was started in 1974 by combining two other companies called ESSO and Caltex.

• The government now fully owns HPCL since October 1976.

• HPCL’s main activities include refining crude oil, making petroleum and lubricating products, and selling and distributing these products all over India.

• HPCL is a very important public sector undertaking and has been given the ‘Nav Ratna’ status by the Indian government.

Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL):

• GAIL is the biggest company in India that sells natural gas.
• It was started in 1984 by the government to take care of transporting, processing, distributing, and selling natural gas.
• GAIL completed a difficult task given by the government to build the HBJ (Hazira, Bijapur, and Jagdishpur) Pipeline across the country in a very short time.
• GAIL now has more than 4000 kilometers of gas pipelines that go all over India. Refineries

Company Name	Refinery Location (Capacity in Million Metric Tonnes Per Annum (MMTPA))
Indian Oil Corporation Ltd.	Digboi (0.65), Guwahati (1.00), Barauni (6.00), Mathura (8.00), Koyali (13.70), Haldia (6.00), Panipat (12.00), Bongaigaon (2.35)
Subsidiaries	CPCL-Chennai (9.50), Narimanam (1.00)
Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd.	Mumbai (6.50), Visakhapatnam (7.50)
Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd.	Mumbai (12.00), Kochi (7.50), Numaligarh (3.00)

Upcoming Projects

• Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. is planning to set up a new project at Mumbai refinery FCCU, which is expected to be completed by the first quarter of 2010-2011.
• Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd. is working on the Mittal Energy Investment Guru Gobind Refinery in Bathinda, which has a capacity of 9.00 MMTPA. This project is expected to be completed by the end of 2011.
• Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. is planning to set up the Bina Refinery in Bina, District Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, with a capacity of 6.00 MMTPA.

Note: MMTPA equals 20,000 barrels per day. List of Oil Refineries in India

Company Name	Refinery Location (Capacity in Million Metric Tonnes Per Annum)
Chennai Petroleum Corporation Ltd. Refineries	Manali (9.50); Nagapattnam (1.00)
Assam Oil Company Ltd.	Digboi (0.65)
Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Ltd.	Mangalore (9.69)
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd. (ONGC) Refineries	Andhra Pradesh (0.10)
ONGC Videsh Ltd. (OVL) with the following Direct Subsidiaries
- ONGC Nile Ganga—Syria (0.812)
- Venezuela (0.671)
- Sudan (2.443)
ONGC Amazon Alaknanda Ltd. (OAAL)_OOVL’s share (0.370 MMT)
Jarpeno Ltd. (0.076 MMT)
*Joint venture with Mittal Energy Ltd. (ONGC Mittal Energy Ltd.)
*Joint venture with MRPL

Note: Telangana is now a separate state from Andhra Pradesh. The information above includes both Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Cities and their famous industries:

City	Industry
Agra	Shoes and leather goods
Ahmedabad	Cotton textiles
Aligarh	Locks
Alwaye	Rare earths factory
Ambernath	Machines tools prototype factory
Ankleshwar	Oil
Bangalore	Cotton textiles, aircraft, telephone, toys, carpets, motors, and machine tools
Bareilly	Resin industry and wood work
Bhilai	Steel plant
Bokaro	Steel plant
Mumbai	Cotton textiles, films
Kolkata	Jute, electric bulbs, and lamps
Chittaranjan	Locomotive
Delhi	Textile, DDT
Dhariwal	Woollen goods
Digboi	Oil
Durgapur	Steel plant
Firozabad	Glass and glass bangles
Gwalior	Pottery and textiles
Jaipur	Embroidery, pottery, brassware
Jamshedpur	Iron and steel
Jharia	Coal
Kanpur	Leather goods/shoes
Katni	Cement
Khetri	Copper
Ludhiana	Hosiery, sewing machines, cycles
Moradabad	Brass utensils

• Ensils: Calico-printing
• Mysore: Silk
• Nangal: Fertilizers
• Nepanagar: Newsprint
• Neyveli: Lignite
• Perambur: Rail coach factory
• Pimpri (Pune): Penicillin factory
• Pinjore: Machine tool
• Raniganj: Coal mining
• Rourkela: Steel and fertilizers
• Rupnarainpur: Cables
• Sindri: Fertilizers
• Singhbhum: Copper
• Surat: Textiles
• Tiruchirapalli: Cigars
• Titagarh: Paper
• Trombay: Atomic power station
• Vishakhapatnam: Ship building

Inflation:

• Inflation is caused by government policies that lead to financial mismanagement.
• Reducing the budget can lower both demand and supply.
• To control inflation, the government should carefully use incentives to ensure that the desire to speculate does not outweigh the motivation to produce.
• Before creating anti-inflation policies, the government must comprehend the gaps between demand and supply.
• Despite rising energy costs, Inflation in India

Despite facing various economic challenges from the global economy, India has managed to avoid severe inflation for most of its history since independence. However, the average rate of inflation has gradually increased over the years.

In the 1950s, consumer prices rose by an average of 2.1% per year. This increased to 6.3% in the 1960s, 7.8% in the 1970s, and 8.5% in the 1980s.

There are three main reasons why India has been able to maintain relative price stability:

1. Government intervention: The government has played a direct or indirect role in keeping the prices of certain essential goods, such as wheat, rice, cloth, and sugar, stable.
2. Monetary regulation: The government has also implemented monetary regulations to restrict the growth of the money supply.
3. Weak labor unions: The labor unions in India are relatively weak, which has limited their influence on wages. This has helped to keep inflation in check.

Causes of Inflation

There are several factors that can cause inflation, including:

• Mismatch between money supply, production, and prices: If the money supply grows faster than the production of goods and services, prices will rise.
• Deficit financing: When the government spends more money than it collects in taxes, it can lead to inflation.
• Black money and parallel economy: Black money refers to undeclared income that is not taxed. This can lead to inflation because it increases the amount of money in circulation. Causes of Inflation:

1. Increased Government Spending: When the government spends more money than it collects in taxes, it can lead to inflation.

2. Growing Population: As the population grows, the demand for goods and services increases, which can put upward pressure on prices.

3. Administered Prices: When businesses raise prices for their products or services, it can contribute to inflation.

4. Indirect Taxes: When the government imposes indirect taxes, such as sales tax or value-added tax, businesses may pass on the cost of these taxes to consumers in the form of higher prices.

5. Fluctuations in Production: When there are fluctuations in industrial or agricultural production, it can affect the supply of goods and services, which can lead to price increases.

6. Fluctuations in Savings and Procurement Prices: When there are fluctuations in the rate of savings or procurement prices, it can affect the demand for goods and services, which can lead to price changes.

7. Infrastructural and Forex Bottlenecks: When there are infrastructural or foreign exchange bottlenecks, it can affect the supply of goods and services, which can lead to price increases.

Remedial Measures to Control Inflation:

Short-Term Measures:

1. Increase in Supply of Essential Commodities: Increasing the supply of essential commodities can help to reduce their prices.

2. Increase in Money Supply and Control of Deficit Financing by Government: The government can control inflation by increasing the money supply and controlling deficit financing.

3. Improve Public Distribution System: Improving the public distribution system can help to ensure that essential commodities are available to the masses at fair prices.

Long-Term Measures:

1. Build up Buffer Stocks of Essential Commodities: Building up buffer stocks of essential commodities can help to stabilize prices during times of shortages.

2. Bring More Taxpayers within the Tax Bracket: Bringing more taxpayers within the tax bracket can help to widen the taxation base and reduce the government’s budget deficit.

3. Rationalize Public Expenditure: The government can control inflation by rationalizing public expenditure. Expenditure and Investment Planning

• Increase the production of food grains and other items that people use daily.
• Change the way infrastructure industries are set up.
• Use a conservative monetary policy to keep prices stable and the government’s finances in order.

Effects of Inflation

• During times of inflation, people keep less cash on hand, which reduces the real value of their money.
• People switch from financial assets to physical assets.
• The government and individuals find it harder to plan their finances.
• Uncertainties during inflation discourage investment and saving.
• Income is redistributed because entrepreneurs and salaried workers lose money, while speculators and those who own real estate and gold tend to gain more.
• The economy’s ability to make a profit decreases.

Currency System

Historical Background

• The first gold coins were made during the Gupta dynasty, which ruled from 390 to 550 AD.
• The rupee was first minted in India around 1542 AD during the reign of Sher Shah Suri. It was a silver coin. In 1873, the price of silver dropped in the global market, causing the silver coin to lose its value as a metal. Before 1873, the Indian rupee was worth ₹10 for every pound sterling.

In 1882, the British government introduced paper money in India.

In 1935, the Reserve Bank of India was established, making the Indian rupee an independent currency. However, for exchange purposes, it still depended on the pound sterling.

In 1947, India joined the International Monetary Fund, and the value of the rupee was set according to IMF standards.

In 1957, the Indian Coinage (Amendment) Act changed the Indian currency system to a decimal system. The old system of rupees, annas, and paise (1 rupee = 16 annas and 1 anna = 12 paise) was replaced by the rupee and paise system. The first 1 paise coin was introduced. Issuance of Indian Currency

• The Indian government issues all coins and ₹1 notes.

• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) issues currency notes above ₹1 denomination.

• The current series of currency notes, called the Mahatma Gandhi Series, began in 1996.

• Currency notes of denominations ₹1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, and 1000 are in circulation.

• The RBI distributes and manages all currency on behalf of the Indian government. ## Demonetization of Currency

• Demonetization means taking money out of circulation. It’s done to get rid of black market money and money that people haven’t reported to the government. It’s happened twice in India.

• The first time was in 1946. They got rid of all the ₹100 notes and higher. Then, in 1978, they got rid of the ₹1000, ₹5000, and ₹10,000 notes.

Devaluation of Currency

• Devaluation means making the Indian rupee worth less compared to the US dollar in the world market.

• In 1947, India joined the International Monetary Fund. This meant they had to set the value of the rupee based on IMF rules. Because of this, India had to devalue the rupee.

• Here are the times the rupee was devalued:

• The first time was in June 1949. Indian Rupee Devaluation:

• The Indian rupee lost value compared to other currencies.

• The first devaluation happened when Dr. John Mathai was the finance minister. The rupee lost 30.5% of its value.

• The second devaluation occurred in June 1966, and the rupee lost 57% of its value. Sachindra Chaudhury was the finance minister at that time.

• The third devaluation took place on 1 July 1991, and the rupee lost 9% of its value. On 3 July 1991, it was devalued again by 11%, making a total devaluation of 20%. Dr. Manmohan Singh was the finance minister during this period.

• Since 20 August 1994, the rupee has been freely convertible for current account transactions.

Development of Banking System in India:

• The first bank managed by Indians was the Oudh Commercial Bank, established in 1881.

• It was a bank with limited liability.

• During the British rule, many institutions engaged in banking activities as agency houses, combining banking with their trading businesses.

• The Punjab National Bank was the second Indian bank to be established. 1884:

• The Swadeshi Movement started in 1906, and many commercial banks were created during this time.

• In 1921, three big banks in India merged to form the Imperial Bank of India because they were having financial problems.

• In the 1940s, people realized that commercial banks needed to be regulated and controlled. So, in January 1946, the first banking law, called the Banking Companies (Inspection Ordinance) Act, was passed. Then, in February 1946, another law called the Banking Companies (Restriction of Branches) Act was passed.

• In 1949, the Banking Companies Act was changed and renamed the Banking Regulation Act.

• In 1993, the government allowed new private banks to be set up in India. They did this because they thought more competition would make the economy more efficient and competitive. But new banks had to follow certain rules:

  • They had to be registered as public limited companies. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

• The bank should have a minimum paid-up capital of over ₹100 crore.

• Its shares should be listed on the stock exchange.

• The bank’s headquarters should ideally be in a location where no other banks have their main offices.

• The bank must follow the Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) rules and regulations for banking operations, accounting, and other policies.

• From the start, it must have a minimum capital adequacy of 8%.

• In December 1997, the Indian government formed another high-level committee led by M. Narasimham to assess how well the financial system reforms suggested in 1991 had been carried out.

• The committee was also tasked with examining the current state of affairs and suggesting changes that would strengthen the banking system and better prepare it to compete in the global economy.

• The committee gave its report in April 1998. The Indian Financial System’s Origins

• During British rule in India (1757-1947), important components of the Indian financial system were established.

• The rupee, India’s national currency, was already widely used domestically and even circulated internationally, particularly in the Persian Gulf region, prior to independence.

• Foreign banks, primarily British and a few from other parts of the British Empire like Hong Kong, offered banking and other financial services.

• However, this colonial banking system was primarily focused on foreign trade and short-term loans, and its operations were concentrated in major port cities.

Establishment of the Reserve Bank of India

• On April 1, 1935, the Reserve Bank of India was established as a privately owned bank with only 5% of its shares held by the Government of India. Its share capital was set at ₹5 crore, which remains unchanged to this day.
• The bank was initially structured as a shareholder institution, modeled after prominent foreign central banks of the time.
• The Reserve Bank of India’s initial share capital of ₹5 crore was - The bank’s total capital was divided into 5,00,000 shares, each worth ₹100.
• In the beginning, all the shares were owned by private individuals, except for 2,200 shares that were given to the Central Government.
• In February 1947, the decision was made to make the bank government-owned.
• According to the Reserve Bank of India (Transfer to Public Ownership) Act 1948, all the shares were considered to have been transferred to the Central Government.
• From January 1, 1949, RBI became a government-owned institution.
• The 1948 Act gave the Central Government the power to give the bank any instructions it thought were necessary for the public good.

Governors

• The first governor was Sir Obsborne Arkall Smith (1935 to 1937).
• The first Indian governor was C. D. Deshmukh (1943 to 1949).
• The governor and deputy governors can hold their positions for up to 5 years and can be reappointed. The directors can hold their positions for 4 years. The board has given some of its powers to committees made up of its members. Functions of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI)

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is responsible for managing the country’s financial system. It does this through various regulations and committees.

Committee of Central Board:

• The Committee of Central Board meets once a week.
• It includes the governor, deputy governors, and directors from the region where the meeting is held.

Local Boards:

• There are four local boards, located in Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, and New Delhi.
• Each local board has five members appointed by the Central Government for a four-year term.
• The local boards advise the central board on various matters.

Main Functions of RBI:

• The RBI regulates the printing and distribution of banknotes above ₹1.

• The Government of India prints ₹1 notes and coins of all denominations below ₹1.

• The RBI distributes all banknotes and coins to banks and other financial institutions. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI)

• The RBI is like a big bank that works for the government of India.

• It helps the government manage money and makes sure that the value of the Indian rupee stays the same.

• The RBI also represents India in international money organizations.

• It helps the economy grow by making sure that banks have enough money to lend to businesses and people.

• The RBI doesn’t have personal accounts, but it does provide important services like giving loans to banks when they need them and printing paper money.

Before the RBI

• Before the RBI was created, a bank called the Imperial Bank of India did its job.

• The Imperial Bank of India was made in 1921 by combining three other banks. Scheduled Banks:

• The Reserve Bank of India keeps a list of banks that agree to keep a certain amount of their money with the Reserve Bank of India and have a paid-up capital of ₹5 lakh.

• These banks are called scheduled banks.

Public Sector Banks:

State Bank of India:

• It is the biggest government-owned bank in India. It was formed after the Imperial Bank of India was nationalized in 1955.
• It is now the biggest commercial bank in India and has the most branches (10,836) in the world.
• Functions: The State Bank of India gives long-term loans and works for the Reserve Bank of India in India.
• It gives loans, deals in foreign money, and does other banking things for the government.

Subsidiaries of State Bank of India:

• State Bank of Bikaner and Jaipur
• State Bank of Hyderabad
• State Bank of Mysore
• State Bank of Patiala
• State Bank of Travancore The Section 42(2) return is a report that banks are required to submit to the government. It includes information about the bank’s assets and liabilities.

In 1975, the government created the Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) to help cooperative and commercial banks in different states. The RRBs are owned by commercial banks, the central government, and state governments.

The RRBs operate like commercial banks, but they can only lend money to people and businesses in specific areas. They are also required to report to the government. Cooperative Banks

• Cooperative banking is a crucial part of India’s banking system.

• There are different types of cooperative banks, including Primary Cooperative Banks, State Cooperative Banks, District Central Cooperative Banks, Primary Agricultural Credit Societies, State Cooperative Agriculture and Rural Development Banks, and Primary Cooperative Agriculture and Rural Development Banks.

• Some cooperative banks are scheduled banks, while others are non-scheduled banks.

• Information about scheduled cooperative banks is available in the reports they submit every two weeks, while information about non-scheduled cooperative banks is available in the monthly reports they submit to the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).

• This information is used to calculate monetary aggregates.

• The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) collects detailed data on the operations of the cooperative banking sector. NABARD and RBI:

• Primary (urban) cooperative banks send their reports to the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), while other cooperative banks send their reports to the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD).

• Information about companies’ financial performance is usually available 18-20 months after the end of the financial year.

• NABARD publishes detailed information about cooperative banks in its publications.

• RBI publishes information about the assets, liabilities, and financial performance of scheduled primary, state, and central cooperative banks in its “Report on Trend and Progress of Banking in India.”

Non-banking Financial Companies (NBFCs):

• Non-banking financial companies (NBFCs) are known for their ability to reach a wide range of customers and collect deposits.
• NBFCs have several advantages over traditional banks, including lower transaction costs, faster decision-making, a focus on customer service, and quick service delivery.
• NBFCs are divided into different categories based on their main business activities, such as Equipment Leasing Companies (ELCs), Hire-Purchase Financing Companies (HPFCs), and Loan Companies. In the current system, the rules and oversight for Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) have been changed in terms of their goals and focus.

As a result, NBFCs are divided into three groups for regulation:

1. Those that take public deposits
2. Those that don’t take public deposits
3. Core investment companies that have at least 90% of their assets invested in the securities of their group, holding, or subsidiary companies and don’t trade in those securities.

Companies that take public deposits must follow all the rules for recognizing income, classifying assets, accounting standards, and setting aside money for bad debts. NBFCs (Non-Banking Financial Companies) not accepting public deposits are regulated in a limited way.

They must follow certain rules, such as:

• How they recognize income
• How they classify assets
• When their accounting year ends
• What accounting standards they use to disclose their financial health

Core investment companies are exempt from all of these rules.

Other Important Banks and Financial Institutions

Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India Limited (ICICI)

• ICICI was created in 1955 to help industrial businesses in India.

• It provides financial assistance to businesses that want to start, grow, or modernize.

• ICICI also encourages private investment in these businesses.

• It promotes industrial development in India. Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI):

• SIDBI was created on April 2, 1990, as a part of the Industries Development Bank of India (IDBI).

• It’s a bank that helps small businesses grow and develop.

Indian Banks Abroad:

• Nine Indian banks have branches in over 23 countries.

• These branches are in big cities like London, Singapore, Amsterdam, Bahrain, New York, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Frankfurt, and Paris.

• They offer services like financing international trade.

• The most branches are in the UK (21), followed by Fiji (9), the USA (8), Singapore (6), and Mauritius. Indian Commercial Banks:

• In addition to their branches in other countries, Indian commercial banks have also set up representative offices in various nations, including the USA, Brazil, Indonesia, Iran, Egypt, Russia, Italy, Zimbabwe, China, Uzbekistan, the Philippines, and Vietnam.

• These banks also have fully owned subsidiaries and joint ventures in countries like the USA, Canada, Zambia, Nigeria, Uganda, Bhutan, Nepal, Kenya, and Mauritius.

• All these ventures cater to the needs of Indian exporters and importers and are an integral part of the domestic banking system in their respective locations.

National Bank of Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD):

• NABARD was established by the Indian government on July 12, 1982, and officially inaugurated on November 5.

• Its main goal is to promote agriculture and rural development by providing credit facilities to farmers.

Export-Import Bank of India:

• The Export-Import Bank of India is a specialized financial institution that focuses on promoting and financing international trade. (EXIM) was established on January 1, 1982.
• It provides medium- and long-term credit for exports and helps Indian exporters operate in the international market by offering financial assistance and guarantees.
• Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI): Established in 1964, IDBI is a leading institution for industrial finance.
• Regional Rural Banks (RRBs): RRBs were created by a Presidential Ordinance in September 1975. The first regional rural bank in India, Prathama Gramin Bank, was set up in October 1975 in Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, sponsored by Syndicate Bank.
• Uttar Pradesh currently has the highest number of regional rural banks.
• Lead Bank Scheme: The Nariman Committee suggested the Lead Bank Scheme in 1969.
• Under this scheme, each bank is given the primary responsibility of promoting banking and credit in a specific district assigned to it. This involves conducting surveys to evaluate the need for credit and taking steps to meet that need. New Banks in Private Sectors

In 1993, the government of India decided to allow new private sector banks to be set up in the Indian banking system. This was done to increase competition in the banking sector.

To start a new private sector bank, certain requirements had to be met. For example, the bank had to have a minimum capital of Rs. 100 crore.

On 19 November 2000, the government of India made it easier for private sector banks to enter the market by reducing the government’s holding in nationalized banks from 51% to 33%.

The government has also issued revised guidelines for the entry of new banks in the private sector. These guidelines are designed to ensure that new banks are financially sound and well-managed. New Private Sector Banks

• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) received applications for setting up new banks within a specific time frame.
• After careful evaluation, RBI granted “in-principle” approvals to two new entities on February 7, 2002.
• One of these entities was Kotak Mahindra Bank, which successfully completed all necessary formalities and was granted a banking license on February 6, 2003.
• Kotak Mahindra Bank officially began operations on March 22, 2003, and was subsequently included in the Second Schedule of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 on April 12, 2003.
• Yes Bank Ltd. also received its license on May 24, 2004, after meeting all required formalities.

List of Old Private Sector Banks

• Bharat Overseas Bank Ltd.

• City Union Bank Ltd.

• Development Credit Bank Ltd.

• Lord Krishna Bank Ltd.

• SBI Commercial and International Bank Ltd.

• Tamilnad Mercantile Bank Ltd.

• The Bank of Rajasthan Ltd.

• The Catholic Syrian Bank Ltd.

• The Dhanalakshmi Bank Ltd.

• The Federal Bank Ltd.

• The Ganesh Bank of Private Sector Banks:

• Kurundwad Ltd.

• The Jammu and Kashmir Bank Ltd.

• The Karnataka Bank Ltd.

• The Karur Vysya Bank Ltd.

• The Lakshmi Vilas Bank Ltd.

• The Nainital Bank Ltd.

• The Nedungadi Bank Ltd.

• The Ratnakar Bank Ltd.

• The Sangli Bank Ltd.

• The South Indian Bank Ltd.

• The United Western Bank Ltd.

• The Vysya Bank Ltd.

New Private Sector Banks:

• Bank of Punjab Ltd.
• Centurion Bank Ltd.
• Global Trust Bank Ltd.
• HDFC Bank Ltd
• ICICI Bank Ltd.
• IDBI Bank Ltd.
• IndusInd Bank Ltd.
• UTI Bank Ltd.
• Kotak Mahindra Bank Ltd.
• Yes Bank Ltd.

Foreign Banks in India:

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has granted licenses to several foreign banks to operate in India. Over 50 foreign and multinational banks are currently operating in the country.

• ABN AMRO Bank N.V.

• Abu Dhabi Commercial Bank Ltd.

• American Express Bank Ltd.

• Arab Bangladesh Bank Ltd.

• Bank International Indonesia

• Bank of Muscat S.A.O.G.

• Bank of America N.A.

• Bank of Bahrain and Kuwait B.S.C. Banks:

• Barclays Banks PLC

• BNP Paribas

• Chinatrust Commercial Bank

• Chohung Bank

• Citibank NA

• Commerzbank AG

• Credit Agricole Indosuez

• Credit Lyonnais

• Deutsche Bank AG

• Development Bank of Singapore Ltd.

• Dresdner Bank AG

• HSBC Ltd.

• ING Bank N.V.

• JP Morgan Chase Bank (The Chase Manhattan Bank)

• K.B.C. Bank N.A.

• Krun Thai Bank Public Co. Ltd.

• Mashreqbank PSC

• Mizuho Corporate Bank Ltd. (The Fuji Bank Ltd.)

• Oman International Banks S.A.O.G.

• Overseas-Chinese Banking Corporation Ltd.

• Societe Generale

• Sonali Bank

• Standard Chartered Bank

• Standard Chartered Grindlays Bank Ltd.

• State Bank of Mauritius Ltd.

• Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation (The Sumitomo Bank Ltd.)

• The Bank of Nova Scotia

• The Bank of TokyoMitsubishi Ltd.

• The Siam Commercial Bank

• The Toronto-Domonion Bank Ltd.

• UFJ Bank Ltd. (The Sanwa Bank Ltd.)

Insurance:

• The first insurance company in India was started in Mumbai in September 1870.

• As part of the financial sector, insurance companies play a crucial role in managing risks and providing financial protection to individuals and businesses. In 1993, a committee led by former RBI governor R. N. Malhotra was formed to study and suggest changes in the insurance industry. The committee’s main goals were to:

• Allow more companies to enter the insurance sector, increasing competition.

• Improve the quality of services provided by Indian insurance companies.

• Make insurance available to more people in India.

In 1999, the Insurance Regulatory Development Authority (IRDA) Bill was passed by both houses of Parliament. IRDA was created as a regulatory body for the insurance industry in India.

The IRDA Act protects the interests of insurance policyholders and aims to regulate, promote, and ensure the orderly growth of the insurance industry.

It also amends the Life Insurance Act of 1956, the General Insurance Business (Nationalization) Act of 1972, and related provisions in the Insurance Act of 1938 to open up the Indian insurance sector to more companies. To improve insurance coverage for citizens and increase long-term funding for infrastructure projects, the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA) was established on April 19, 2000.

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) also created guidelines in May and August 2000 for non-banking financial companies (NBFCs) and banks to enter the insurance industry.

Currently, insurance-related statistical data is limited and spread out. With the arrival of private insurance companies, there will be more sources of information.

Therefore, it is crucial to establish a centralized information source that can distribute data to users.

In light of this, the National Statistical Commission established a Committee on Insurance Statistics, led by H. Ansari, a member of the IRDA. LIC (Life Insurance Corporation)

• Started: 1st September 1956
• Main office: Mumbai
• Regional offices: 77 (Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Kanpur, Hyderabad, and Bhopal) LIC has 101 divisional offices, including one salary savings scheme division in Mumbai and 2048 branches.
• LIC also does business in other countries and has offices in Fiji, Mauritius, and the UK.

GIC (General Insurance Corporation)

• Started: 1st January 1973

• Before the government took over, there were 107 insurance companies (both Indian and foreign) operating in India.

• On 13th May 1970, the government took control of general insurance companies through a presidential announcement. General Insurance in India

• On January 1, 1973, the Indian government nationalized the insurance industry. This meant that all of the insurance companies in India, both Indian and foreign, were now owned by the government.

• The government then grouped these companies into four operating companies: National Insurance Company Limited, New India Assurance Company Limited, Oriental Insurance Company Limited, and United Insurance Company Limited.

• These four companies competed with each other to sell general insurance policies, such as car insurance, home insurance, and business insurance. However, they did not sell aviation insurance for national airlines or crop insurance.

• In 2000, the government delinked GIC from its subsidiary companies. This meant that GIC was no longer the parent company of these companies.

• GIC is now a reinsurance company, which means that it insures other insurance companies. It also has two representative offices in London. The General Insurance Corporation of India (GIC) has several important policies that provide insurance coverage to various segments of the population. These policies include:

1. Personal Accident Insurance Social Security Scheme for Poor Families: This scheme covers individuals between the ages of 18 and 60 who come from poor families and have an annual income from all sources not exceeding ₹7200. It provides insurance coverage in case of accidents.

2. Hut Insurance Scheme for Poor Families in Rural Areas: This scheme covers the huts and belongings of landless laborers, small farmers, artisans, and other poor families in rural areas. It provides insurance coverage in case of damage or loss to their huts and belongings.

3. Mediclaim Insurance Policy: This policy provides reimbursement for medical expenses incurred by an individual for hospitalization, domiciliary hospitalization, or any illness, injury, or disease contracted or sustained during the insurance period.

4. Jan Arogya Bima Policy: This policy is designed for individuals who cannot afford the high cost of medical treatment. It provides reimbursement for medical expenses incurred by an individual for hospitalization, domiciliary hospitalization, or any illness, injury, or disease contracted or sustained during the insurance period. Overseas Mediclaim Policy:

This policy provides emergency medical expenses coverage to people traveling overseas. It also includes coverage for personal accidents during flights up to $10,000andlossofpassportupto$150.

Videsh Yatra Mitra:

This policy provides medical coverage, personal accident coverage, loss of personal baggage coverage, delayed baggage coverage, and personal liability coverage of up to $2,00,000.

Crop Insurance Scheme:

This scheme provides coverage for crops during the Kharif season.

Social Security Group Scheme:

This scheme is administered by LIC to meet the needs of weaker and vulnerable sections of society. People between the ages of 18 and 60 are covered for a sum of ₹5000 in case of natural death and ₹25,000 in case of accidental death. Group Schemes:

1. Landless Agricultural Labourers Group Insurance Scheme (LALGI): This scheme provides insurance coverage to landless agricultural laborers.

2. Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP): This program aims to provide financial assistance and other support to rural households to improve their economic conditions.

3. Rural Group Life Insurance Scheme (RGLIS): This scheme offers life insurance coverage to rural residents.

Insurance Statistics:

• Insurance is a way to manage risks in business or personal life.

• There are two main types of insurance:

1. General insurance: This covers all types of insurance except life insurance and is usually purchased annually.

2. Life insurance: This provides long-term protection against the risk of death.

• Insurance statistics can be divided into several categories, including:

1. Life insurance statistics
2. Non-life (general) insurance statistics
3. Reinsurance statistics
4. Pension and superannuation statistics
5. Health insurance statistics
6. Crop insurance statistics
7. Other insurance statistics, such as ESI, postal insurance, and army insurance

Insurance Regulatory Authority:

• The Insurance Regulatory Authority (IRA) is a government agency responsible for regulating the insurance industry. Insurance Regulatory Authority (IRA)

• The government created a temporary Insurance Regulatory Authority (IRA) based on the Malhotra Committee’s recommendations. This authority is crucial for overseeing and controlling the insurance industry.

• The interim IRA will follow the government’s overall instructions and guidelines.

• The IRA will be led by a chairperson who will also serve as the controller of insurance under the Insurance Act of 1938.

• The Central Government will appoint the other members, no more than seven in total, with more than three serving full-time.

Insurance Regulatory Development Authority (IRDA) Bill

• The IRDA Bill was passed in 1999, establishing the Insurance Regulatory Development Authority (IRDA) as the regulatory body for the insurance industry in India.
• The act protects the interests of insurance policyholders and aims to regulate, promote, and ensure the orderly growth of the insurance industry.
• It also seeks to amend the Life Insurance Act of 1956 and the General Insurance Business (Nationalization) Act of 1972. Insurance Industry Reforms in India

In 1972, the General Insurance Business (Nationalization) Act was passed. This act, along with changes made to the Insurance Act of 1938, allowed private companies to enter the insurance industry in India. This was done to expand the insurance business and tap into the potential of the Indian insurance market.

To improve insurance coverage for citizens and increase long-term funding for infrastructure projects, the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA) was established on April 19, 2000.

In May and August of 2000, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) issued guidelines for non-banking financial companies (NBFCs) and banks to enter the insurance business.

The IRDA, with the advice of the Insurance Advisory Committee, created 15 regulations under the IRDA Act that all insurers must follow.

The IRDA also requires life and general insurance companies to submit various returns to monitor compliance with these regulations. These returns must be submitted to the IRDA at specific intervals. Major Private Sector Insurance Companies

Life Insurance Companies

• HDFC Standard Life Insurance Co. Ltd.
• ICICI Prudential Life Insurance Co. Ltd.
• Tata AIG Life Insurance Co. Ltd.
• SBI Life Insurance Co. Ltd
• Max New York Life Insurance Co. Ltd
• Om Kotak Mahindra Life Insurance Co. Ltd.
• Allianz Bajaj Life Insurance Co. Ltd.
• ING Vysya Life Insurance Co. Ltd.
• Aviva Life Insurance Co. Ltd.
• Sahara India Insurance Co. Ltd.
• Met Life India Insurance Co. Ltd.
• AMP SANMAR Assurance Co. Ltd.

General Insurance Companies

• IFFCO Tokyo General Insurance Co. Ltd.
• Royal Sundram Alliance Insurance Co. Ltd.
• HDFC Chubb General Insurance Co. Ltd.
• TATA AIG General Insurance Co. Ltd.
• ICICI Lombard General Insurance Co. Ltd.
• Cholamandalam General Insurance Co. Ltd.
• Bajaj Allianz General Insurance Co. Ltd.
• Reliance General Insurance Co. Ltd.
• Export Credit Guarantee Corporation (ECGC) Ltd.

Subsidiary Companies

There are four subsidiary companies:

• HDFC Life Insurance Co. Ltd.

• ICICI Prudential Life Insurance Co. Ltd.

• Tata AIG Life Insurance Co. Ltd.

• SBI Life Insurance Co. Ltd. Companies of General Insurance Corporation:

• National Insurance Co. Limited, located in Kolkata

• The New India Assurance Co. Limited, located in Mumbai

• The Oriental Fire and General Insurance Co. Limited, located in New Delhi

• United India Fire and General Insurance Co. Limited, located in Chennai

Investment:

Unit Trust of India (UTI):

• UTI was created to encourage and collect savings from small investors by selling “units” and using those funds to invest in corporate securities.

• UTI invests a lot of money in government bonds and money market instruments.

• Here are some important things to know about UTI:

• UTI has about 50 million investor accounts.

• It has a large network of 51 branches all over the country.

• Its total assets are worth more than ₹55,550 crore, and it invests in many different companies in the public, private, joint venture, and financial sectors.

• UTI offers a wide range of 72 different investment options. Innovative Savings Plans/Funds

• In July 1986, UTI launched the first offshore fund called ‘The Indian Fund.’ This fund is listed on the London Stock Exchange.

• Another offshore fund was launched in August 1988 and listed on the New York Stock Exchange.

Bifurcation of UTI

• In December 2002, the Unit Trust of India (Transfer of Understanding and Repeal) Act was passed. This act divided the Unit Trust of India into two parts:
• UTI-I: This part includes US-64, Assured Return Scheme, and Development Reserve Fund. It was transferred to a government-appointed administrator.
• UTI-II: This part includes Net Asset Value (NAV) based schemes. It was transferred to a specified company on February 1, 2003.
• UTI-I is now known as the ‘Administrator of the Specified Undertaking of the Unit Trust of India.’
• The State Bank of India (SBI) is the custodian of UTI-II. UTI Mutual Fund:
• Bank of India, Punjab National Bank, Bank of Baroda, and the Life Insurance Corporation of India created UTI Mutual Fund, UTI Trustee Company, and UTI Asset Management Company.
• UTI Trustee Company is the specified company.

Global Depository Receipts/Foreign Currency Convertible Bonds:

• In 1992, Indian companies were allowed to raise money from international markets by issuing shares through Global Depository Receipts (GDRs) and Foreign Currency Convertible Bonds (FCCBs).

• Companies with a good track record could access international markets under these schemes.

• In June 1996, detailed guidelines for Euro issues were announced, giving Indian companies more freedom to enter the global market through GDR and FCCB issues.

• Indian companies have successfully raised about US $8.1 billion through Euro issues in international markets. ADR/GDR Issues

• Before January 19, 2000, the government had to approve all proposals for issuing American Depositary Receipts (ADRs) or Global Depositary Receipts (GDRs).

• Now, companies can issue ADRs/GDRs against new shares without government approval.

Foreign Currency Convertible Bonds (FCCBs)

• Companies can now issue FCCBs up to $500 million automatically.
• For FCCBs above $500 million, companies need to get approval from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).

Portfolio Investment from Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs)

• In September 1992, the government started a program to attract foreign investment from FIIs.
• FIIs and other institutions like mutual funds, pension funds, investment trusts, asset management companies, nominee companies, and incorporated/institutional portfolio managers and their associates could participate in this program. Under this scheme, foreign institutional investors (FIIs) can invest in government securities and treasury bills. They can also take exchange cover for a portion of their investment exposure. As of October 31, 1997, 471 FIIs were registered with the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), and the net FII investment flow into the country amounted to approximately US$9 billion.

To encourage investments from non-resident Indians (NRIs), the government has introduced several attractive schemes. Some of these schemes include:

• NRIs can invest up to 100% equity in high priority industries, with full benefits of repatriating the invested capital and income earned on it.

• NRIs can invest through stock exchanges under the Portfolio Investment Scheme, with an investment ceiling of 5% of the paid-up capital of a company. Capital Investment Limits for NRIs and OCBs:

• For individual Non-Resident Indians (NRIs), the maximum amount of money they can invest in a company is determined by the company’s capital.

• For all NRIs and Overseas Corporate Bodies (OCBs) combined, there is a total limit of 10% on their investments.

RBI Working Group for NRIs:

• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has set up a special group to examine various programs and incentives available to NRIs.

Mutual Funds:

• Mutual funds are a type of investment vehicle that represents the institutional part of capital markets.
• In both developed and emerging markets, mutual funds have been among the fastest-growing institutional investors.

Recent Policy Developments:

• Trading of Government Securities:

  • A nationwide, anonymous, order-driven, screen-based trading system for government securities was launched on January 16, 2003, on stock exchanges.

• T+2 Rolling Settlement:

  • Stock exchanges were instructed to implement a T+2 rolling settlement system by April 2003.

• Interest Rate Derivatives on Stock Exchanges:

  • To take advantage of an exchange-traded mechanism, trading in interest rate derivatives was introduced on stock exchanges. Rest Rate Derivatives on Stock Exchanges:

• On June 24, 2003, a new system for calculating interest rates on stock exchanges was introduced.

Demutualization and Corporation of Stock Exchanges:

• In August 2003, a bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha to make necessary changes to the laws governing stock exchanges in India.
• The bill aims to convert stock exchanges from member-owned entities to corporations.
• The bill is currently being reviewed by a committee and is expected to be reintroduced in the future.

Amendments to Securities Contracts (Regulation) Rules, 1957:

• In August 2003, the government issued a notification allowing banks to participate in trading on stock exchanges.

Regulation of Private Placement of Debt by Listed Companies:

• In September 2003, SEBI issued guidelines for the issuance, listing, and trading of privately placed debt securities by listed companies.

Pension Reforms:

• In August 2003, the Indian government approved a proposal to implement pension reforms. New Pension System (NPS):

• NPS is a voluntary defined contribution pension system regulated by the Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA).

• It is a significant step in developing a sustainable and efficient pension system in India.

Objectives of NPS:

1. To provide a pension for old age.
2. To provide reasonable market-based returns over the long term.
3. To extend old age security coverage to all citizens.

Features of NPS:

• NPS offers several important features to help people save for retirement.

• Each pensioner under NPS is assigned a unique Permanent Retirement Account Number (PRAN).

• This PRAN remains the same throughout the individual’s life and can be used from any location in India. New Pension System

• The new pension system will be based on how much money you put in, rather than how long you work.

• You can use your bank or post office to make contributions.

• If you change jobs or move, you can easily transfer your money.

• You can choose how to invest your money and who manages it.

• You can choose to join the new pension system, but it’s required for new government employees (except the military).

• You and the government will each contribute 10% of your salary to your pension account.

• If you’re not a government employee, the government won’t contribute to your account.

• Your contributions and earnings will go into an account that you can’t withdraw from until you retire.

• New government employees won’t be able to get the old pension benefits or the General Provident Fund. Service

In addition to the pension account, each person can choose to have a voluntary tier-II withdrawable account.

The government will not contribute to this account.

These assets will be managed in the same way as the pension.

The money in this account can be withdrawn anytime without giving a reason.

People can usually leave the pension system when they are 60 or older.

When they leave, they must invest at least $40$ of their pension wealth to buy an annuity.

For government employees, the annuity should provide a pension for the employee’s lifetime, their dependent parents, and their spouse at the time of retirement.

The individual would receive a lump-sum of the remaining pension wealth, which they could use in any way they wanted.

People would have the flexibility to leave the pension system before age 60.

However, in this case, the mandatory annuitization would be $80 Here’s the rewritten content in simpler language:

• There will be one or more central record-keeping agencies (CRA) and several pension fund managers (PFMs) to choose from. Each PFM will offer different types of pension schemes.
• The PFMs, CRA, and other participating entities will provide easy-to-understand information about past performance and regular net asset values (NAVs). This will help individuals make informed decisions about which scheme to choose.
• When an individual retires, they will receive a lump sum of the remaining pension wealth. They can use this money however they want.
• Individuals have the flexibility to leave the pension system before age 60. However, in this case, the mandatory withdrawal would be 80% of the pension wealth.

Scope of the NPS:

• State governments will also have the option to join the new pension system when they decide to do so. The new system is designed to accommodate new participants.
• Mandatory programs under the Employee Provident Fund Organization (EPFO) and the Employees’ State Insurance Corporation (ESIC) will continue to operate as they currently do. The Employees’ Provident Fund Organization (EPFO) and other special provident funds will continue to operate as they do now. However, people in these programs can choose to join this new plan if they want to.

How far has this been put into action?

• On October 10, 2003, a resolution was passed to put the government’s decision to start a new pension system based on how much money is put in into action.
• On December 22, 2003, a notification was sent out that gave the main points of the new pension system.
• The NPS started working on January 1, 2004.
• This plan only applies to new employees of the Central Government.
• According to the resolution, a temporary Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA) has been set up and has been working since January 1, 2004.
• Until the CRA and PFMs are set up, the Central Pension Accounting Office will act as the interim CRA.
• Right now, all NPS contributions are going into the public account. In India, there are many stock markets where companies can list their shares for trading. As of 1993, there were around 5000 companies listed on 14 different stock exchanges in India. However, only about 400 of these companies had their shares actively traded.

Financial institutions and government organizations controlled a large portion, estimated to be around 45%, of all the money invested in these listed companies.

Today, there are 22 stock exchanges operating in India. Out of these, 20 are regional exchanges that operate in specific regions of the country. The other two exchanges, the National Stock Exchange (NSE) and the Over-the-Counter Exchange of India (OTCEI), are nationwide exchanges where stocks can be traded from anywhere in the country.

These stock exchanges provide a structured and organized marketplace where people can buy and sell shares of companies and other types of securities.

In April 1992, the Bombay stock market, which was the largest stock market in India at that time with a market value of 65.1 billion US dollars, experienced a sudden collapse. One of the reasons for this collapse was the discovery of financial irregularities involving a large amount of money, approximately 2 billion US dollars. The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) is a government agency that regulates the stock market in India. In the mid-1990s, foreign investors started showing more interest in the Indian stock market. They invested around 2 billion US dollars in the financial year 1993 alone.

In 1988, the government set up SEBI as a non-statutory body to oversee the development and regulation of the securities market. Its main job was to protect investors from fraud. In 1992, SEBI was given legal powers through an ordinance, which was later replaced by an Act of Parliament. This act gave SEBI the authority to regulate companies that issue stocks and bonds, as well as to impose fines on those who break the rules. Government Mints and Presses

• There are four government mints located in Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, and Noida.
• The main job of these mints is to make coins for India.
• They also check the purity of gold and silver and make medals.
• There are five presses that do different things:
  • The India Security Press in Nashik Road prints things like stamps, checks, bonds, and passports.
  • The Bank Note Press in Dewas makes special ink and prints money. Indian Miscellanea

First in India: Women

Prime Minister: Indira Gandhi

Chief Minister of a State: Sucheta Kriplani (Uttar Pradesh)

Cabinet Minister: Vijayalakshmi Pandit

Central Minister: Rajkumari Amrit Kaur

Speaker of Lok Sabha: Shanno Devi

Governor of a State: Sarojini Naidu

Currency Note Press (Nashik Road): This press prints bank notes in denominations of ₹10, ₹50, and ₹100.

Security Printing Press (Hyderabad): This press prints postal stationery for the southern states and central excise stamps for the entire country. It also prints inland letter cards, postcards, competition postcards, and embossed envelopes.

Security Paper Mills (Hoshangabad): This paper mill makes special paper for printing bank notes and non-judicial stamp paper of higher denominations. Here is the rewritten content in simpler language:

First President of Indian National Congress: Dr. Annie Besant

First Indian President of Indian National Congress: Sarojini Naidu

First President of UN General Assembly: Vijayalakshmi Pandit

First Woman on the throne of Delhi: Razia Sultan

First to swim across the English Channel: Arti Saha (now Mrs. Arti Gupta)

First to climb Mount Everest: Bachhendri Pal

First to Circumnavigate (Sail round the world): Ujwala Rai

First IAS Officer: Anna George Malhotra

First IPS Officer: Kiran Bedi

First Advocate: Camelia Sorabji

First Judge: Anna Chandi

First Judge of a High Court: Anna Chandi

First Judge of Supreme court: M. Fathima Beevi

First Chief Justice of a High Court: Leila Seth

First Doctor: Kadambini Ganguli

First to Pass MA: Chandra Mukhi Bose

First Editor of English newspaper: Dina Vakil

First Chief Engineer: P. K. Thresia

First to receive a Sena Medal: Constable Bimla Devi (88 BN of CRPF)

Youngest to climb Mount Everest: Malavath Poorna Firsts in India: Women

• First to Climb Mount Everest: Dicky Dolma (19) from Manali in 1993.
• First Magistrate: Santosh Yadav (ITBP officer) in 1993.
• First woman to climb Mount Everest two times: No information provided.

Firsts in India: Men

• First Indian to swim across the English Channel: Mihir Sen.
• First to Climb Mount Everest: Tenzing Norgay.
• First to climb Mount Everest without Oxygen: Phu Dorjee.
• First to climb Mount Everest twice: Nwang Gombu.
• First Indian to join ICS (now IAS): Satyendra Nath Tagore.
• First Indian to receive a Nobel Prize: Rabindra Nath Tagore.
• First Indian in Space (first cosmonaut): Sqn Ldr Rakesh Sharma.

Other Firsts in India

• First to be crowned ‘Miss World’: Reita Faria.

• First to be crowned ‘Miss Universe’: Sushmita Sen.

• First to be crowned ‘Miss India’: Pratima (1947).

• First woman cosmonaut from India: Kalpana Chawla.

• First woman President: Pratibha Devisingh Patil.

• First woman to win Nobel Prize: Mother Teresa. Governor-General:

• Warren Hastings: First Governor-General of Free India.

• Lord Mountbatten: First Governor-General of Independent India.

• Lord Canning: First Viceroy of India.

• C. Rajagopalachari: First and last Indian Governor-General of Free India.

President of India:

• Dr. Rajendra Prasad: First President of India.
• Dr. S. Radhakrishnan: First Vice-President of India.
• Dr. Zakir Hussain: First Muslim President of India.
• Giani Zail Singh: First Sikh President of India.

Prime Minister of India:

• Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru: First Prime Minister of India.

Other Important Figures:

• G. V. Mavlankar: First Speaker of Lok Sabha.
• Justice H. L. Kania: First Chief Justice of India.
• W. C. Bannerjee: First President of Indian National Congress.
• S. P. Sinha: First Indian to become a member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• Dr. Nagendra Singh: First Indian to become President of the International Court of Justice (UN).
• Babur: First Emperor of the Mughal Dynasty.
• S. H. F. J. Manekshaw: First Field Marshal of India.
• Gen. K. M. Cariappa: First Indian Commander-in-Chief of India. First Chief of the Army Staff (India): Gen. Maharaja Rajendra Singh

First Chief of the Naval Staff (Indian): Vice-Admiral R. D. Katari

First Chief of the Air Staff (Indian): Not mentioned

First Air Marshal: Not mentioned

First Indian in British Parliament: Not mentioned

First Indian to Circumnavigate: Not mentioned

First Indian High Court Judge: Justice Syed Mehmood

First Indian to make a solo air flight: J. R. D. Tata

First Indian leader to visit England: Raja Rammohun Roy

First Indian member of House of Lords (Britain): Lord S. P. Sinha

First Bar-at-Law: J. M. Tagore

First Chairman of Rajya Sabha: Dr. S. Radhakrishnan

First Indian Test Cricketer: K. S. Ranjit Singh

First Indian to reach the South Pole: Col. J. K. Bajaj

First Indian recipient of Victoria Cross (highest award before Independence): Khudada Khan

First judge to face impeachment in the Lok Sabha: Justice V. Ramaswami

First Indian tennis player to win a grand slam: Not mentioned World Records Held by India

Trade and Industry

• India is the biggest exporter of tea in the world. It sells over 23,00,000 million tonnes of tea every year.
• Hero Cycles is the biggest cycle manufacturer in the world.
• India is the biggest exporter of cut diamonds. Around 68% of the world’s cut diamonds come from India.
• India makes the most movies in the world.
• Reliance Group of Companies in India has the most shareholders in the world.
• Brooke Bond Lipton India Ltd. is the biggest tea manufacturing company in the world.
• State Bank of India has the most branches in the world.
• Indian Railways is the biggest employer in the world.
• In 1989 to 1990, India became the biggest producer of sugar by making 85 lakh tonnes.

Agriculture/Natural Resources

• India is the biggest producer of millet in the world.

• India is the biggest producer of tea in the world.

• India has the most land in the world that is irrigated.

• India has the most cattle in the world.

• Kerala produces 60% of the world’s cardamom, making India the biggest producer of cardamom in the world.

• India is the biggest exporter of spices in the world.

• India is the biggest producer of turmeric in the world. Production in the World

• India is the largest producer of ginger in the world.

• India is the largest producer of sugarcane in the world.

• India is the largest grower of pulses in the world.

• India has the highest yield of potato, which is 46,797 kg/ha.

• India has the highest rice yield, which is $17,862\mathrm{kg}/\mathrm{ha}$.

• India has the highest productivity of grapes, which is 22 tonnes/ha.

• India is the largest producer of milk in the world.

• India is the largest producer of mangoes in the world.

Miscellaneous

• The Ganges and Brahmaputra Delta (Sunderbans) form the world’s largest delta, which is 7500 ${\mathrm{km}}^2$ in area.
• Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) is the world’s largest open university.
• India has the world’s largest reserves of iron, which is approximately one-fourth of the world’s known reserves.
• India has the largest deposits of mica in the world.
• South Point High School, Kolkata is the world’s largest school.
• The world’s highest post office is located in Spiti Valley in Himachal Pradesh.

Buildings/Roads/Bridges

• Khardungla Road in the Leh-Manali sector is the world’s highest road, located 5602 meters above sea level. India’s Notable Achievements

• India Radio, Leh: This radio station in Leh holds the distinction of being the highest radio station in the world.

• Qutab Minar: Located in Delhi, the Qutab Minar is the tallest minaret in India.

• Mahatma Gandhi Setu: This bridge over the Ganga River in Patna is the longest river bridge in the world.

• Kharagpur Railway Platform: Found in West Bengal, this railway platform holds the record for being the longest in the world, stretching 833 meters.

• Farakka River Barrage: Situated in Kolkata, this barrage is the largest of its kind in the world.

• Yuva Bharati Stadium: Also in Kolkata, this stadium is the largest covered stadium globally.

• Jeevan Rekha Express: This unique hospital on wheels is the first of its kind in the world, providing medical services to remote areas.

Individual Achievements

• Shakuntla Devi: This remarkable woman holds the world record for the fastest computing, even surpassing the speed of a computer.

• Dr. Rajinder Singh: Hailing from Himachal Pradesh, Dr. Singh holds the world record for accurate and fastest typing, achieving a speed of 96.8 words per minute in 1998.

• Shambhoo Govind Anbhawane: Mr. Anbhawane set the world record for marathon typing by continuously typing for an incredible 123 hours.

• Dr. M. C. Modi: Dr. Modi achieved the world record for performing the maximum number of eye operations, with an impressive rate of 40 operations per hour.

• Mihir Sen: Mr. Sen from Kolkata holds the world record for the longest distance traveled by bicycle in a single day, covering an astounding 412 kilometers. India’s Superlatives

People

• Capt. Durga Bannerjee: She is the first woman pilot in the world and holds the record for flying the most hours.
• Lata Mangeshkar: She holds the world record for recording the most songs.
• Dicky Dolma: She is from Manali and holds the record for being the youngest person to climb Mount Everest at the age of 19.
• Ms Santosh Yadav: She holds the record for climbing Mount Everest twice (among women).

Structures

• Highest Tower (Minaret): Qutub Minar
• Highest Gateway: Buland Darwaza (Fatehpur Sikri)
• Highest Dam: Bhakra Dam
• Highest Bridge: Chambal Bridge

Largest

• Largest Residence: Rashtrapati Bhawan
• Largest Cinema Hall: Thangam (Madurai) - Capacity over 2500 seats
• Largest Museum: Indian Museum, Kolkata
• Largest City: Kolkata
• Largest Tunnel: Jawahar Tunnel
• Largest River Barrage: Farakka Barrage
• Longest Dam: Hirakud Dam
• Largest Auditorium: Sri Shanmukhanda Hall, Mumbai (3012 seats) Largest Zoo: Zoological Garden, Alipur (Kolkata)

Largest Cave Temple: Ellora

Largest Gurudwara: Golden Temple, Amritsar

Biggest Church: The St John’s Cathedral, Goa

Largest Mosque: Jama Masjid, Delhi

Largest Dome: Gol Gumbaz, Bijaur (Karnataka)

Largest Cantilever Bridge: Howrah Bridge

Longest River Bridge: Mahatma Gandhi Setu, Patna

Longest Corridor: Rameshwaram Temple Corridor

Longest Platform (Railway): Kharagpur (World’s longest)

Longest Road Bridge: Sone Bridge, Bihar

Longest Road: G. T. Road

Biggest Fort: Red Fort, Delhi

Tallest Light House: Prongs Reef, Mumbai

Tallest Statue: Gomateshwar Statue, Mysore

Tallest Chimney: Thermal power station of Tata Electric Co., Mumbai (275 m high)

Largest man-made Lake: Govind Sagar (Bhakra)

Natural Wonders:

Highest Mountain Peak: Nanga Parvat

Longest River: Ganges

Largest Desert: Thar (Rajasthan)

Largest Delta: Sunderbans (West Bengal) States

• Largest State: Rajasthan
• Smallest State: Goa
• Largest Union Territory: Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• Smallest Union Territory: Lakshadweep
• State with the Most Cities: Uttar Pradesh
• Most Densely Populated State: West Bengal
• Most Populous State: Uttar Pradesh
• State with the Most Forest Area: Madhya Pradesh
• State with the Highest Cattle Population: Uttar Pradesh

Literacy Rates

• State with the Highest Literacy Rate: Kerala
• Union Territory with the Highest Literacy Rate: Chandigarh

Mineral Output

• State with the Highest Mineral Output: Jharkhand

Paper Mills

• State with the Maximum Number of Paper Mills: Uttar Pradesh

Agricultural Production

• State Producing the Maximum Amount of Sugar: Uttar Pradesh

• State Producing the Maximum Amount of Wheat: Uttar Pradesh

• State Producing the Maximum Amount of Rice: West Bengal

• State Producing the Maximum Amount of Tea: Assam

• State Producing the Maximum Amount of Cotton: Gujarat

• State Producing the Maximum Amount of Sugarcane: Uttar Pradesh Dances of India

• Bharatanatyam: This is a solo dance that comes from the temples of South India. It is based on a book called “Natya Shastra,” which was written by Bharat Muni around 4000 BC. Bharatanatyam is a very traditional dance form with different parts, like alarippu, varnam, padam, and thillana.

• Odissi: This dance form comes from Orissa and started in the second century BC. It is also based on the principles of Natya Shastra.

• Chakiarkoothu: This is a very traditional dance form that is believed to have been brought to Kerala by early Aryan immigrants. It is performed by members of the Chakiar caste inside temples and can only be seen by Hindus of higher castes.

• Manipuri: Manipuri is a dance form that is popular in the northeast of India. It is a very lyrical and ritualistic dance, but it doesn’t have a lot of dramatic facial and hand gestures.

• Kuchipudi: Kuchipudi is a solo dance that is popular in Andhra Pradesh. It is also based on the principles of Natya Shastra. Traditionally, it was performed by men dressed like women.

• Kathak: Kathak is a dance form that comes from North India. It is known for its fast spins and intricate footwork. Kathak:

• A famous dance from North India.

• Started in temples as stories about Radha and Krishna.

• Later, it moved from temples to the courts of Mughal rulers.

• Lucknow, Jaipur, and Varanasi became important centers for Kathak.

Kathakali:

• A well-known dance from Kerala.
• More dramatic than telling a story.
• Considered very scientific.
• Uses body gestures, hand movements, and eye movements to communicate.

Mohiniattam:

• A solo dance from Kerala.
• Similar to Bharatanatyam, Odissi, and Kuchipudi because it comes from the Devdasi dance tradition.

Ottam Thullal:

• Also called “poor man’s Kathakali.”
• A solo dance that started in Kerala.

Other Popular Dances:

• Bhangra: A dance from Punjab and Haryana.
• Bidesia: A dance from Bihar.
• Bihu: A dance from Assam.
• Chakri: A dance from Jammu and Kashmir.
• Chamar Gindad: A dance from Rajasthan.
• Chau: A dance from West Bengal.
• Chiraw (Bamboo dance): A dance from Mizoram.
• Dandiya Raas: A dance from Rajasthan.
• Danda Nata: A dance from Orissa. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

Dance Form	State
Dasi Atitam	Kerala
Garba	Gujarat
Ganpati Bhajan	Gujarat
Gangore	Rajasthan
Gidda	Punjab and Haryana
Giddha/Parhaun	Himachal Pradesh
Gopiki Leela	Rajasthan
Jata Jatin	Bihar
Jatra	West Bengal
Ghoomar	Rajasthan
Kajir	Uttar Pradesh
Kayanga Bakayanga	Himachal Pradesh
Karyala	Himachal Pradesh
Kammi	Tamil Nadu
Khayal	Rajasthan
Khel Gopal	Assam
Kolattam	Tamil Nadu
Koodiyattam	Kerala
Kottam	Andhra Pradesh
Krishnavattam	Kerala
Lagui	Bihar
Lai Haroba	Manipur
Lota	Madhya Pradesh
Luddi Dance	Himachal Pradesh
Munzra	Himachal Pradesh
Nachari	Bihar
Nautanki	Uttar Pradesh
Pandavani	Madhya Pradesh
Raslila	Gujarat
Roof	Jammu and Kashmir
Swang	Haryana
Tamasha	Maharashtra
Therukkoothu	Tamil Nadu
Tobal Chougbi	Assam
Veeti Bhagavatam	Andhra Pradesh
Wangala Laho	Meghalaya
Yakshagana	Karnataka

Transport and Communication

Postal Service

• The first postal service in India started in 1837.

• The first postal stamp was issued in Karachi in 1852.

• The first all-India postal stamp was issued in 1854.

• The Postal Department was established in 1854.

• Money Order service started in 1880.

• Airmail Service started in 1911 between Allahabad and Nainital.

• PIN Code started in 1972.

• As of March 2013, there were 1,54,866 post offices in India.

• Out of these, 1,39,040 (89.70%) were in rural areas and 15,826 (10.16%) were in urban areas.

• On average, a post office in India serves a geographic area of about 21.23 square kilometers and a population of 7817 people.

• India has the largest postal network in the world.

• There are three categories of post offices in India: Head Post offices, Sub-Post Offices, and Extra Departmental Branch Post Offices.

• The Indian postal network has grown 7 times since independence.

• In addition to post offices, basic postal facilities are also offered through Franchise Outlets and Panchayat Sanchar Seva Kendras. Telecommunication in India

• The first telephone line in India was set up in 1851 between Kolkata and Diamond Harbour.

• The first telephone service was started in Kolkata in 1881.

• The first telephone exchange was also set up in Kolkata in 1881, with only 50 lines.

• The first international telephone line was established between London and Mumbai in 1870.

• The first automatic telephone exchange was installed in Shimla in 1913-14, with a capacity of 700 lines.

• As of June 2013, there were 93.10 million telephone subscribers in India, including 29.73 million landline subscribers and 873.37 million mobile/wireless subscribers.

• Out of these, 357.74 million telephones were in rural areas, while 545.36 million were in urban areas.

• As of April 2013, 5.82 lakh (97.14%) villages in India were covered by Village Public Telephones (VPTs).

• There were 15.19 million broadband subscribers in India.

• The total number of Internet subscribers, including broadband, was 21.61 million as of March 2013.

• The Department of Telecommunications (DoT) has four public sector undertakings (PSUs):

  1. MTNL (Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited)
  2. BSNL (Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited)
  3. ITI (Indian Telephone Industries Limited)
  4. TCIL (Telecommunications Consultants India Limited) Telecommunications in India

• MTNL (Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Ltd.): A government-owned telecommunications company that provides services in Delhi and Mumbai.

• BSNL (Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd.): A government-owned telecommunications company that provides services throughout India.

• ITI Ltd. (Indian Telephone Industries Limited): A government-owned company that manufactures telecommunications equipment.

• TCIL (Telecommunications Consultants India Ltd.): A government-owned company that provides consulting services for telecommunications projects.

Telecommunications Statistics

• The average number of telephone connections per 100 people in India is 73.50% (as of June 2010).
• In rural areas, the average number of telephone connections per 100 people is 41.96%.
• In urban areas, the average number of telephone connections per 100 people is 145.00%.

Indian Railways

• The first train in India ran from Mumbai to Thane on April 16, 1853.
• The fastest train in India is the Bhopal Shatabdi Express.
• The first electric train in India was the Deccan Queen, which started running in 1929.
• The Indian Railway system is the largest in Asia and the third largest in the world, after the United States and Canada.
• Indian Railways is the largest employer in the world and the largest single undertaking in India.
• Indian Railways has the second largest electrified system in the world, after Russia.

13 PSUs of Indian Railways

• RITES (Rail India Technical and Economic Services Ltd.): A government-owned company that provides technical and economic services for railway projects.
• IRCON (Indian Railway Construction) International Ltd. A government-owned company that constructs railways and other infrastructure projects.
• IRFC (Indian Railway Finance Corporation Ltd.): A government-owned company that finances railway projects.
• CONCOR (Container Corporation of India Ltd.): A government-owned company that provides container transportation services.
• KRCL (Konkan Railway Corporation Ltd.): A government-owned company that operates the Konkan Railway.
• MVRL (Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation Ltd.): A government-owned company that develops railway infrastructure in Mumbai.
• IRCTC (Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Ltd.): A government-owned company that provides catering and tourism services for railway passengers. Here is the simplified version of the content:

1. IRCTC (Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Ltd.)
2. Rail Tel (Railtel Corporation of India Ltd.)
3. MRVNL (Mumbai Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd.)
4. RVNL (Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd.)
5. DFCCIL (Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Ltd.)
6. BWFL (Bharat Wagon and Engineering Company Ltd.)
7. BCL (Braithwaite and Company Ltd.)

In addition, CRIS (Centre for Railway Information Systems) is a registered society that designs and implements various railway computerization projects. RDSO (Research and Development Standards Organization) in Lucknow is the research and development wing of Indian Railways.

Table 5.1 Railway Tracks

Rail Tracks	Distance Between Rails	Route (km)	Running Track (km)	Total Track (km)
1. Broad Gauge	1676 mm	55,956	80,779	1,04,693
2. Metre Gauge	1000 mm	6347	6725	7801
3. Narrow Gauge	762 mm/610 mm	2297	22	Manufacturing Units:

Name	Location	Established	Products
Chittaranjan Locomotive Works	Chittaranjan	1950	Locomotives
Diesel Locomotive Works	Varanasi	1964	Locomotives
Integral Coach Factory	Perambur	1955	Coaches
Rail Coach Factory	Kapurthala	1988	Coaches, wagons, and special containers
Rail Wheel Factory	Bangalore	2004	Wheels and axles

Jeevan Rekha:

Jeevan Rekha, also known as Life Line Express, is the world’s first hospital on wheels. It was launched in Mumbai on July 16, 1991, to provide medical care to people in rural areas.

Roads:

Type of Road	Length
Expressways	200 km
National Highways/Expressways	79,243 km
State Highways	1,32,899 km
Major District Roads	4,67,763 km
Rural Roads	26,50,000 km

National Highways (by Width):

Width	Length
Single lane	19,430 km

• India has the second largest road network in the world, with a total length of 33 lakh kilometers.
• National Highways make up only about 1.7% of the total road length, but they carry over 40% of the traffic.
• About 65% of freight and 80% of passenger traffic is transported by road.
• The number of vehicles on the road has been growing at an average rate of 10.16% per year over the last five years.

Shipping in India

• Shipping is an important part of India’s economy.

• India has the 20th largest merchant shipping fleet in the world.

• The Shipping Corporation of India (SCI) was established in 1961 and became a public limited company in 1992. Shipping Corporation of India (SCI)

• On February 24, 2000, SCI was given the “Mini Ratna” status.

• SCI is a leader in India for:

  • STS operations for crude PDL and dry cargoes
  • Cryogenic Operations (LNG/LPG)
  • Joint Ventures and other collaborations in Shipping
  • Shipping Consultancy services

Major Shipyards in India

• Cochin Shipyard Ltd. (CSL)
• Hindustan Shipyard Ltd. (HSL)
• Hooghly Dock and Port Engineers Ltd. (HDPEL)

Other Facts About Shipping in India

• About 95% of India’s trade by volume (and 68% by value) is transported by sea.
• India has the 16th largest merchant shipping fleet in the world, and it is the largest among developing nations.
• The average age of ships in the Indian merchant shipping fleet is only 18.03 years.
• India has a 7517 km long coastline with 13 major ports and 200 non-major ports.
• India has various aids to navigation, including 1 lightship, 178 lighthouses, 64 Racons, 21 Deep Sea Lighted Buoys, 2 Wreck Marking Buoys, and 23 Differential Global Positioning Systems (DGPS). India has a long coastline of 7500 kilometers. There are 12 major ports in India that are directly controlled by the Indian government. There are also about 184 smaller ports in the country.

Here is a table of the major ports in India:

Port	State	Sea	Coast
Mumbai	Maharashtra	Arabian Sea	West
Kolkata	West Bengal	Bay of Bengal	East
Kochi	Kerala	Arabian Sea	West
Kandla	Gujarat	Gulf of Kutch	West
Chennai	Tamil Nadu	Bay of Bengal (Indian Sea)	East
Mormugao	Goa	Arabian Sea	West
Mangalore	Karnataka	Arabian Sea	West
Tuticorin	Tamil Nadu	Indian Ocean	East
Visakhapatnam	Andhra Pradesh	Bay of Bengal	East
Paradeep	Orissa	Bay of Bengal	East
Nhava Sheva	Mumbai	Arabian Sea	West
Ennore	Maharashtra	Arabian Sea	East

In addition to these ports, India also has a network of inland waterways, which include rivers, lakes, and canals. Inland Waterways

• India has a vast network of rivers, canals, backwaters, and other waterways that stretch for about 14,500 kilometers.
• The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) is responsible for developing and regulating these waterways, but their full potential has not yet been realized.

Air Transport

• The first solo flight in India was made by J. R. D. Tata in 1931, from Mumbai to Karachi (now in Pakistan).
• There are 449 airports and airstrips in India, of which 125 are managed by the Airports Authority of India (AAI).
• These include 11 international airports, 8 customs airports, 81 domestic airports, and 25 civil enclaves at defense airfields.
• The AAI also provides air traffic management services over the entire Indian airspace and adjoining oceanic areas to ensure the safety of aircraft operations.
• The airports in Ahmedabad, Amritsar, Calicut, Guwahati, Jaipur, Trivandrum, Kolkata, and Chennai have been established as international airports. - Foreign airlines are allowed to operate at Indian airports.
• In addition to international flights, Indian airlines operate from Coimbatore, Tiruchirappalli, Varanasi, and Gaya airports.
• Tourist charters now fly to Agra, Coimbatore, Jaipur, Lucknow, Patna, and other airports.
• AAI has partnered with private companies to improve airports in Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bangalore, and Nagpur to meet international standards.
• Radar systems cover all major air routes over India (29 radar installations at 11 locations). VOR/DVOR systems (89 installations) and Distance Measuring Equipment (90 installations) are also available.
• 52 runways have Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) for night landings, and 15 airports have Automatic Message Switching Systems.
• Indian Civil Aviation celebrated its 100th anniversary on February 18, 2011.
• The year 2011-12 was declared the Civil Aviation Centenary Year, starting from February 18, 2011. On February 11, 1911:
• The first commercial plane flew in India.
• It flew between Allahabad and Naini.

Since then, aviation in India has grown a lot.

• Today, India is the 9th largest country for air travel in the world.
• By 2020, India is expected to be one of the top three countries for air travel.

There are three levels of air transport in India:

1. Air India (international flights)
2. Air India (domestic flights)
3. Private airlines and charters

Air India Express is a part of Air India.

• It was started to modernize Air India’s fleet.
• Air India Express has added many new planes to its fleet, including:
• Twelve B777 widebody aircrafts
• Eighteen B737-800 aircrafts
• Forty-three A320 family aircrafts
• Air India Express will also get twenty-seven B787 Dreamliner aircrafts.

Major private airlines in India include:

• Jet Airways

• Spicejet

• GoAir

• Indigo Recent Developments in Indian Aviation:

• Indian and some private airlines can now fly to specific international destinations.

Merger of Air India and Indian Airlines:

• The government approved the merger of Air India and Indian Airlines on March 1, 2007.
• A new company called National Aviation Company of India Ltd. (NACIL) was formed on March 30, 2007, with the brand name “Air India.”

Benefits of the Merger:

• The merger aimed to provide several benefits, including:
  • A combined international and domestic network, making it easier for customers to travel.
  • The ability to join one of the three major global airline alliances.
  • Better use of existing resources, such as aircraft and routes.

Airports in India:

• International Airports: These airports are open to scheduled international flights by Indian and foreign airlines.
• Custom Airports: These airports are designated for specific purposes, such as handling cargo or private flights. Major Airports in India

International Airports:

• Bangalore International Airport: Located in Bangalore, Karnataka.
• Hyderabad International Airport: Located in Hyderabad, Telangana.
• Ahmedabad International Airport: Located in Ahmedabad, Gujarat.
• Kozhikode International Airport: Located in Kozhikode, Kerala.
• Kochi International Airport: Located in Kochi, Kerala.
• Goa International Airport: Located in Goa.
• Varanasi International Airport: Located in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.
• Patna International Airport: Located in Patna, Bihar.
• Agra International Airport: Located in Agra, Uttar Pradesh.
• Jaipur International Airport: Located in Jaipur, Rajasthan.
• Amritsar International Airport: Located in Amritsar, Punjab.
• Tiruchirapalli International Airport: Located in Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu.

Model Airports:

• Lucknow Airport: Located in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
• Bhubaneswar Airport: Located in Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
• Guwahati Airport: Located in Guwahati, Assam.
• Nagpur Airport: Located in Nagpur, Maharashtra.
• Vadodara Airport: Located in Vadodara, Gujarat.
• Coimbatore Airport: Located in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.
• Imphal Airport: Located in Imphal, Manipur.
• Indore Airport: Located in Indore, Madhya Pradesh.

Other Domestic Airports:

• All other airports in India that are not classified as international or model airports.

Civil Enclaves in Defence Airports:

• There are 28 civil enclaves located within Defence Airfields in India. List of International Airports in India:

• Guwahati International Airport: Located in Guwahati, Assam.

• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport: Located in Ahmedabad, Gujarat.

• Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport: Located in Kolkata, West Bengal.

• Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport: Located in Mumbai, Maharashtra.

• Rajiv Gandhi International Airport: Located in Shamshabad, Hyderabad, Telangana.

• Goa Airport: Located in Dabolim, Goa.

• Chennai International Airport: Located in Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

• Bengaluru International Airport: Located in Devanhalli, Bengaluru, Karnataka.

• Cochin International Airport: Located in Kochi, Kerala.

• Trivandrum International Airport: Located in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

• Kozhikode Airport: Located in Calicut, Kerala.

• Pune Airport: Located in Pune, Maharashtra.

About Pawan Hans Helicopters Ltd. (PHHL):

• PHHL was established in 1985.
• It started operations within a year to provide helicopter services in the oil sector, hilly areas, and for travel and tourism.
• PHHL has a fleet of 35 helicopters.
• It operates from 39 destinations, covering 64 sectors with 148 weekly flights. State Governments:
• Meghalaya
• Tripura
• Sikkim
• Arunachal Pradesh

Seaplane Operations:

• On December 27, 2010, a seaplane service started operating in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• This is the first time seaplanes are being used in India.
• The service uses a Cessna 208A Amphibian seaplane, which can carry 2 pilots and 8 passengers.

Project GAGAN:

• GAGAN stands for GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation.
• It is a system that makes GPS signals more accurate and reliable for use in civil aviation.
• GAGAN is being developed by the Airports Authority of India (AAI) and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
• The system will cover a large area from Africa to Australia, which will allow it to be used beyond Indian airspace.
• GAGAN will help improve air navigation and safety. India’s Defence Set-Up

The President of India is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces. The Ministry of Defence has administrative control over the armed forces.

Commissioned Ranks

The following are the commissioned ranks in the three armed services:

Army

• Headed by the Chief of Army Staff
• Headquarters in New Delhi

The Chief of the Army Staff is assisted by the Vice-Chief of the Army Staff.

Air Force

• Headed by the Chief of the Air Staff
• Headquarters in New Delhi

The Chief of the Air Staff is assisted by the Vice-Chief of the Air Staff.

Navy

• Headed by the Chief of the Naval Staff
• Headquarters in New Delhi

The Chief of the Naval Staff is assisted by the Vice-Chief of the Naval Staff. Army Staff and Principal Staff Officers:

The Army Staff consists of two Deputy Chiefs, the Adjutant General, the Master General of Ordinance, the Quarter-Master General, Military Security, and the Engineer-in-Chief.

Commands:

There are seven commands in the Indian Army:

• Western Command (Headquarters: Chandimandir)
• Eastern Command (Headquarters: Kolkata)
• Northern Command (Headquarters: Udhampur)
• Southern Command (Headquarters: Pune)
• Central Command (Headquarters: Lucknow)
• Training Command (Headquarters: Mhow)
• South-Western Command (Headquarters: Jaipur)

Each command is led by a General Officer Commanding-in-Chief.

Nuclear and Strategic Force Command:

There is also a Nuclear and Strategic Force Command in the Indian Army.

Combat Vehicles:

The Indian Army uses a variety of combat vehicles, including:

• Main Battle Tanks (MBTs): T-90S Bhishma, Arjun Mk1, Upgraded T-72M1 Ajeya

• Light Battle Tanks (LBTs): PT-76 (Amphibious) and AMX-13 light tanks

• Combat Vehicles: Ferret armoured cars, BRDM-2 amphibious reconnaissance vehicles, BMP-1 and BMP-2 infantry fighting vehicles, and OT-64 SKOT armoured personnel carriers. India’s Missiles and Other Artillery

• India has different types of missiles, including medium-range ballistic missiles like Agni-II and Agni-IIAT. Agni-II can be launched quickly, within 15 minutes of being ready.

• India also has short-range ballistic missiles like SS-150/Prithvi-I, SS-250/Prithvi-III, and Agni-I.

• India uses Multiple Rocket Launch Systems like Smerch 9K58, Pinaka, and BM-21. BM-21 is being phased out.

• India has different types of Howitzers, including Abbot, M-46 Catapult, Bofors FH-77B, Soltam M-46, IFG Mk 1/2/3 field guns, Soltom M-46, and D-30.

India’s Air Defence Artillery

• India has Tunguska M1 and upgraded ZSU-23-4M Schilka self-propelled air defence guns.

• India also has Bofors L40/70 (40 mm) AA guns. Air Force

• The head of the Air Force is called the Chief of Air Staff.

• The headquarters of the Air Force is in New Delhi.

The Chief of Air Staff is helped by:

1. Vice-Chief of Air Staff
2. Deputy Chief of Air Staff
3. Central Air Command
4. Officer Incharge, Maintenance
5. Inspector General, Flight Safety and Inspection

Number of Commands

The Indian Air Force has seven commands. Five of these commands are operational, and two are functional.

Five Operational Commands

1. HQ Central Air Command, Allahabad
2. HQ Eastern Air Command, Shillong
3. HQ Western Air Command, New Delhi
4. HQ Southern Air Command, Thiruvananthapuram
5. HQ South-Western Air Command, Gandhi Nagar

Two Functional Commands

1. HQ Maintenance Command, Nagpur:

• Nagpur is a city in India.

HQ Training Command, Bangalore:

• There is a training center for the Indian Air Force in Bangalore, India.

Aircraft:

• The Indian Air Force has many different types of aircraft.

Helicopters:

• The Indian Air Force has many different types of helicopters, including:
  • MI-26 (heavy lift helicopter)
  • MI-17s and MI-8s (rotorcrafts)
  • ALOUETTE III, renamed Chetak (anti-tank) and Cheetah (general duties)
  • Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH) named DHRUV, developed by Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd.

Trainer:

• The Indian Air Force has HT-2 primary trainers, including:
  • HPT-32 named Deepak
  • HJT 16 named Kiran

Fighter/Ground Attack:

• The Indian Air Force has many different types of fighter and ground attack aircraft, including:
  • SU-30 (Russian)
  • Mirage-2000 (French, rechristened as Vajra)
  • MiG-29 (rechristened as Baaz), MiG-27, MiG-23 MF, and MiG-21 BIS (all Russian)
  • Jaguar (Anglo-French)
  • IL-76 and AN-32 (Russian)
  • VRO (British)
  • Dornier (German)
  • Boeing 737-200 (American)

Transport:

• The Indian Air Force has many different types of transport aircraft, including:
  • MI-26, MI-25, and MI-17 (Russian)
  • Chetak and Cheetah (French)
  • Lakshya (a Pilotless Target Aircraft developed by DRDO)

Modernization Plan:

• The Indian Air Force plans to buy more Su-30 aircraft, the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA), the Medium Multi Role Combat Aircraft (MMRCA), and more helicopters and transport aircraft. The Indian Air Force (IAF) has started the process of buying more Mi-17 IV helicopters, heavy lift helicopters, Advanced Light Helicopters, and Light Combat Helicopters.

For the transport fleet, the IAF plans to add Boeing Business Jets (BBJ), Flight Refuelling Aircraft (FRA), Airborne Warning and Control Systems (AWACS), Heavy Transport Aircraft (HETAC), C-130J Hercules, and Medium Transport Aircraft (MTA).

Among trainer aircraft, the Hawk Advanced Jet Trainer has been added, and the Intermediate Jet Trainer (IJT) will be bought.

The IAF is also in the process of buying radars in various categories to meet Air Defence requirements, accurate and advanced weapons, Network Centric Warfare systems, etc., to meet its assigned tasks.

NAVY

• The Chief of Naval Staff is the head of the Navy.
• The Navy’s headquarters is in New Delhi.

The Chief of the Naval Staff is helped by five Principal Staff Officers:

1. Vice-Chief of Naval Staff
2. Chief of Personnel
3. Chief of Material
4. Deputy Chief of Naval Staff 5. Controller of Logistic Support

There are three main commands in the Indian Navy:

• Western Naval Command, headquartered in Mumbai
• Eastern Naval Command, headquartered in Vishakhapatnam (operational command)
• Southern Naval Command, headquartered in Kochi (used for training)

Each command is led by a Flag Officer Commanding-in-Chief.

Fleets

There are two fleets in the Indian Navy:

• Western Fleet
• Eastern Fleet

Aircraft Carriers

• INS Vikrant was India’s first aircraft carrier, but it retired in 1997.
• INS Viraat is currently the largest aircraft carrier in the Indian Navy.
• INS Vikramaditya, a former Soviet aircraft carrier, is being refitted and is expected to enter service in the Indian Navy after 2012.
• INS Vikramaditya is projected to replace INS Viraat as India’s only currently serving aircraft carrier.

A Peek into India’s Naval Fleet

Surface Ships

Aircraft Carriers

• INS Viraat ## Missile Boats

• Chamak Class: Chamak and Chapal

Training Ships

• Tir Class: Tir
• Leander Class: Krishna
• Sail Training Ships: Tarangini

Fleet Auxiliaries

• Fleet Tankers: Jyoti, Aditya, Shakti
• Diving Support Ship: Nireekshak
• Torpedo Recovery Vessel: Astravahini, TRV A-72
• Oceangoing Tugs: Matanga, Gaj

Survey and Research Ships

• Sagardhwani Class: Sagardhwani
• Sandhayak Class: Sandhayak, Nirdeshak, Nirupak, Investigator, Jamuna, Sutlej, Darshak, Sarvekshak

Seaward Defence Forces

• Tarasa Class FAC(G): Tarasa, Trinkat
• Seaward Defence Boats: T 54-59, Mithun FACs - T 80-84

Aircrafts and Helicopters

• Sea Harrier: British Aerospace-Sea Harrier FRS MK 51/T
• Sea King: Sea King $42/42\mathrm{A}/42\mathrm{B}/42\mathrm{C}$
• Chetak: Aerospatiale-HAL
• Kamov: Kamov Ka-28/Helix B
• Ka-25 (Hormone)
• Islander
• Advanced Light Helicopter: HAL Advanced Light Helicopter
• Dornier: Dornier 228
• IL 38: Ilyushin IL-38 Aircraft:

10. TU-142: This is a type of aircraft called the Tupolev Tu-142 M-Bear F.
11. Kiran: This is a type of aircraft called the Kiran Mk 1/1A.

Submarines:

• Shishumar Class: This class of submarines includes the Shishumar, Shankush, Shalki, and Shankul.
• Sindhughosh Class: This class of submarines includes the Sindhughosh, Sindhudhvaj, Sindhuraj, Sindhuvir, Sindhuratna, Sindhukesari, Sindhukirti, Sindhuvijay, Sindhurakshak, and Sindhushastra.

Submarine-based Missiles:

India has several foreign-made cruise missile systems, such as the Klub SS-N-27, and some indigenous cruise missile systems, such as the lakshya PTA. India is also developing several Submarine-Launched Cruise Missile (SLCM) systems, such as the Sagarika and Lakshya variants, and an Anti-ship Missile system called the BrahMos.

INS Kursura:

The INS Kursura was a submarine that was commissioned in Riga, USSR, on December 18, 1969. It played a vital role in the 1971 Indo-Pak war and participated in various naval operations during its 31 years of service. The submarine INS Kursura was taken out of service on February 27, 2001. In 2002, it was turned into a submarine museum on RK Beach in Visakhapatanam.

Where are the Defense Establishments?

Army

• Indian Military Academy: Dehradun
• Army Officers’ Training School: Chennai
• The Armoured Corps Centre and School: Ahmednagar
• The College of Military Engineering: Pune
• The School of Signals: Mhow
• The School of Artillery: Deolali
• The Infantry School: Mhow
• The Army Ordnance Corps School: Jabalpur
• The Army Education Corps and Training Centre: Pachmarhi
• The Service Corps School: Bareilly
• The Remount, Veterinary and Farms Corps Centre and School: Meerut
• The School of Physical Training: Pune
• The School of Mechanical Transport: Bangalore
• The Corps Military Police Centre and School: Faizabad
• The Military School of Music: Pachmarhi
• The Electrical and Mechanical Engineering School: Trimulghery and Secundrabad

Navy

• Indian Naval Academy: Kochi

• INS Venduruthy Indian Navy

• Kochi: Naval Air Station

• Kochi: INS Shivaji

• Lonavla: INS Valsura

• Jamnagar: INS Circars

• Vishakhapatnam: INS Hamla

• Mumbai: INS Agrani

• Coimbatore: INS Gomantak

• Mormugao: INS Jarawa

• Kochi: Naval Gunnery School

• Kochi: Torpedo/Anti-Submarine School

• Mormugao: Navigation Direction School

Indian Air Force

• Allahabad: Pilot Training Establishment
• Coimbatore: Air Force Administrative College
• Bangalore: School of Aviation Medicine
• Hyderabad: Jet Training and Transport Training Wings
• Jalahali: Air Force Station
• Jalahali: Air Force Technical Training College
• Tambaram: Air Force School
• Agra: Air Force School
• Agra: Paratrooper’s Training School

Inter-Services Institutes

• Khadakvasla: National Defence Academy
• New Delhi: National Defence College
• Wellington: Defence Services Staff College
• Secunderabad: School of Land/Air Warfare
• New Delhi: School of Foreign Language
• Dehradun: Rashtriya Indian Military College
• Pune: Armed Forces Medical College
• Darjeeling: Himalayan Mountaineering Institute Darjeeling

Defense Production Undertakings

• Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. (HAL) has factories in Bangalore, Koraput, Nashik, Karwa, Kanpur, Lucknow, Barrackpore, and Hyderabad.
• Bharat Electronics Ltd. (BEL) has factories in Bangalore, Ghaziabad, Pune, Machilipatnam, Taloja, Panchkula, Kotdwara, Hyderabad, and Chennai.
• Bharat Earth Movers Ltd. (BEML) has factories in Bangalore, Mysore, and Kolar Gold Fields at Hyderabad.

Ship Building Factories

1. Mazagaon Dock Ltd. (MDL) is in Mumbai.
2. Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineering Ltd. (GRSE) is in Kolkata.
3. Goa Shipyards Ltd. (GSL) is in Goa.

Science and Technology

India’s Missile Programme

• India’s Integrated Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) started in 1982-83 by the Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) under the leadership of Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam.
• Agni, Prithvi, Trishul, Akash, Nag, and Astra are part of the IGMDP.
• DRDO is working on developing specialized missiles like Brahmos and Sagarika.

Agni The Agni missile family is India’s main missile-based nuclear deterrent.

• The Agni family will continue to grow, offering a variety of payload and range options.
• The Agni-I is a short-range ballistic missile with a single-stage engine.
• The Agni-II is an intermediate-range ballistic missile with two solid fuel stages and a Post Boost Vehicle (PBV) integrated into the missile’s reentry Vehicle (RV).

Variants

• Agni-TD: Two-stage, solid booster, and liquid-fueled second stage.

• IRBM Technology Demonstrator.

• Agni-I (A-1): Single-stage, solid fuel, road and rail mobile, short-range ballistic missile (SRBM). (Payload 1000 kg; Range 700-800 km)

• Agni-II (A-2): Two-stage, solid fuel, road and rail mobile, Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM). (Payload 750-1050 kg; Range 2000-3000 km)

• Agni-IIAT (A-2AT): Improved A-2 variant using more advanced and lighter material.

• Two-stage, solid fuel, road Agni-III:

• A two-stage, solid fuel missile that can be launched from submarines, roads, and rails.

• It can carry a payload of 2000-2500 kg and has a range of 3500-5000 km.

• It was inducted into the Indian military in June 2011 and serves as a nuclear deterrent against China.

Agni-IV:

• A three-stage, solid fuel missile that can be launched from roads and rails.
• It has a longer range than Agni-III and is capable of carrying a heavier payload.
• However, its launch failed in July 2006.

Agni-V:

• Scientists are currently working on this upgraded version of Agni-III.
• It is expected to have a range of 5000-6000 km.

Brahmos:

• A supersonic cruise missile that can be launched from submarines, ships, aircraft, and land-based mobile launchers.
• It is primarily designed as an anti-ship missile and is launched from a Transport-Launch Canister (TLC).

Variants:

• BrahmosD01: The first flight test of the Brahmos missile was conducted on 12 June 2001 in Orissa, India.

• Brahmos D02: The second flight test of the Brahmos supersonic cruise missile was conducted successfully on 29 March 2004. Prithvi

• India started a program called Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP) in 1983 to make different types of missiles that can be launched from the ground or air.

• Prithvi was the first missile made under this program.

• Prithvi-II was the first missile made in India that could hit targets up to 350 kilometers away. It was successfully tested in June 2011.

Variants

• SS-150/Prithvi-I is a missile that helps the army in battles. It can carry a load of 1000 kilograms and can hit targets up to 150 kilometers away.
• It is a missile that has one stage, two engines, uses liquid fuel, and can be moved on roads. It is a short-range missile that can be launched from the ground to hit targets on the ground. (It was added to the Indian Army in 1994.)
• SS-250/Prithvi-II is a missile that is used by the Indian Air Force. It can carry a load of 350-750 kilograms and can hit targets up to 250 kilometers away. Prithvi-II (SS-250):
• Single-stage, dual-engine, liquid-fueled missile.
• Can be moved on roads.
• Short-range surface-to-surface missile.
• Inducted into the Indian Army in 1994.
• Payload capacity increased to 1000 kg using boosted liquid propellant.

Prithvi-III (SS-350):

• Solid-fueled version of Prithvi-II.
• Range increased to 350 km.
• Payload capacity of 1000 kg.
• Two-stage, solid-fuel, road-mobile, short-range, surface-to-surface missile.

Sagarika:

• Submarine-launched variant of Prithvi-III.
• Intended for nuclear-powered submarines.
• Payload capacity of 500-1000 kg.
• Range of 350-600 km.

Project K-15:

• Under development.
• Will enable the missile to be launched from a submerged submarine.

Dhanush:

• System consisting of a stabilization platform and the missile.

• Can fire either the SS-250 or Prithvi-III missiles. Akash

• The Akash is a medium-range missile used to defend against aircraft and missiles.

• It was first tested in 1990 and has been in development since then.

• It works with the Rajendra radar to find and track targets.

• The Akash will replace the SA-6 missile in India and may be used with the S-300V missile to defend against short-range ballistic missiles from Pakistan and China.

Trishul

• The Trishul is a short-range missile designed to shoot down aircraft and missiles that are flying low.

• It has been tested against targets flying close to the ground and against moving targets. Trishul

• It can travel up to 9 kilometers and carries a 5.5-kilogram warhead that explodes into fragments.

• It takes about 6 seconds from the time it detects a target to the time it launches.

• India decided to stop working on the Trishul missile project in 2008 because it was too expensive to develop.

• The Trishul missile is no longer used by the military, but it is still used to show off new technology.

Nag

• The Nag is a modern anti-tank missile that can be used in any weather and can attack from above.
• It is one of five missiles developed by the Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) as part of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP).
• Work on the missile began in 1988, and the first tests were conducted in November 1990.

Astra

• The Astra is a cutting-edge air-to-air missile that can travel more than 80 kilometers when fired head-on and 20 kilometers when fired from behind. - In May 2003, test flights were carried out.
• Astra can hit moving targets with great accuracy. Sharma’s Career: Sharma started working as a test pilot at Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. (HAL).

Space Missions:

Aryabhata:

• India sent its first experimental satellite into space on April 19, 1975.
• It was launched from a space center in the Soviet Union.
• The satellite did scientific experiments using X-rays in space and sent the information back to Earth.

Bhaskara-I:

• India’s second satellite was launched on June 7, 1979.
• It weighed 436 kilograms.
• The satellite collected information about India’s land, water, forests, and oceans.

Rohini:

• The Rohini series of satellites were made for Indian scientific programs.
• Four Rohini satellites were launched: Rohini-1A, -1B, -2, and -3.
• Rohini-1B was the first Indian satellite launched by an Indian rocket.

Rohini 1B:

• Launched on July 18, 1980, from Sriharikota using the SLV-3 rocket.
• It was India’s first successful satellite launch.
• This experimental satellite was launched after the failure of Rohini-1A.

Rohini 1A:

• Launched on August 10, 1979.
• It re-entered Earth’s orbit on May 20, 1981.

Rohini 2:

• Launched on May 31, 1981, using the SLV rocket. 3 from Sriharikota

• Rohini 3: Launched on April 17, 1983, from Sriharikota using the SLV-3 rocket.

• It had two cameras and a special radio beacon.

• This satellite sent back about 5000 pictures of Earth before it was turned off on September 24, 1984.

• It came back into orbit on April 19, 1990.

APPLE (Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment)

• India’s first experimental satellite that stayed in a fixed position above Earth. It weighed 673 kilograms and was launched on June 19, 1981.

Bhaskara-II

• India’s second satellite for observing Earth. It was launched on November 20, 1981.

SLV Mission (Satellite Launch Vehicle)

• India’s first satellite launch vehicle, called SLV-3, was successfully launched on July 18, 1980, from Sriharikota.

• Rohini-2 (RS-D2) was put into orbit on April 17, 1983, using SLV-3. This completed the planned test flights of the SLV-3.

IRS Mission (Indian Remote Sensing Satellite)

• IRS-1A, India’s first IRS satellite, was launched on March 17, 1988, to monitor and manage natural resources.

• IRS-1B, India’s second IRS satellite, was launched on August 29, 1991. - A new remote sensing satellite was sent into space on August 29, 1991. It replaced the IRS-IA satellite, which was about to stop working.

• The IRS system was made even better with the addition of IRS-IC, IRS-P3, IRS-ID, and IRS-P4. The last three satellites were launched on December 28, 1995, by a Russian rocket. IRS-ID was launched by PSLV on September 29, 1997.

• IRS-P3 was launched on March 21, 1996, by the third developmental flight of PSLV-D3.

• IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT), another satellite, was launched by PSLV on May 26, 1999.

• IRS-P5 and IRS-P6, two more satellites, are planned to be launched in the next three years. IRS-P5 will be used for mapping, and IRS-P6 will be used to study agriculture and natural resources.

ASLV Mission (Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle):

ASLV is a rocket designed to launch Indian satellites into low Earth orbit. It can carry satellites weighing up to 150 kilograms.

SROSS (Stretched Rohini Satellite Series):

• After two ASLV launches failed, SROSS-III, a 105-kilogram satellite, was successfully placed in a 450-kilometer-high orbit. - India’s fourth developmental flight was made on May 4, 1994.
• SROSS-C4 was successfully placed into Earth’s orbit from Sriharikota.
• ASLV is the forerunner of the more powerful Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and the Geosynchronous Launch Vehicle (GSLV).
• The first developmental flight of the PSLV, called PSLV-D1, failed on September 20, 1993.
• However, ISRO considered it a partial success because it showed India’s capabilities in liquid propulsion systems.

INSAT Mission (Indian National Satellite System)

• The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system is a joint project involving the Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications, Indian Meteorological Department, All India Radio, and Doordarshan.
• The Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee is responsible for the overall coordination and management of the INSAT system.
• Established in 1983, INSAT is one of the largest domestic satellite systems in the world. In the Asia Pacific Region, there are nine domestic communication satellite systems in operation. These satellites are: INSAT-2E, INSAT-3A, INSAT-3B, INSAT-3C, INSAT-3E, KALPANA-1, GSAT-2, EDUSAT, and INSAT-4A.

The most recent satellite, INSAT-4A, was successfully launched from Kourou in French Guyana on December 22, 2005. This satellite has greatly improved INSAT’s capabilities, especially for Direct-To-Home (DTH) television broadcasts.

Unfortunately, the launch of INSAT-4C on July 10, 2006, was unsuccessful.

Here is a brief overview of the INSAT launches:

• INSAT-1A: Launched on April 10, 1982, but failed prematurely.
• INSAT-1B: Launched on August 30, 1983, and was successful.
• INSAT-1C: Launched on July 22, 1988, but became redundant in 1989.
• INSAT-1D: Launched on July 17, 1990, and was successful, completing its mission.

INSAT-2 Projects

• INSAT-2A: India’s first indigenously built second-generation satellite. It was launched on July 10, 1992, and has 50% more capacity than the INSAT-I series.

• INSAT-2B: India’s second indigenously built satellite. It was launched on August 2, 1993, and has 50% more capacity than INSAT-2A. INSAT-2B

• INSAT-2B was launched by the European Space Agency from Kourou, French Guinea on July 23, 1993.

• It replaced INSAT-1B, which had completed its ten-year lifespan.

Current Satellites

• The INSAT system is currently served by satellites built by ISRO, including INSAT-2C, INSAT-2E, INSAT-3B, and INSAT-2DT (procured from ARABSAT in October 1997).

INSAT-3B

• INSAT-3B was launched in March 2000.
• It carried 12 extended C-band transponders, 3 Ku-band transponders, and CxS mobile satellite service transponders.

Press Trust of India (PTI)

• PTI uses INSAT’s broadcast facilities to provide news and information services at high speed and increased volume.

Business Communication and Mobile Satellite Service

• INSAT-2C, INSAT-2E, and INSAT-3B are being used to test business communication in the Ku-band and mobile satellite service.

Television Services

• INSAT has enabled a significant expansion in television services, with over 1079 TV transmitters linked through INSAT.

ASLV-D4

• The fourth developmental flight of the ASLV (Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle) was conducted successfully. On May 4, 1994, India launched the SROSS-C4 satellite into orbit from Sriharikota.

Today, India has a rocket called the PSLV that can launch satellites weighing up to 1200 kilograms into orbit.

The first successful launch of the PSLV took place on October 15, 1994, when it placed the IRS-P2 satellite into orbit.

The second and final test launch of the PSLV took place on March 21, 1996, when it placed the IRS-P3 satellite into orbit.

The first operational flight of the PSLV took place on September 20, 1997, when it placed the IRS-1D satellite into orbit.

The PSLV-C2 launch on May 26, 1996, placed the IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT) satellite, a Korean satellite called KITSAT-3, and a German satellite called TUBSAT into orbit.

The PSLV-C3 launch is planned to place the IRS-P5 satellite and a Belgian satellite called PROBA into orbit.

India is also developing a rocket called the GSLV, which will be able to launch satellites into a higher orbit. India’s Space Program

India is working on a new type of satellite called the INSAT class. These satellites weigh 2000 kilograms and are put into a special orbit called geosynchronous transfer orbit. This is still in the testing phase.

The PSLV C-7 rocket carried four satellites into space. The heaviest was the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite CARTOSAT-2, which weighs 680 kilograms. The other satellites were the Space Capsule Recovery Equipment (550 kilograms), Indonesia’s LAPANTUBSAT, and Argentina’s PEHUENSAT-1 (6 kilograms).

ISRO, the Indian Space Research Organisation, has five space centers:

• SHAR-Sriharikota Launching Range
• VSSC-Vikram Sarabhai Space Center
• ISAC-ISRO Satellite Center (under development)
• SAC-Space Applications Center (under development)
• ISTRAC-ISRO Telemetry Tracking and Command Network (under development)

India has developed several space launch vehicles:

• SLV-Satellite Launch Vehicle
• ASLV-Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle
• PSLV-Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
• GSLV-Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

India is also working on new space launch vehicles:

• GSLV Mk-I

• GSLV Mk-II

• GSLV Mk-III Launcher and Propulsion:

• ISRO’s biggest development area is the launcher and propulsion system.

• The launcher program has gradually changed over time. It started with the all-solid SLV-3 and now uses solid, liquid, and cryogenic fueled stages in the PSLV series (Delta class launcher) and GSLV (Ariane-class).

Indian Space Programme:

Satellite	Launch Date	Launch Vehicle	Type of Satellite
GSAT-14	January 5, 2014	GSLV-D5	Geo-Stationary Satellite
Mars Orbiter Mission Spacecraft	November 5, 2013	PSLV-C25	Space Mission
GSAT-7	August 30, 2013	Ariane-5; VA-215	Geo-Stationary Satellite
INSAT-3D	July 26, 2013	Ariane-5; VA-214	Geo-Stationary/Meteorological Satellite
IRNSS-1A	July 1, 2013	PSLV-C22	Navigation Satellite
SARAL	February 25, 2013	PSLV-C20	Earth Observation Satellite (World’s First Phone-operated Nano-satellite)
GSAT-10	September 29, 2012	Ariane-5VA209	Geo-Stationary Satellite
SPOT-6	September 9, 2012	PSLV-C21	Earth Observation Satellite

• PSLV-C21: Launched an Earth Observation Satellite.

2012

• PROITERES: Launched an Experimental/Small Satellite on September 9.

2012

• RISAT-1: Launched an Earth Observation Satellite on April 26.

2011

• Jugnu: Launched an Experimental/Small Satellite on October 12.

2011

• SRM Sat: Launched an Experimental/Small Satellite on October 12.

2011

• Megha-Tropiques: Launched an Earth Observation Satellite on October 12.

2011

• GSAT-12: Launched a Geo-Stationary Satellite on July 15.

2011

• GSAT-8: Launched a Geo-Stationary Satellite on May 21.

2011

• RESOURCESAT-2: Launched an Earth Observation Satellite on April 20.

2011

• YOUTHSAT: Launched an Experimental/Small Satellite on April 20.

2010

• GSAT-5P: Launched a Geo-Stationary Satellite on December 25.

2010

• STUDSAT: Launched an Experimental/Small Satellite on July 12.

2010

• CARTOSAT-2B: Launched an Earth Observation Satellite on July 12.

2010

• GSAT-4: Launched a Geo-Stationary Satellite on April 15.

2009

• Oceansat-2: Launched an Earth Observation Satellite on September 23. ANUSAT
• Launch Date: April 20, 2009
• Rocket: PSLV-C12
• Type: Experimental/Small Satellite

RISAT-2

• Launch Date: April 20, 2009
• Rocket: PSLV-C12
• Type: Earth Observation Satellite

Chandrayaan-1

• Launch Date: October 22, 2008
• Rocket: PSLV-C11
• Type: Space Mission

CARTOSAT - 2A

• Launch Date: April 28, 2008
• Rocket: PSLV-C9
• Type: Earth Observation Satellite

IMS-1

• Launch Date: April 28, 2008
• Rocket: PSLV-C9
• Type: Earth Observation Satellite

INSAT-4B

• Launch Date: March 12, 2007
• Rocket: Ariane-5ECA
• Type: Geo-Stationary Satellite

CARTOSAT - 2

• Launch Date: January 10, 2007
• Rocket: PSLV-C7
• Type: Earth Observation Satellite

SRE - 1

• Launch Date: January 10, 2007
• Rocket: PSLV-C7
• Type: Experimental/Small Satellite

INSAT-4CR

• Launch Date: September 2, 2007
• Rocket: GSLV-F04
• Type: Geo-Stationary Satellite

INSAT-4C

• Launch Date: July 10, 2006
• Rocket: GSLV-F02
• Type: Geo-Stationary Satellite

INSAT-4A

• Launch Date: December 22, 2005
• Rocket: Ariane-5GS
• Type: Geo-Stationary Satellite

HAMSAT

• Launch Date: May 5, 2005
• Rocket: PSLV-C6
• Type: Experimental/Small Satellite

CARTOSAT-1

• Launch Date: May 5, 2005
• Rocket: PSLV-C6
• Type: Earth Observation Satellite

EDUSAT (GSAT-3)

• Launch Date: September 20, 2004
• Rocket: GSLV-F01
• Type: Geo-Stationary Satellite

Resourcesat-1 (IRS-P6)

• Launch Date: October 17, 2003
• Rocket: PSLV-C5
• Type: Earth Observation Satellite Observation Satellite

Satellite	Launch Date	Launch Vehicle	Type of Satellite
INSAT-3A	April 10, 2003	Ariane-5G	Geostationary Satellite
INSAT-3E	September 28, 2003	Ariane-5G	Geostationary Satellite
GSAT-2	May 8, 2003	GSLV-D2	Geostationary Satellite
KALPANA-1 (METSAT)	September 12, 2002	PSLV-C4	Geostationary Satellite
INSAT-3C	January 24, 2002	Ariane-42L H10-3	Geostationary Satellite
Technology Experiment Satellite (TES)	October 22, 2001	PSLV-C3	Earth Observation Satellite
GSAT-1	April 18, 2001	GSLV-D1	Geostationary Satellite
INSAT-3B	March 22, 2000	Ariane-5G	Geostationary Satellite
Oceansat (IRS-P4)	May 26, 1999	PSLV-C2	Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-2E	April 3, 1999	Ariane-42P H10-3	Geostationary Satellite
INSAT-2DT	January 1998	Ariane-44L H10	Geostationary Satellite
IRS-1D	September 29, 1997	PSLV-C1	Earth Observation Satellite

Satellite	Launch Date	Rocket	Mission
INSAT-2D	June 4, 1997	Ariane-44L H10-3	Geo-Stationary Satellite
IRS-P3	March 21, 1996	PSLV-D3	Earth Observation Satellite
IRS-1C	December 28, 1995	Molniya	Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-2C	December 7, 1995	Ariane-44L H10-3	Geo-Stationary Satellite
IRS-P2	October 15, 1994	PSLV-D2	Earth Observation Satellite
Stretched Rohini Satellite Series (SROSS-C2)	May 4, 1994	ASLV	Space Mission
IRS-1E	September 20, 1993	PSLV-D1	Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-2B	July 23, 1993	Ariane-44L H10+	Geo-Stationary Satellite
INSAT-2A	July 10, 1992	Ariane-44L H10	Geo-Stationary Satellite
Stretched Rohini Satellite Series (SROSS-C)	May 20, 1992	ASLV	Space Mission
IRS-1B	August 29, 1991	Vostok	Earth Observation Satellite
INSAT-1D	June 12, 1990	Delta 4925	Geo-Stationary Satellite
INSAT-1C	July 21, 1988	Ariane-3	Geo-Stationary Satellite
Stretched Rohini Satellite Series (SROSS-2)	July 13, 1983	SLV-3	Space Mission

Satellite	Launch Date	Launch Vehicle	Type of Satellite
INSAT-1A	April 10, 1982	Delta 3910 PAM-D	Geo-Stationary Satellite
Bhaskara-II	November 20, 1981	C-1 Intercosmos	Earth Observation Satellite
Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment (APPLE)	June 19, 1981	Ariane-1(V-3)	Geo-Stationary Satellite
Rohini (RS-D1)	May 31, 1981	SLV-3	Earth Observation Satellite
Rohini (RS-1)	July 18, 1980	SLV-3	Experimental/Small Satellite
Rohini Technology Payload (RTP)	August 10, 1979	SLV-3	Experimental/Small Satellite
Bhaskara-I	June 7, 1979	C-1 Intercosmos	Earth Observation Satellite
Stretched Rohini Satellite Series (SROSS-1)	March 24, 1987	ASLV	Space Mission
INSAT-1B	August 30, 1983	Shuttle (PAM-D)	Geo-Stationary Satellite
Rohini (RS-D2)	April 17, 1983	SLV-3	Earth Observation Satellite
IRS-1A	March 17, 1988	Vostok	Earth Observation Satellite
ASLV	July 13, 1988	ASLV	Earth Observation Satellite

Earth Observation Satellite

Aryabhata

• Launched on April 19, 1975
• C-1 Intercosmos satellite
• Experimental/Small Satellite

India’s Atomic Research

First Nuclear Explosion

• Conducted on May 18, 1974, in the Pokharan desert in Rajasthan
• Aim was to use atomic energy for peaceful purposes, such as digging canals, building reservoirs, exploring for oil, and studying rock dynamics
• Made India the sixth nuclear nation in the world

ISRO Centers

• National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC)

• Physical Research Laboratory (PRL)

• National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL)

• North Eastern Space Applications Centre (NE-SAC)

• Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL)

• Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)

• Antrix Corporation Ltd. (Antrix)

• Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC)

• Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC)

• Spacecraft Design and Development Centre (SDSC)

• ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC)

• Space Applications Centre (SAC)

• Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IISU)

• Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU)

• Master Control Facility (MCF)

• ISRO Telemetry, Tracking, and Command Network (ISTRAC)

• Liquid Propulsion Test Facilities (LEOS)

• Indian Institute of Space Technology (IIST)

• Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) Space Research Organizations:

• Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre: Develops and tests liquid propulsion systems for rockets.

• Satish Dhawan Space Centre: India’s main spaceport, located in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.

• ISRO Satellite Centre: Designs and builds satellites.

• Space Application Centre: Develops and uses space technology for various applications, such as communication, weather forecasting, and remote sensing.

• ISRO Interial Systems Unit: Develops and tests inertial navigation systems for rockets and satellites.

• Development and Educational Communication Unit: Creates educational materials and programs related to space science.

• Master Control Facility: Controls and monitors satellites in orbit.

• ISRO Telemetry Tracking and Command Network: Tracks and communicates with satellites in orbit.

• Laboratory for Electro-optic Systems: Develops and tests electro-optic systems for satellites.

• Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology: Provides education and research in space science and technology.

• Indian Institute of Remote Sensing: Provides education and research in remote sensing technology.

Atomic Energy Commission:

• Established in 1948 to oversee India’s atomic energy programs.

Department of Atomic Energy (DAE):

• Created in 1954 to implement atomic energy programs.
• Headed by the Prime Minister of India.
• Includes five research centers:
  • Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC): India’s largest atomic research center, located in Trombay, Maharashtra.
  • Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research: Located in Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu.
  • Centre for Advanced Technology: Located in Indore, Madhya Pradesh.
  • Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology: Located in Indore, Madhya Pradesh.
  • Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre: Located in Kolkata, West Bengal. Nuclear Power in India

The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) is responsible for the development and regulation of nuclear power in India. It was established in 1954 and is headquartered in Mumbai.

DAE’s Organizations and Institutes

DAE has several organizations and institutes that work on different aspects of nuclear power. These include:

Industrial Organizations:

• Heavy Water Board (HWB): Produces heavy water, which is used as a moderator in nuclear reactors.
• Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC): Manufactures nuclear fuel for reactors.
• Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT): Develops and uses radiation and isotope technologies for various applications.

Public Sector Undertakings:

• Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL): Operates nuclear power plants in India.
• Uranium Corporation of India Ltd. (UCIL): Mines uranium, which is used as fuel in nuclear reactors.
• Indian Rare Earth Ltd. (IRE): Produces rare earth minerals, which are used in various industries.
• Electronics Corporation of India Ltd. (ECIL): Manufactures electronic components and systems for nuclear power plants.

Service Organizations:

• Directorate of Purchase and Stores (DPS): Procures goods and services for DAE’s organizations.
• Construction, Services and Estate Management Group: Manages the construction and maintenance of DAE’s facilities.
• General Services Organization (GSO): Provides various support services to DAE’s organizations.
• Atomic Energy Education Society (AEES): Promotes nuclear education and research.

Autonomous National Institutes:

DAE also financially supports seven autonomous national institutes that conduct research in various areas of nuclear science and technology. These institutes include:

• Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR)
• Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)
• Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR)
• Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology (RRCAT)
• Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC)
• Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration Research (AMD)
• National Institute of Science Education and Research (NISER)

These organizations and institutes play a vital role in the development and regulation of nuclear power in India. Nuclear Research Institutes in India:

1. TIFR (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research), Mumbai: This institute focuses on research in fundamental physics, mathematics, and other basic sciences.
2. TMC (Tata Memorial Centre), Mumbai: This centre is dedicated to cancer research and treatment, using nuclear medicine and radiation therapy.
3. SINP (Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics), Kolkata: This institute conducts research in nuclear physics, particle physics, and astrophysics.
4. IOP (Institute of Physics), Bhubaneswar: This institute is involved in research areas such as condensed matter physics, materials science, and optics.
5. HRI (Harish-Chandra Research Institute), Allahabad: This institute focuses on research in mathematics, including algebra, geometry, and number theory.
6. IMS (Institute of Mathematical Studies), Chennai: This institute is dedicated to advanced research in mathematics, statistics, and computer science.
7. IPR (Institute of Plasma Research), Ahmedabad: This institute conducts research on plasma physics and fusion energy, aiming to develop technologies for future energy sources.

Nuclear Power Projects:

• NPCIL (Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd.): This company is responsible for designing, building, and operating nuclear power plants in India.
• Nuclear Power Capacity: India aims to have 20,000 megawatts (MW) of nuclear power capacity by the year 2020.
• Electricity Supply Goal: India’s long-term goal is to generate 25% of its electricity from nuclear power by the year 2050.

Atomic Power Plants in India:

Name	Location	Features
1. Tarapur Atomic Power Station (TAPS)	Tarapur, Maharashtra	This power plant has two boiling water reactors (BWRs) with a total capacity of 415 megawatts (MW).

• The first atomic station in Asia was commissioned in 1969.

Madras Atomic Power Station (MAPS)

• MAPS is located in Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu.
• It is India’s first indigenously built atomic power station.

Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (RAPS)

• RAPS is located in Rawatbhata, Rajasthan.

Narora Atomic Power Station (NAPS)

• NAPS is located in Narora, Uttar Pradesh.
• The first unit of NAPS was commissioned in March 1989, and the second unit was commissioned in October 1991.

Kakrapar Atomic Power Project (KAPP)

• KAPP is located in Kakrapar, Gujarat.

Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project (KNPP)

• KNPP is located in Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu.
• The project stage for KNPP was conceived in 1988.

Kaiga Power Project (KPP)

• KPP is located in Kaiga, Karnataka.
• The project stage for KPP is still ongoing.

ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION

• Robotics is a major area of research and development at BARC and IGCAR.
• BARC and HMT-Bangalore have collaborated to manufacture Bilateral Master Slave Servo Manipulators, which have undergone field trials.
• A five-degree of freedom robot has been developed for deployment in radioactive environments. - At Trombay, chemical laboratories, a robot with six degrees of freedom, and a mobile robot have been set up.
• At IGCAR, a Mobile Scanner (MOBSCAN), a Remotely Operated Power Manipulator (ROPMAN), and a robot for capping and decapping bottles have been developed for automation and non-destructive evaluation.

POKHRAN TESTS

• On May 18, 1974, India conducted a peaceful underground nuclear experiment in the Rajasthan desert at Pokhran.
• India successfully conducted five nuclear tests on May 11 and 13, 1998, at Pokhran.
• These tests included a thermonuclear device, a fission device, and three sub-kiloton nuclear devices.
• Measurements taken during the tests confirmed the initially declared yields and other design parameters for all the devices.

CHANDRAYAN-I

• Former Prime Minister Atal Behari Vapayee announced the Chandrayan-I mission on August 15, 2003, during his Independence Day address to the nation.

• The 525kg Chandrayan-I was launched in 2008 on a Chandrayaan-I Mission:

• Chandrayaan-I was an unmanned mission to the moon.

• It carried instruments to study the moon’s surface and composition.

• Some of the instruments were developed by India, while others were developed by other countries, including the United States, Europe, and Bulgaria.

Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission):

• Mangalyaan was India’s first mission to Mars.
• The main goal of the mission was to develop the technology needed for future interplanetary missions.
• The mission was also designed to study the Martian atmosphere and surface. Mission Goals:
• Study the surface, shape, and mineral composition of Mars using scientific instruments made in India.
• Explore the Martian atmosphere.

Launch Details:

• The Mars Orbiter Mission spacecraft was launched on November 5, 2013, using the PSLV-C25 rocket.
• The launch took place from the First Launch Pad at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota, India.
• The PSLV-C25 mission was designed to place the spacecraft into a highly elliptical orbit around Earth.
• The spacecraft gradually moved into a hyperbolic trajectory, allowing it to escape Earth’s gravitational pull and travel towards Mars.

Autonomous Features:

• The spacecraft is equipped with autonomous features to handle unexpected situations.
• These features enable the spacecraft to make decisions and take actions without human intervention.
• This capability is crucial for handling contingencies during the long journey to Mars and during the mission’s operations around the planet. When the spacecraft gets close to Mars, it enters an elliptical orbit around the planet. This is done by firing the liquid engine. The spacecraft then moves around Mars in an orbit that is closest to the planet at 366 kilometers and farthest from the planet at about 80,000 kilometers. India’s Prime Minister has announced that the meteorological series of satellites, ‘METSAT’, will now be called ‘KALPANA’.

The first satellite in the series, ‘METSAT-1’, which India launched on September 12, 2002, will now be known as ‘KALPANA-1’.

‘KALPANA-2’ is expected to be launched by 2007.

Asteroid 51,826 Kalpanachawla is named after her.

She died a hero and is a role model for many young women, especially in India and her hometown of Karnal.

Her life inspires young people to follow in her footsteps.

Sunita L. Williams was born on September 19, 1965, in Euclid, Ohio.

She received several awards, including the Navy Commendation Medal (2), the Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal, the Humanitarian Service Medal, and various other service awards.

Williams was commissioned as an Ensign in the United States Navy from the United States Naval Academy in May 1987.

She became a Naval Aviator in July 1989.

Sunita has flown over 2770 hours in more than 30 different aircraft. Sunita Williams is an astronaut. She has worked with NASA and the Russian Space Agency. She has also lived underwater for 9 days in a special habitat. She is currently living and working on the International Space Station. She launched into space on December 9, 2006, and arrived at the space station on December 11, 2006. She stayed on the space station for 195 days and returned to Earth on June 22, 2007. The Indian Flag:

• The Indian flag was adopted on July 22, 1947, and officially presented to India during the midnight session of the Assembly on August 14, 1947.
• The flag’s width-to-length ratio is 2:3.
• The flag has three equal-width bands: deep saffron (orange) at the top, white in the middle, and dark green at the bottom.
• In the center of the white band is a navy-blue wheel (chakra) with 24 spokes. The diameter of the wheel is about the same as the width of the white band.

The Flag Code of India 2002:

• The Flag Code of India 2002 came into effect on January 26, 2002, replacing the previous ‘Flag Code-Indias.’
• According to the Flag Code of India 2002, there are no restrictions on displaying the National Flag by the general public, private organizations, educational institutions, etc., except as specified in the Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950, the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971, and any other relevant laws.

National Emblem:

• The National Emblem of India is a depiction of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, which was originally created in the 3rd century BCE.

• The emblem features four lions standing back-to-back on a circular base, with an elephant, a horse, a bull, and a lion in between the spokes of the wheels.

• The words “Satyameva Jayate” (Truth Alone Triumphs) are inscribed below the emblem in Devanagari script. National Emblem and Seal of the Government of India

• The National Emblem of India is a copy of the top part of Ashoka’s Pillar, which is located in Sarnath.

• The original pillar has four lions carved back-to-back, but only three are visible in the emblem.

• The emblem is placed on a base plate called an abacus.

• In the center of the base plate, there is a wheel with spokes called the Dharma Chakra.

• On the right side of the Dharma Chakra, there is a picture of a bull, and on the left side, there is a picture of a horse.

• There are words written in Devanagari script that say “Satyameva Jayate,” which means “Truth Alone Triumphs.”

• The Government of India chose the National Emblem on January 26, 1950.

National Anthem (Jana Gana Mana)

• Rabindranath Tagore wrote the National Anthem in 1911.

• It was first sung on December 27, 1911, at a meeting of the Indian National Congress in Calcutta.

• The Constituent Assembly of India chose it as the National Anthem on January 24, 1950.

• Tagore himself translated the National Anthem into English in 1919. National Song (Vande Mataram)

• Composer: Bankimchandra Chatterjee

• Adopted on: January 24, 1950, along with the National Anthem

• English Translation: Done by Sri Aurobindo

• Origin: It comes from Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s novel “Ananda Math,” which was published in 1882.

• Significance: It was written in Sanskrit and inspired people during the fight for freedom.

• First Performance: It was first sung at the Indian National Congress meeting in 1896.

National Calendar (Saka)

• Introduced on: March 22, 1957 (Saka 1879)

• Purpose: To have a unified Indian National Calendar for official use.

• Based on: The Saka era, which started with the spring equinox in 78 AD.

• Months: Chaitra is the first month, and Phalguna is the last month of the Saka year.

• New Year: Chaitra 1 falls on March 22 or March 21, depending on the leap year. National Animal:

• The tiger (Panthera tigris) has been chosen as India’s national animal since November 1972.

• To protect the decreasing number of tigers in India, ‘Project Tiger’ was started in April 1973. Currently, there are 27 tiger reserves in India that cover an area of 3776 square kilometers.

National Bird:

• The peacock (Pavo cristatus) is India’s national bird. It is fully protected under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

• Hunting peacocks has been banned since it was declared the national bird in 1964.

National Flower:

• The lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) is India’s national flower. It has been an important symbol in Indian culture for a very long time.

National Tree:

• The Banyan Tree (Ficus benghalensis) is India’s national tree. It has the widest-reaching roots of all known trees, covering several acres.

National Fruit:

• The mango (Manigifera indica) is India’s national fruit. It has been grown in India (except in hilly areas) since ancient times. ## National Days

Independence Day	August 15 (India gained freedom on this day in 1947)
Republic Day	January 26 (India became a Republic on this day in 1950)
Martyrs’ Day	January 30 (Mahatma Gandhi was killed on this day in 1948)
Teachers’ Day	September 5 (Birthday of Dr S. Radhakrishnan, first Vice-President of India)
Children’s Day	November 14 (Birthday of Pt Jawaharlal Nehru)
Gandhi Jayanti	October 2 (Birthday of Mahatma Gandhi)

Other Important Days

Air Force Day	October 8
Army Day	January 15
Flag Day	December 7
National Integration Day	November 9
National Maritime Day	April 5
National Rededication Day	February 28
National Science Day	February 28
National Youth Day	January 12
Navy Day	December 4
Post Office Day	October 9
Quit India Day	August 19

Chapter 6

Physical and World Geography

Physical Geography

• Physical Physical Geography

Physical geography studies the natural features of the Earth, such as landforms, weather, and climate.

Cultural Geography

Cultural geography studies the human-made features of the Earth, such as language, religion, and architecture.

Solar System

The solar system is made up of the sun and eight planets that orbit around it. The solar system also includes the moon, asteroids, and comets.

Planets

Planets are bodies that revolve around the sun and rotate on their own axis. There are eight known planets in the solar system. The four inner planets are smaller, denser, and less oblate than the four outer planets. The inner planets also rotate more slowly on their axes. Mercury:

• It’s the planet closest to the sun.
• It takes 58.65 days to spin around itself and 88 days to go around the sun.
• It’s the fastest planet in our solar system.

Venus:

• It’s the brightest thing in the sky after the sun and the moon.
• It’s the hottest planet in our solar system.
• It spins backward compared to other planets.

Earth:

• Details about Earth will be provided separately.

Mars:

• It’s the fourth planet from the sun and is next to Earth.
• It’s also called the red planet.
• Scientists think there might be life on Mars because it has some similarities to Earth.

The Outer Planets:

• These planets seem to be made entirely of gases, mostly hydrogen.
• They have thick and stormy atmospheres.
• Their chemical makeup is similar to the sun’s.

Jupiter:

• It’s the biggest planet in our solar system. Saturn:
• Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second largest planet in our solar system.
• It is the farthest planet that can be seen with the naked eye.
• Saturn is famous for its beautiful rings, which are made of ice and rock.

Uranus:

• Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun.
• It is not visible to the naked eye and was discovered in 1781 by William Herschel.
• Uranus is a gas giant and is made mostly of hydrogen and helium.

Neptune:

• Neptune is the eighth planet from the Sun.
• It was discovered in 1846 by J. G. Galle.
• Neptune is also a gas giant and is made mostly of hydrogen and helium.

Which is farthest, Neptune or Pluto?

• Pluto is usually farther from the Sun than Neptune.
• However, Pluto’s orbit is not perfectly circular, so sometimes it moves closer to the Sun than Neptune.
• This happened from 1979 to 1999. Satellites are objects that move around planets. There are about 180 satellites in our solar system.

The table below shows the number of satellites for each planet in our solar system:

Planet	Number of Satellites
Mercury	0
Venus	0
Earth	1
Mars	2
Jupiter	67
Saturn	62
Uranus	27
Neptune	13

Note: Pluto, a dwarf planet, has five moons.

The Moon is Earth’s natural satellite and is the closest celestial body to Earth. The Moon

• The moon is a natural satellite that orbits Earth.
• It moves around Earth while also spinning on its own axis.
• The moon is about one-sixth the size of Earth.
• It takes the moon about 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and 11.47 seconds to complete one orbit around Earth.
• The moon also takes the same amount of time to rotate on its axis.
• Because of this, we can only see one side of the moon from Earth.
• The moon is the first object in our solar system that humans have visited.
• Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin made history on July 21, 1969, when they became the first people to walk on the moon.

Asteroids

• Asteroids are small, rocky objects that orbit the sun.

• They are too small to have their own atmosphere.

• Asteroids are also called “planetoids” or “small planets”.

• Asteroids orbit the sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

• There are about 50,000 known asteroids. Asteroids

• Asteroids are small, rocky objects that orbit the sun.

• The largest asteroid is Ceres, which is about 1,000 kilometers across.

Meteors

• Meteors are small pieces of rock or metal that enter the Earth’s atmosphere from space.
• When a meteor enters the atmosphere, it heats up and glows, creating a streak of light in the sky.
• Meteors that reach the ground are called meteorites.

Comets

• Comets are icy objects that orbit the sun.
• When a comet approaches the sun, its ice melts and vaporizes, creating a tail of gas and dust.
• Some famous comets include Halley’s Comet, which is visible from Earth every 76 years, and Hale-Bopp, which was visible from Earth in 1997.

Important Comets

• Halley’s Comet is the most famous comet.

• It was discovered in 1705 by the British astronomer Edmund Halley.

• Halley’s Comet last appeared in 1986 and is expected to return in 2061. Comet ‘Smith-Tuttle’

• A giant comet called ‘Smith-Tuttle’ is on a path to crash into Earth on August 17, 2116.

• It was first seen in 1862 and then again in 1992.

• If it hits Earth, it could cause a massive explosion that could wipe out most life on the planet. The explosion would be more powerful than a million nuclear bombs going off at the same time.

Basic Knowledge About Earth

• Earth is the third planet from the sun and the fifth largest planet in our solar system.
• The highest point on Earth is 19,883 meters (65,233 feet) above sea level, and the lowest point is 11,034 meters (36,201 feet) below sea level.
• Earth’s atmosphere extends for about 10,000 kilometers (6,000 miles), but most of its mass is within 26 kilometers (16 miles) of the surface.

Shape of the Earth

• Earth is not a perfect sphere. It is slightly flattened at the poles and bulges at the equator. This shape is called an oblate spheroid. The Earth is almost round, but it is a little flattened at the poles and bulges at the equator. This is because the Earth spins very fast, which causes the material of the Earth to move towards the equator.

The Earth is made up of many layers, like an onion. The outermost layer is called the crust, and it is made up of solid rock. The next layer is called the mantle, and it is made up of hot, molten rock. The innermost layer is called the core, and it is made up of solid iron and nickel.

The Earth is made up of over 100 different elements. The most common elements are oxygen, silicon, and aluminum. The Earth’s Composition:

• The Earth is made up of different materials, and the most common ones are:
  • Oxygen (46.6%)
  • Silicon (27.7%)
  • Aluminum (8.1%)
  • Iron (5%)
  • Calcium (3.6%)
  • Sodium (2.8%)
  • Potassium (2.6%)
  • Magnesium (2.1%)

The Earth’s Structure:

• The Earth has four main layers:
  • The crust: This is the outermost layer and is made up of solid rock.
  • The mantle: This is the layer below the crust and is made up of hot, molten rock.
  • The outer core: This is the layer below the mantle and is made up of liquid iron and nickel.
  • The inner core: This is the innermost layer and is made up of solid iron and nickel.

The Earth’s Size and Distance from the Sun:

• The Earth’s diameter is about 12,742 kilometers (7,918 miles).
• The Earth’s distance from the Sun is about 149.6 million kilometers (93 million miles).

The Earth’s Rotation and Revolution:

• The Earth rotates on its axis once every 24 hours, which is why we have day and night.
• The Earth revolves around the Sun once every 365.25 days, which is why we have seasons. Earth’s Revolution Around the Sun:
• Earth takes 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 9.54 seconds to complete one revolution around the Sun.

Total Coastlines:

• The total length of all the coastlines on Earth is 3,56,000 kilometers.

Earth’s Mass:

• The total mass of Earth is 5880 multiplied by 10 to the power of 21 tonnes.

Earth’s Volume:

• The total volume of Earth is 10,83,20,88,40,000 cubic kilometers.

Mean Depth of Hydrosphere:

• The average depth of water in the oceans is 3554 meters.

Age of Earth:

• Earth is approximately 46,000 million years old.

Lowest Point on Earth’s Surface:

• The lowest point on Earth’s surface is the shore of the Dead Sea, which is 396 meters below sea level.

Highest Point on Earth:

• The highest point on Earth is Mount Everest.

Deepest Part in the Ocean:

• The deepest part in the ocean is the Mariana Trench, which is located east of the Philippines and is 10,900 meters below sea level.

Longitude and Latitude:

• Latitudes are imaginary lines that run parallel to each other from the Equator to the North Pole and the South Pole. They range from 0 degrees at the Equator to 90 degrees at the poles.
• Longitudes are also imaginary lines that run from the North Pole to the South Pole. They range from 0 degrees at the Prime Meridian to 180 degrees east or west. - The prime meridian is an imaginary line that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole and passes through Greenwich, England. It is used to measure longitude, which is the distance east or west of the prime meridian.
• The equator is a line that runs around the middle of the Earth. It is used to measure latitude, which is the distance north or south of the equator.
• The Earth rotates on its axis once a day. The axis is an imaginary line that runs through the North Pole and the South Pole.
• The Earth is not a perfect sphere. It is slightly flattened at the poles and bulges at the equator. This shape is called an oblate spheroid.
• The distance around the Earth at the equator is divided into 360 degrees of longitude. - The distance east or west of the Greenwich meridian is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds. It ranges from 0 degrees at the Greenwich meridian to 180 degrees at the 180th meridian.
• The distance north or south of the equator is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds of latitude. The equator is at 0 degrees, the North Pole is at 90 degrees north, and the South Pole is at 90 degrees south.
• The tropics are located at 23 degrees, 27 minutes south (Tropic of Capricorn) and 23 degrees, 27 minutes north (Tropic of Cancer).
• The Arctic Circle is located at 66 degrees, 33 minutes north, and the Antarctic Circle is located at 66 degrees, 33 minutes south.
• The tropics and the Arctic and Antarctic circles are slowly changing due to the Earth’s changing tilt. The Arctic and Antarctic circles are moving towards their respective poles by about 14 meters per year, while the tropics are moving towards the equator by the same amount. - The Earth’s surface at the Equator moves at a speed of about 1670 kilometers per hour.
• The Earth’s average speed as it orbits the Sun is 1,07,229 kilometers per hour.
• The Equator divides the Pacific Ocean into the North and South Atlantic Oceans.
• The dateline was officially agreed upon by countries around the world on October 13, 1884.
• The dateline has been changed a few times, most recently on January 1, 1995, when it was moved east of Kiribati.
• Earth’s Movements: The Earth moves in two ways:
• Rotation: The Earth spins on its imaginary axis from west to east once every 24 hours. This is also called Diurnal or Daily motion and causes day and night.

Table 6.2 The Formation of Day and Night

Longest Days and Nights	Northern Hemisphere	Southern Hemisphere
Longest day (shortest night)	June 21	December 22
Shortest day (longest night)	December 21	June 21

• At the equator, the length of day and night is always the same throughout the year. The Earth moves around the Sun in a nearly circular path called its orbit. It takes 365.25 days for the Earth to complete one orbit, which is why we have a year.

The Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees. This tilt causes the seasons. When the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun, it gets more sunlight and has summer. When the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun, it gets less sunlight and has winter.

The Earth’s axis also points toward the North Star, no matter where the Earth is in its orbit. This is called the polarity of the Earth’s axis. How do seasons change?

The Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees. This means that as the Earth orbits the Sun, different parts of the planet are tilted towards or away from the Sun.

When the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun, it receives more direct sunlight. This causes the days to be longer and the weather to be warmer. This is summer in the Northern Hemisphere.

When the Southern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun, it receives more direct sunlight. This causes the days to be longer and the weather to be warmer. This is summer in the Southern Hemisphere.

The Earth’s revolution around the Sun also causes the seasons. As the Earth orbits the Sun, it moves closer to and further away from the Sun.

When the Earth is closest to the Sun, it receives more direct sunlight. This causes the days to be longer and the weather to be warmer. This is summer.

When the Earth is furthest from the Sun, it receives less direct sunlight. This causes the days to be shorter and the weather to be cooler. This is winter.

The combination of the Earth’s tilt and its revolution around the Sun causes the four seasons: spring, summer, fall, and winter. Lunar Eclipse:

• When the Earth is between the moon and the sun, the Earth’s shadow falls on the moon, causing a lunar eclipse.
• Lunar eclipses only happen on full moon days, but not every full moon day.

Solar Eclipse:

• When the moon is between the sun and the Earth, it blocks the sun’s light from reaching the Earth, causing a solar eclipse.
• Solar eclipses happen on new moon days when the moon is in line with the sun. However, solar eclipses don’t happen on every new moon day.

Global Positioning Systems (GPSs):

• GPSs make it easier to find a place on Earth.

• GPSs were first made by the US government for the military but are now used by people all over the world.

• GPSs use a group of satellites that orbit Earth and send signals that help devices find their location. GPS (Global Positioning System)

• GPS is a system that uses satellites to find your location on Earth.

• A receiver picks up signals from the satellites and uses them to figure out where it is.

• GPS is used in many different ways, like in cars, hiking, and surveying.

Difference between GPS and GIS (Geographic Information System)

• GPS is used to find your location, while GIS is used to create maps and analyze data about different places.

• GPS uses satellites, while GIS uses computers and software. GIS and GPS:

• GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and GPS (Global Positioning Systems) are tools used to study the physical features of the Earth.

• GIS uses computer software and hardware to store, analyze, and display geographic data.

• GPS uses satellites to determine the location of objects on the Earth’s surface.

• GIS and GPS can be used together to create maps, track the movement of objects, and study environmental changes.

Isolines, Isotherms, Isobars, and Elevation of Contour Lines:

• Isolines are lines on a map that connect points of equal value.

• Some common types of isolines include isotherms (lines of equal temperature), isobars (lines of equal air pressure), and elevation contour lines (lines of equal elevation).

• Isolines are always closed lines and they do not have any ends.

• They represent gradations in quantities, so they only touch or cross one another in very rare and unusual circumstances.

• The interval between isolines is the numerical difference between one isoline and the next.

• The size of the interval is up to the mapmaker’s discretion, but it is best to maintain a constant interval on a map.

• The proximity of isolines depends on the gradient (i.e., the rate of change) of the data. Isolines:

• Isolines are lines that connect points of equal value on a map.

• They help show spatial relationships that might not be easy to see otherwise.

• For example, isolines can show areas with the same temperature (isotherms), the same elevation (elevation contour lines), or the same atmospheric pressure (isobars).

Time:

• Local time: The time at a place is determined by its longitude. Local time varies by four minutes for every degree of longitude.
• Standard time: Standard time is the uniform time used within a country. It is based on the local time of a central meridian. Time Zones

People in a certain region agree to use the same time.

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

• GMT is the standard time in the United Kingdom.
• It is based on the local time at the meridian line that passes through Greenwich, near London.

International Date Line

• The 180th meridian east and the 180th meridian west are the same line.
• It runs over the Pacific Ocean, with some deviations at Fiji, Samoa, and the Gilbert Islands.
• The International Date Line roughly corresponds to the 180th meridian of longitude, which is on the opposite side of the Greenwich meridian.

Crossing the Date Line

• When you cross the date line from east to west, you add one day to the date.
• When you cross the date line from west to east, you subtract one day from the date.

Atmosphere

• The atmosphere is a layer of gases that surrounds the Earth.

• The composition of the atmosphere changes as you move away from the Earth’s surface.

• Up to about 50 kilometers from the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere is made up of:

• Nitrogen

• Oxygen

• Argon

• Carbon dioxide

• Water vapor Earth’s Atmosphere

The air around us is called the atmosphere. It is made up of different gases, including:

• Oxygen (about 21%)
• Nitrogen (about 78%)
• Argon (about 1%)
• Other gases (very small amounts)

Layers of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is divided into four layers, based on temperature and density:

• Troposphere: This is the layer closest to the ground, where we live. It is about 15 kilometers thick and contains most of the air we breathe.
• Stratosphere: This layer is above the troposphere and extends up to about 50 kilometers. It contains the ozone layer, which protects us from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
• Mesosphere: This layer is above the stratosphere and extends up to about 90 kilometers. It is very cold, with temperatures reaching -90 degrees Celsius.
• Thermosphere: This is the outermost layer of the atmosphere and extends up to about 400 kilometers. It is very hot, with temperatures reaching over 1,000 degrees Celsius.

The Edge of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere gradually thins out as you move away from the Earth’s surface. The outer limit of the atmosphere is called the exosphere, where the gravity of the Earth is very weak. The atmosphere is a layer of gases that surrounds Earth. It has no definite top, and it gradually merges with outer space.

Most of the atmosphere is close to Earth’s surface. More than half of the atmosphere is within 6.2 kilometers (3.8 miles) of the surface, and more than 98% is within 26 kilometers (16 miles).

However, the atmosphere does extend for thousands of kilometers above Earth. Air expands to fill empty spaces, so it penetrates into caves and crevices in rocks and soil.

The air pressure is highest at sea level. This is because there is more air above sea level to push down on the air below. The air pressure decreases as you move up in altitude. This is because there is less air above you to push down on the air below.

By 5.6 kilometers (3.5 miles) above sea level, the air pressure is only half of what it is at sea level. By 16 kilometers (10 miles) above sea level, the air pressure is only 10% of what it is at sea level. And by 32.3 kilometers (20 miles) above sea level, the air pressure is only 1% of what it is at sea level.

The ozone layer is a layer of the atmosphere that contains a high concentration of ozone molecules. Ozone is a molecule made up of three oxygen atoms. The ozone layer is located about 15 to 48 kilometers (9 to 30 miles) above Earth’s surface. The ozone layer is a part of Earth’s atmosphere that protects us from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun. It’s about 9 to 30 miles above the Earth’s surface.

The hole in the ozone layer is a thinning of the ozone layer. This means that there is less ozone to protect us from UV rays.

There are natural and human-made causes of the hole in the ozone layer. Natural causes include changes in the stratospheric winds, the 11-year sunspot cycle, volcanic eruptions, and El Niño ocean currents.

Human-made causes include chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs are used in refrigerators, air conditioners, and other products. When CFCs break down in the atmosphere, they release chlorine atoms that destroy ozone molecules. ## Weather and Climate

• The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and is where most weather occurs.

• Weather refers to the short-term changes in the atmosphere, such as temperature, precipitation, and wind.

• Climate refers to the long-term average of weather conditions in a particular area.

• Weather can vary greatly within a small region, while climate refers to larger areas.

• To describe the climate of an area, you need weather information over a long period of time.

• The four main elements of weather and climate are temperature, pressure, wind, and moisture.

• Some factors that affect weather and climate are latitude, the distribution of land and water, and the general circulation of the atmosphere. Factors Affecting Climate:

• The climate of a region is influenced by several factors, including:

  • The general circulation of the oceans: This refers to the large-scale movement of water in the oceans, which can affect the distribution of heat and moisture around the globe.
  • Elevation: Higher elevations tend to be cooler than lower elevations, as the air is less dense and holds less heat.
  • Topographic barriers: Mountains and other topographic barriers can block the flow of air and moisture, creating different climate conditions on either side of the barrier.
  • Storms: Storms, such as hurricanes and tornadoes, can cause significant changes in the local climate, bringing high winds, heavy rain, and flooding.

The Coriolis Effect:

• The Coriolis effect is a force that deflects moving objects to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This force is caused by the rotation of the Earth, and it can significantly influence long-range movements of air and water.

Key Points about the Coriolis Effect:

• Free-moving objects appear to deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

• The apparent deflection is strongest at the poles and decreases toward the equator, where there is no deflection.

• Fast-moving objects seem to be deflected more than slow-moving objects. Coriolis Effect:

• The Coriolis effect is a force that acts on objects moving in the Earth’s atmosphere or oceans.

• It causes objects to move in a curved path, to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

• The Coriolis effect is stronger on faster-moving objects and weaker on slower-moving objects.

• It does not affect the speed of objects, only their direction.

Effects of the Coriolis Effect:

• The Coriolis effect influences the direction of winds and ocean currents.
• It does not affect the direction of water draining out of a washbowl because the time involved is too short and the water speed is too slow.

Winds:

• Winds are caused by differences in air pressure.
• Air flows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
• The force that drives the winds is called the pressure gradient force.

Types of Winds:

• Local winds are generated by local conditions, such as differences in temperature or topography.
• Global winds are generated by the Earth’s rotation and the sun’s heat. Local Winds

Local winds are caused by differences in temperature and air pressure. They are usually created by depressions, which are areas of low air pressure.

Hot Winds

When air is drawn in from the tropical region in front of a depression, it creates hot winds. Some examples of hot winds include:

• Santa Ana (Mexico)
• Brickfielder (Australia)
• Sirocco
• Leneche (Sahara)
• Harmattan (West Africa)
• Khamsin (Egypt)
• Simoon (Sahara)
• Zonda (Paraguay)

Cold Winds

When air is drawn in from the polar regions in the rear of a depression, it creates cold winds. Some examples of cold winds include:

• Bora (Yugoslavia)
• Southerly Buster (Australia)
• Buran (Europe)
• Panyero (Argentina)
• Mistral (France)

Trade Winds

Trade winds are winds that blow from the subtropical high-pressure areas about 30 degrees north and south towards the equatorial low-pressure belt. They blow constantly and steadily in the same direction. In the Northern Hemisphere, the trade winds blow from the northeast, and in the Southern Hemisphere, they blow from the southeast.

Due to the rotation of the Earth, trade winds do not cross the isobars (lines of equal pressure) at right angles. Instead, they are deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. Periodic Winds:

• Some winds change their directions with the seasons. These winds are called periodic winds.
• Monsoons are a type of periodic wind.

Summer Monsoons:

• In summer, the sun heats the Earth differently in different places. This causes the air pressure to change, and the winds to blow from the oceans to the land.
• In Asia, this brings the South-West Summer Monsoons.

Winter Monsoons:

• In winter, the sun heats the Earth differently again, and the winds change direction.
• This causes the winter monsoons.

Monsoons in Different Regions:

• Monsoons blow over the regions of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, and Northern Australia.

Planetary Winds:

• Planetary winds are caused by differences in air pressure between different latitudes.

• These winds blow throughout the year. Mountain and Valley Breeze:

• During the day, the air pressure in the valley is higher than on the mountain slopes because the mountain slopes heat up more than the valley floor.

• This causes a breeze to form from the valley to the slopes in an upward direction, called a valley breeze.

• At night, the pattern reverses, and the air starts to breeze from the mountain slopes down to the valley floor, causing a mountain breeze.

Jet Streams:

• Jet streams are narrow, winding bands of fast winds that blow from west to east in the upper atmosphere near the tropopause.
• They become part of the westerlies on their course and circle the entire globe.
• There are two types of jet streams: subtropical jet streams and polar front jet streams.
• The average speed of a jet stream is 350 kilometers per hour in the summer and can reach up to 450 kilometers per hour in the winter.

Tropical Winds:

• Tropical winds are air masses created in the tropical regions. Tropical Winds

• Tropical winds are large air masses that cover hundreds of kilometers and have multiple layers.

• They are divided into two types:

  • Maritime tropical winds: These winds come from the ocean.
  • Continental tropical winds: These winds come from the land.

Polar Winds

• Polar winds are air masses that are similar to tropical winds but come from the polar regions.
• They are also divided into two types:
  • Maritime polar winds: These winds come from the ocean.
  • Continental polar winds: These winds come from the land.

Warm and Cold Fronts

• When warm, light air masses move over cold, dense air masses, the warm air rises above the cold air.
• The boundary between the two air masses is called a warm front.
• If the cold air mass pushes under the warm air mass and forces it to rise, the boundary is called a cold front.

Lithosphere

• The lithosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth.
• It includes the continents and the ocean floor.

Rocks

• The Earth’s crust is made of solid material called rocks. Types of Rocks

There are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Igneous Rocks

• Formed when hot, melted rock (magma) from inside the Earth cools and hardens.
• Make up about 90% of the Earth’s crust.
• Examples: granite, basalt, and volcanic rocks.

Sedimentary Rocks

• Formed from sediments that settle on the bottom of oceans, lakes, and rivers.
• Make up only about 5% of the Earth’s crust.
• Also called stratified rocks because they are formed in layers.
• Examples:
  • Gypsum, chalk, and limestone (formed by chemical action or chemical sedimentation)
  • Peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite (formed by deposits of organic matter or marine remains)
  • Gravel, pebbles, shingle, sandstone, and shale (formed by deposits of sediments in water)

Metamorphic Rocks

• Formed when existing igneous or sedimentary rocks change due to pressure, temperature, or chemical reactions.
• Examples: marble, slate, and gneiss The action of water and chemicals on rocks can change their appearance and composition.

Examples: Slate, quartzite, gneiss, and marble are all rocks that have been changed by water and chemicals.

The Continents

• The earth’s surface is made up of large pieces of land, called continents. There are seven continents in total, and they cover about one-fourth of the earth’s surface.

• The largest continent is Asia, which is about 44 million square kilometers in size.

• The smallest continent is Australia, which is about 7.6 million square kilometers in size.

• Antarctica and Australia are the only two continents that are completely surrounded by water.

• Antarctica is the only continent that is covered in ice.

Table 6.3 Continents of the World

Name	Area (square kilometers)	Percentage of the World’s Land	Percentage of the World’s Population
Asia	44,030,000	29.5	58.6
Africa	29,785,000	20.0	12.5
North America	24,255,000	16.3	8.2
South America	17,798,000	11.8	5.6
Antarctica	13,338,500	9.6	-
Europe	10,498,000	6.2	9.1
Australia	7,687,120	5.2	3.2

Note: Australia is the only continent that is entirely located in the Southern Hemisphere. Australasia

• New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea, and the Pacific Islands are together known as ‘Australasia’.

Mountains

• Mountains are high land areas with pointed tops and steep sides. They are higher than 300 meters (1000 feet).
• Smaller elevations below 300 meters (1000 feet) are called hills.

Important Mountain Ranges

Name	Continent
Himalaya-Karakoram	Asia
Andes	South America
Alps	Europe
Rockies	North America

Principal Mountain Peaks

Name	Continent	Country	Height (meters)	Date of First Ascent
Mt Everest	Asia	Nepal-Tibet	8848	May 29, 1953
K-2 (Godwin Austen)	Asia	India	8611	July 31, 1954
Kanchenjunga	Asia	Nepal-India	8598	May 25, 1955
Lhotse	Asia	Nepal-China	8501	May 18, 1956
Makalu	Asia	Tibet-Nepal	8481	May 15, 1955
Dhaulagiri	Asia	Nepal	8167	May 13, 1960

Name	Height (meters)	Country	Location
Ojos del Salado	7,084	Argentina	Andes Mountains
Guallatiri	6,060	Chile	Andes Mountains
Cotopaxi	5,897	Ecuador	Andes Mountains
Lascar	5,641	Chile	Andes Mountains
Tupungatito	5,640	Chile	Andes Mountains
Popocatepeti	5,451	Mexico	Altiplano de Mexico
Nevado del Ruiz	5,400	Colombia	Andes Mountains
Sangay	5,230	Ecuador	Andes Mountains

Table 6.7: Important Islands

Name	Location	Area (square kilometers)
Kalaalit Nunaat (Greenland)	North Atlantic Ocean	2,175,597
New Guinea	Southwest Pacific Ocean	820,033
Borneo	Southeast Asia	743,330

Island	Location	Area (km²)
Australia	Oceania	7,617,930
Greenland	North America	2,175,600
New Guinea	Oceania	792,500
Borneo	Asia	725,500
Madagascar	Africa	587,000
Baffin (Canada)	North America	507,500
Sumatra (Indonesia)	Asia	427,300
Honshu (Japan)	Asia	227,400
Great Britain (UK)	Europe	218,100
Victoria (Canada)	North America	217,300
Ellesmere (Canada)	North America	196,200
Celebes (Indonesia)	Asia	189,200

Island	Area (km²)
Australia	76,17,930
Indonesia	1,78,650
New Zealand South	1,51,000
Java (Indonesia)	1,26,700
New Zealand North	1,14,000
New Foundland (Canada)	1,08,900

Australia is more than three times the size of Greenland, the largest island. Australia is sometimes called ‘The Island Continent’ or ‘Earth’s largest island but smallest continent.’

Largest Deserts

Desert	Area (km²)
Sahara	91,00,000
Gobi	13,00,000
Patagonian	6,70,000
Rub’al Khali	6,50,000
Great Sandy	3,90,500
Great Victoria	3,90,500
Chihuanhuan	3,60,000
Takla Makan	3,60,000
Sonaran	3,10,000
Kwahari	2,60,000

• Kyzyl Kum: This desert covers an area of 2,60,000 square kilometers.
• Thar: The Thar desert is also 2,60,000 square kilometers in size.
• Simpson: The Simpson desert is smaller, covering 1,00,000 square kilometers.
• Mahave: The Mahave desert is the smallest of the four, covering 52,000 square kilometers.

Hydrosphere

• The hydrosphere is the layer of water that covers most of the Earth’s surface.
• The oceans and seas make up the hydrosphere.
• About 70.8% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water, which is about 36,17,40,000 square kilometers.
• The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean, covering 35.25% of the Earth’s surface or about 16,62,40,000 square kilometers.

Oceans

Name	Area (square kilometers)	Sea Area (%)	Average Depth (meters)	Greatest Depth (meters)
Pacific	16,62,40,000	45.7	4280	11,033
Atlantic	8,23,60,000	22.8	3926	9219
Indian	7,35,50,000	20.3	3963	8047
Arctic	1,39,80,000	3.9	1205	5441

Name	Area (square kilometers)	Average Depth (meters)
South China Sea	29,74,600	5514
Malay	81,43,100	1200
Caribbean	25,15,900	7492
Mediterranean	25,10,000	4846
Bering	22,61,100	5121
Gulf of Mexico	15,07,600	4377
Sea of Okhotsk	13,92,100	3475
East China Sea	6,64,600	2999
Hudson Bay	7,30,100	259
Sea of Japan	10,12,900	3743
Andaman Sea	5,64,900	865
North Sea	5,75,300	661
Black Sea	5,07,900	2243
Red Sea	4,53,000	2246
Baltic	4,22,300	439
Gulf of St Lawrence	2,37,760	120
Gulf of California	1,62,000	810

Important Natural Lakes

Name	Location	Area (square kilometers)	Length (kilometers)
Caspian (Also called the Caspian Sea)	Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan	3,71,000	1119

Name	Location	Area (sq km)	Depth (m)
Caspian Sea	Iran	371,000	1,025
Superior	USA-Canada	82,100	616
Victoria	Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya	69,485	322
Aral Sea	Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan	66,457	428
Huron	USA-Canada	59,596	397
Tanganyika	Tanzania-Zaire (Congo)	32,893	676
Baikal	Russia	31,500	636
Great Bear Lake	Canada	31,300	373

Shipping Canals

• Kiel Canal: Connects the Baltic Sea to the North Sea.
• Suez Canal: Connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.
• Panama Canal: Connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.

Waterfalls

Name	Location	Height (m)
Angel Falls	Venezuela	979
Victoria Falls	Zambia and Zimbabwe	108
Niagara Falls	USA and Canada	51
Iguazu Falls	Argentina and Brazil	82
Yosemite Falls	USA	739

The Amazon River in South America is the largest river in the world. It flows into the South Atlantic Ocean. Although the Amazon River is shorter than the Nile River by 222 kilometers, it is still considered the largest river because it has a greater flow of water and the highest river basin in the world.

The Nile River in Africa is the longest river in the world. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea.

Important Rivers

The following table lists some important rivers, their locations, lengths, sources, and outflows.

River	Location/Country	Length (km)	Source	Outflow Into
Nile	Africa/Egypt	6670	Lake Victoria	Mediterranean
Missouri-	North America/US	6300	Red Rock	Gulf of Mexico
—	—	—	—	—
Yangtze-Kiang	China	5490	Tibetan Plateau	China Sea (Pacific)
Hwang-Ho	China	4840	Tibet	Pacific Ocean
Yenisei	Siberia	5300	Mt Tannuola	Arctic Ocean
Lena	Russia	4800	Lake Baikal	Laptev Sea of Arctic Ocean
Niger	Nigeria	4800	Sierra Leone	Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic)
Congo	Zaire	4800	Confluence of Lualuba and Luapula	Atlantic
Ob	Siberia	4150	Altai Mts	Gulf of Ob (Pacific)
Indus	India and Pakistan	3180	Mt Kailash	Arabian Sea
Brahmaputra	India	2960	Tibet	Bay of Bengal
Danube	Austria, Hungary, Czech, Slovakia and Yugoslavia	2820	Near Baden	Black Sea

• There are 193 countries in the world, and 13 territories that are not their own countries.
• 193 of these countries are members of the United Nations.
• There are 2 countries that are not members of the United Nations but are still recognized by the UN in some way.
• There are 9 other countries that are not recognized by the UN. Countries and their claimed territories:

1. Western Sahara (claimed by Morocco)
2. Somaliland (claimed by Somalia)
3. South Ossetia (claimed by Georgia)
4. Taiwan (claimed by China)
5. Transnistria (claimed by Moldova)

Changes in the number of sovereign countries:

• In 1989, there were 170 sovereign countries.
• In 1990, Namibia became the 171st sovereign country when it gained independence.
• In 1990, the unification of North and South Yemen and East and West Germany reduced the number of sovereign countries to 169.
• In 1991, the disintegration of the Soviet Union increased the number of sovereign countries to 183.

Table of countries, their capitals, and currencies:

Country	Capital	Currency
Afghanistan	Kabul	Afghani
Albania	Tirana	Lek
Algeria	Algiers	Dinar
Andorra	Andorra la Vella	Euro
Angola	Luanda	New Kwanza
Antigua and Barbuda	Saint John’s	East Caribbean Dollar

Country	Capital	Currency
Argentina	Buenos Aires	Peso
Armenia	Yerevan	Dram
Australia	Canberra	Australian Dollar
Austria	Vienna	Euro
Azerbaijan	Baku	Manat
Bahamas	Nassau	Bahamian Dollar
Bahrain	Al-Manama	Bahrain Dinar
Bangladesh	Dhaka	Taka
Barbados	Bridgetown	Barbados Dollar
Belarus	Minsk	Belorussian Ruble
Belgium	Brussels	Euro (formerly Belgian Franc)
Belize	Belmopan	Belize Dollar
Benin	Porto Novo (official capital); Cotonou (seat of government)	CFA Franc
Bhutan	Thimphu	Ngultrum
Bolivia	La Paz (seat of government); Sucre (legal capital and seat of judiciary)	Boliviano
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Sarajevo	Marka
Botswana	Gaborone	Pula
Brazil	Brasilia	Real
Brunei	Bandar Seri Begawan	Brunei Dollar
Bulgaria	Sofia	Lev
Burkina Faso	Ouagadougou	CFA Franc
—	—	—
Burundi	Bujumbura	Burundi Franc
Cambodia	Phnom Penh	Riel
Cameroon	Yaounde	CFA Franc
Canada	Ottawa	Canadian Dollar
Cape Verde	Praia	Cape Verdean Escudo
Central African Republic	Bangui	CFA Franc
Chad	N’Djamena	CFA Franc
Chile	Santiago	Chilean Peso
China	Beijing	Yuan/Renminbi
Colombia	Santa Fe de Bogota	Colombian Peso
Comoros	Moroni	Franc
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Kinshasa	Congolese Franc
Congo, Republic of	Brazzaville	CFA Franc
Costa Rica	San Jose	Colon
Cote d’Ivoire	Yamoussoukro	CFA Franc
Croatia	Zagreb	Kuna
Cuba	Havana	Cuban Peso
Cyprus	Lefkosia (Nicosia)	Cyprus pound
Czech Republic	Prague	Koruna
Denmark	Copenhagen	Krone
Djibouti	Djibouti	Djibouti Franc
Dominica	Roseau	East Caribbean Dollar
Dominican Republic	Santo Domingo	Dominican Peso
East Timor	Dili	US Dollar
Ecuador	Quito	US Dollar **Country

• United States | Washington, D.C. | US Dollar

• Egypt | Cairo | Egyptian Pound

• El Salvador | San Salvador | Colon, US Dollar

• Equatorial Guinea | Malabo | CFA Franc

• Eritrea | Asmara | Nakfa

• Estonia | Tallinn | Euro (Formerly Marka)

• Ethiopia | Addis Ababa | Birr

• Fiji | Suva (Viti Levu) | Fiji Dollar

• Finland | Helsinki | Euro (Formerly Marka)

• France | Paris | Euro (Formerly French Franc)

• Gabon | Libreville | CFA Franc

• Gambia, The | Banjul | Dalasi

• Georgia | Tbilisi | Lari

• Germany | Berlin | Euro (Formerly Deutsche Mark)

• Ghana | Kumasi | Cedi

• Greece | Athens | Euro (Formerly Drachma)

• Grenada | Saint George’s | East Caribbean Dollar

• Guatemala | Guatemala City | Quetzal

• Guinea | Conakry | Guinean Franc

• Guinea-Bissau | Bissau | CFA Franc

• Guyana | Georgetown | Guyanese Dollar

• Haiti | Port-au-Prince | Gourde

• Honduras | Tegucigalpa | Lempira

• Hungary | Budapest | Forint Country | Capital | Currency

• Iceland | Reykjavik | Icelandic Krona

• India | New Delhi | Rupee

• Indonesia | Jakarta | Rupiah

• Iran | Tehran | Rial

• Iraq | Baghdad | Dinar/US Dollar

• Ireland | Dublin | Euro (Formerly Irish pound (punt))

• Israel | Jerusalem | Shekel

• Italy | Rome | Euro (Formerly Lira)

• Jamaica | Kingston | Jamaican Dollar

• Japan | Tokyo | Yen

• Jordan | Amman | Dinar

• Kazakhstan | Astana | Tenge

• Kenya | Nairobi | Kenya Shilling

• Kiribati | South Tarawa | Australian Dollar

• Korea, North | Pyongyang | Won

• Korea, South | Seoul | Won

• Kuwait | Kuwait City | Kuwaiti Dinar

• Kyrgyzstan | Bishkek | Som

• Laos | Vientiane | New Kip

• Latvia | Riga | Lat

• Lebanon | Beirut | Lebanese Pound

• Lesotho | Maseru | Loti

• Liberia | Monrovia | Liberian Dollar

• Libya | Tripoli | Libyan Dinar

• Liechtenstein | Vaduz | Swiss Franc

• Lithuania | Vilnius | Litas

• Luxembourg | Luxembourg Ville | Euro (Formerly Luxembourg Franc)

• Macedonia | Skopje | Denar Country | Capital | Currency — | — | — Albania | Tirana | Lek Madagascar | Antananarivo | Ariary Malawi | Lilongwe | Kwacha Malaysia | Kuala Lumpur | Ringgit Maldives | Male | Rufiyaa Mali | Bamako | CFA Franc Malta | Valletta | Maltese Lira Marshall Islands | Majuro | US Dollar Mauritania | Nouakchott | Ouguiya Mexico | Mexico City | Mexican Peso Micronesia | Palikir | US Dollar Moldova | Chisinau | Leu Monaco | Monaco Ville | Euro Mongolia | Ulaanbaatar | Tughrik Morocco | Rabat | Dirham Montenegro | Podgorica | Euro Mozambique | Maputo | Metical Myanmar | Yangon | Kyat Namibia | Windhoek | Namibian Dollar Nauru | Yaren District | Australian Dollar Nepal | Kathmandu | Nepalese Rupee Netherlands | Amsterdam | Euro New Zealand | Wellington | New Zealand Dollar Country | Capital | Currency

• Wellington | New Zealand | New Zealand Dollar

• Managua | Nicaragua | Gold Cordoba

• Niamey | Niger | CFA Franc

• Abuja | Nigeria | Naira

• Oslo | Norway | Norwegian Krone

• Muscat | Oman | Omani Rial

• Islamabad | Pakistan | Pakistan Rupee

• Koror | Palau | US Dollar

• Panama City | Panama | Balboa, US Dollar

• Port Moresby | Papua New Guinea | Kina

• Asuncion | Paraguay | Guarani

• Lima | Peru | Nuevo sol

• Manila | Philippines | Peso

• Warsaw | Poland | Zloty

• Lisbon | Portugal | Euro (Formerly Escudo)

• San Juan | Puerto Rico | US Dollar

• Doha | Qatar | Qatari Riyal

• Juba | Republic of South Sudan | Sudanese Pound

• Bucharest | Romania | Leu

• Moscow | Russia | Ruble

• Kigali | Rwanda | Rwanda Franc

• Basseterre | St. Kitts and Nevis | East Caribbean Dollar

• Castries | St. Lucia | East Caribbean Dollar

• Kingstown | St. Vincent and the Grenadines | East Caribbean Dollar

• Apia | Samoa | Tala

• San Marino | San Marino | Euro

• Sao Tome | Sao Tome and Principe | Dobra | Country | Capital | Currency | | :—: | :—: | :—: | | Sao Tome | Sao Tome | Dobra | | Saudi Arabia | Riyadh | Riyal | | Senegal | Dakar | CFA Franc | | Serbia | Belgrade | Yugoslav new dinar | | Seychelles | Victoria | Seychelles Rupee | | Sierra Leone | Freetown | Leone | | Singapore | Singapore | Singapore Dollar | | Slovakia | Bratislava | Koruna | | Slovenia | Ljubljana | Slovinian Tolar | | Solomon Islands | Honiara | Soloman Islands Dollar | | Somalia | Mogadishu | Somali Shilling | | South Africa | Pretoria (administrative) | Rand | | Spain | Madrid | Euro (Formerly Peseta) | | Sri Lanka | Colombo | Sri Lanka Rupee | | Sudan | Khartoum | Dinar | | Suriname | Paramaribo | Surinamese Dollar | | Swaziland | Mbabane | Lilangeni | | Sweden | Stockholm | Krona | | Switzerland | Bern | Swiss Franc | | Syria | Damascus | Syrian Pound | | Taiwan | Taipei | Taiwan New Dollar | | Tajikistan | Dushanbe | Somoni | | Tanzania | Dar es Salaam | Tanzania Country | Capital | Currency

• Shilling | Thailand | Bangkok

• CFA Franc | Togo | Lome

• Pa’anga | Tonga | Nuku’alofa

• Trinidad and Tobago Dollar | Trinidad and Tobago | Port-of-Spain

• Tunisian Dinar | Tunisia | Tunis

• Turkish New Lira (YTL) | Turkey | Ankara

• Manat | Turkmenistan | Ashgabat

• Australian Dollar | Tuvalu | Funafuti

• Ugandian new Shilling | Uganda | Kampala

• Hryvna | Ukraine | Kiev (Kyyiv)

• UAE Dirham | United Arab Emirates | Abu Dhabi

• Pound Sterling | United Kingdom | London

• US Dollar | United States | Washington, DC

• Uruguay Peso | Uruguay | Montevideo

• Uzbekistani Som | Uzbekistan | Tashkent(Toshkent)

• Vatu | Vanuatu | Port-Vila (Efate)

• Euro | Vatican City (Holy See) | Vatican City

• Bolivares | Venezuela | Caracas

• Dong | Vietnam | Hanoi

• Rial | Yemen | Sanaa

• Kwacha | Zambia | Lusaka

• Zimbabwean Dollar | Zimbabwe | Harare Embassies in Tel Aviv: Some countries have their embassies in Tel Aviv instead of Jerusalem.

Government moved from Almaty to Astana: The capital of Kazakhstan was moved from Almaty to Astana in December 1998.

Macedonia is the former Republic of Yugoslav: Macedonia is the official name of the country formerly known as the Republic of Yugoslavia.

Putrajaya is the administrative capital: Putrajaya is the administrative capital of Malaysia, while Kuala Lumpur is the official capital.

Regime refers to the capital as Yangon: The government of Myanmar refers to the capital city as Yangon, while the international community recognizes it as Rangoon.

Cape Town-legislative seat, Bloemfontein-judicial seat: Cape Town is the legislative capital of South Africa, while Bloemfontein is the judicial capital.

Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte is the legislative capital: Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte is the legislative capital of Sri Lanka, while Colombo is the commercial capital.

Lobamba is the royal and legislative capital: Lobamba is the royal and legislative capital of Eswatini, while Mbabane is the administrative capital.

Legislative offices transferred to Dodoma: The legislative offices of Tanzania were transferred to Dodoma, which is planned to become the new national capital.

Administration offices are located in Vaiaku Village on Fongafale: The administration offices of Tuvalu are located in Vaiaku Village on the island of Fongafale.

Important Lines and Boundaries:

• Durand Line: The Durand Line is the boundary between India and Afghanistan. It was drawn in 1893 and is recognized by India but not by Afghanistan.

• Hindenburg Line: The Hindenburg Line is the boundary between Germany and Poland. It was created during World War I when the Germans advanced to this line in 1917.

• Maginot Line: The Maginot Line is a 320-kilometer line of fortifications built by France along its border with Germany. It was constructed in the 1930s but was ineffective in preventing the German invasion of France in World War II. Mannerheim Line:

• A line of fortifications built along the border between Russia and Finland to protect against attacks from Germany before World War II.

McMahon Line:

• A line drawn by Sir Henry McMahon that marks the border between India and China. China does not recognize this line and crossed it in 1962.

Oder-Neisse Line:

• The border between Poland and Germany that follows the Oder and Neisse rivers. It was agreed upon at the Poland Conference in August 1945 after World War II.

Radcliffe Line:

• A line drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe that separates India and Pakistan.

Siegfried Line:

• A line of fortifications built by Germany along its border with France.

17th Parallel:

• The line that divided North and South Vietnam before they were united.

24th Parallel:

• A line that Pakistan claims should be the border between India and Pakistan, but India does not agree.

38th Parallel:

• The line that divided North and South Korea after World War II. Parallel:
• The parallel of latitude that separates North and South Korea.
• The 49th Parallel: The boundary between the US and Canada.

Changed Names of Some Cities, States, and Countries:

Old Name	New Name
Abyssinia	Ethiopia
Angora	Ankara
Batavia	Jakarta
British Honduras	Belize
Bechuanaland	Botswana
Basutoland	Lesotho
Burma	Myanmar
Cape Canaveral	Cape Kennedy
Ceylon	Sri Lanka
Christina	Oslo
Congo	Zaire
Constantinople	Istanbul
Dacca	Dhaka
Dahomey	Benin
Dutch East Indies	Indonesia
Dutch Guiana	Surinam
East Pakistan	Bangladesh
East Timor	Loro Sae
Egypt	United Arab Republic
Ellice Island	Tuvalu
Formosa	Taiwan
French West Africa	Mali
Gold Coast	Ghana
Greenland	Kalaallit Nunaat
Holland	The Netherlands
Kampuchea	Cambodia
Leopoldville	Kinshasa
Madagascar	Malagasy Republic
—	—
Agasy	Malaysia
Malaya	Malaysia
Manchukuo	Manchuria
Mesopotamia	Iraq
New Hebrides	Vanuatu
Nippon	Japan
Northern Rhodesia	Zambia
Nyasaland	Malawi
Peking	Beijing
Petrograd	Leningrad
Persia	Iran
Portuguese Guinea	Guinea Bissau
Rangoon	Yangon
Rhodesia	Zimbabwe
Saigon	Ho Chi Minh City
Salisbury	Harare
Sandwich Islands	Hawaiian Islands
Siam	Thailand
South West Africa	Namibia
Spanish Guinea	Equatorial Guinea
Stalingrad	Volgograd
Tanganyika and Zanzibar	Tanzania
Trucial Oman	United Arab Emirates
Upper Volta	Burkina Faso
West French Africa	Mauritania
Zaire	Congo-Kinshasa

Distinctive Name	Country/Town/Port/River
Britain of the South	New Zealand
Europe’s Battlefield	Belgium
City with the Golden Gate	San Francisco
City of Vast Distances	Washington D.C.
City of Popes	Rome
City of Seven Hills	Rome
City of Tall Buildings	New York
Europe’s Battleground	Belgium
Africa	Dark Continent
Dairy of Northern Europe	Denmark
Emerald Island	Ireland
City of Empire	New York
City That Never Ages	Rome, Italy
Forbidden City	Lhasa (Tibet)
England’s Garden	Kent
Gate of Tears	Babel-Mandab, Jerusalem
City of Granite	Aberdeen (Scotland)
Broadway	Great White Way
Egypt	Gift of the Nile
Aden	Gibraltar of the Indian Ocean
Atlantic Ocean	Herring Pond
Korea	Hermit Kingdom
Palestine	Holy Land
Madagascar (Malagasy)	Island of Cloves
Bahrain	Island of Pearls
Jamaica	The Isle of Spring

Distinctive Name	Country/Town/Port/River
Pearl of Antilles	Cuba
Playground of Europe	Switzerland
Pillars of Hercules	Straits of Gibraltar
Pearl of the Pacific	Guyayquil Port (Ecuador)
Powder Keg of Europe	Balkans
The Promised Land	Canaan
Quaker City	Philadelphia

Other Nicknames

Distinctive Name	Country/Town/Port/River
Land of Cakes (or Oat Cakes)	Scotland
Land of the Flying Fish	Barbados
Land of the Golden Fleece	Australia
Land of the Golden Pagoda	Myanmar (Burma)
Land of Kangaroos	Australia
Land of Lilies	Canada
Land of the Midnight Sun	Norway
Land of Milk and Honey	Canaan
Land of Morning Calm	Korea
Land of the Rising Sun	Japan
Land of a Thousand Lakes	Finland
Land of Thunderbolt	Bhutan
Land of White Elephants	Thailand
Lady of Snow	Canada
Little Venice	Venezuela
Mother-in-Law of Europe	Denmark
Never, Never Land	Prairies (North Australia)

• Queen of the Arabian Sea: Kochi, India
• Queen of the Adriatic: Venice, Italy
• Rich Coast: Costa Rica
• Rich Port: Puerto Rico
• Roof of the World: Pamir Mountains, Tibet
• The Sea of Mountains: British Columbia, Canada
• Sorrow of China: Hwang Ho River, China
• The Saw Mill of Europe: Sweden
• Sick Man of Europe: Turkey
• Sugar Bowl of the World: Cuba
• The Storehouse of the World: Mexico
• The Down Under: Australia
• Venice of the North: Stockholm, Sweden
• Venice of the East: Bangkok, Thailand and Allepey, India
• Yellow River: Hwang Ho River, China
• White City: Belgrade, Serbia
• Windy City: Chicago, USA
• White Man’s Grave: Guinea Coast, West Africa
• Workshop of Europe: Belgium
• World’s Loneliest Island: Tristan Da Cunha
• World’s Bread Basket: Prairies of North America
• The Spice Island of the West: Grenada
• The Mother Colony of the West Indies: St. Kitts
• City of Arabian Nights: Baghdad, Iraq
• Twin City: Budapest, Hungary
• The Imperial City: Rome, Italy
• Golden City: No specific location mentioned Johannesburg: Also known as “The Modern Babylon.”

London: A city in England.

Valley of Kings: Also known as “Thebes.”

Major Crops and Their Producers:

Coffee: Mainly produced in Brazil, Colombia, Ivory Coast, Uganda, Guatemala, Indonesia, El Salvador, and India.

Cotton: Mainly produced in Russia, the United States, China, India, Pakistan, Turkey, Brazil, Egypt, Mexico, Sudan, Nicaragua, Greece, and Guatemala.

Wheat: Mainly produced in Russia, the United States, Canada, Australia, Italy, Germany, Argentina, India, and Pakistan.

Rice: Mainly produced in China, India, Japan, Myanmar (Burma), Vietnam, South Korea, Brazil, the Philippines, and the United States.

Sugarcane: Mainly produced in India, Brazil, Cuba, China, Mexico, Pakistan, Colombia, Australia, and South Africa.

Tea: Mainly produced in India, China, Sri Lanka, Russia, Japan, Kenya, Turkey, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Argentina, and Uganda.

Other Crops:

Barley: Mainly produced in Russia, the United States, China, Canada, the United Kingdom, and India.

Cloves: Mainly produced in Tanzania.

Cocoa: Mainly produced in Brazil, Ghana, Nigeria, and the Ivory Coast. Table 6.20: Important Minerals and Principal Producing Countries

Mineral	Countries
Aluminum	Jamaica, Suriname, France, Ghana, United States, Russia, Canada, Germany, Norway, Hungary, India, Greenland
Asbestos	Canada, Zimbabwe, South Africa
Chromium	India, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Cuba
Coal	United States, Russia, China, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Poland, Belgium, Australia, India
Copper	United States, Russia, China, Germany, Zambia, Zaire, Canada, Spain, Mexico, Japan, Australia, India
Gold	South Africa, United States, Australia, Canada
Graphite	Sri Lanka
Iron Ore	Russia, United States, Australia, Canada, Sweden, France, Spain, India, China, Brazil
Lead	Table 6.21: Major Exporters of Minerals and Crops

Item Exported	Chief Exporting Countries
Aluminum	United States
Coal	United States
Coffee	Brazil
Copper	United States
Gold	South Africa
Iron Ore	United States
Jute	Bangladesh
Manganese	Russia
Mica	India
Rice	China
Rubber	Malaysia
Silver	Mexico
Sugar	Indonesia
Wheat	United States
Wool	Australia

Table 6.22: Major Industries

Industry	Location
Aerospace	United States, Russia, France, Germany, Japan
Auto	United States, Japan, Germany, China, South Korea
Chemicals	United States, Germany, Japan, China, France
Electronics	United States, Japan, China, South Korea, Taiwan
Energy	United States, Russia, Saudi Arabia, China, Iran
Food Processing	United States, China, Brazil, India, Germany
Machinery	United States, Germany, Japan, China, Italy
Metals	United States, China, Japan, Germany, Russia
Pharmaceuticals	United States, Germany, Switzerland, Japan, France
Textiles	China, India, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Turkey

• Iron and Steel: United States, Russia, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, France, and India.
• Textiles (Cotton): United States, China, India, Japan, Russia, United Kingdom, Taiwan, Canada, Egypt, France, and Italy.
• Textiles (Woollens): Russia, United Kingdom, Japan, Australia, India, France, Poland, Belgium, United States, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany, and Bulgaria.

Chief Exporting Countries

• Chemicals: United States, Germany, United Kingdom, Russia, Japan, Canada, Australia, and India.
• Paper: United States, Canada, Japan, United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Russia, and India.
• Rubber: United States, United Kingdom, Germany, France, Netherlands, Australia, Canada, Brazil, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka.

Countries and Their Parliaments

• Afghanistan: Shora
• Bangladesh: Jatiya Sangsad
• Bhutan: Tsongdu
• Bulgaria: Narodna Subranie
• Myanmar (Burma): Pyithu Hluttaw
• Denmark: Folketing
• Ethiopia: Shergo
• Finland: Eduskusta

• Germany: Bundestag Country	Name of Parliament
  Greenland	Landstraad
  Iceland	Althing
  India	Lok Sabha (Lower House), Rajya Sabha (Upper House)
  Indonesia	Majlis
  Iran	Majlis
  Israel	Knesset
  Japan	Diet
  Malaysia	Dewan Rakyat and Dewan Negara
  Maldives	Majlis
  Mongolia	Great People’s Khural
  Nepal	National Panchayat
  The Netherlands	The Staten General
  Norway	Storting
  Poland	Sejm
  Spain	Cortes
  Surinam	Staten
  Swaziland	Liblandla
  Sweden	Riksdaq
  Switzerland	Federal Assembly The Birth of the United Nations

Franklin D. Roosevelt, the President of the United States, used the name “United Nations” for the first time in a declaration on January 1, 1942, during World War II. At that time, 26 countries promised to work together and fight against the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan).

On June 26, 1945, representatives from 49 countries met in San Francisco, USA, to sign the United Nations Charter, which is like the constitution of the UN. Originally, 50 countries were invited, but Poland couldn’t attend because they didn’t have a new government yet. So, a space was left for Poland to sign later.

Finally, on October 15, 1945, Poland signed the Charter, and the UN officially came into existence on October 24, 1945, when the governments of China, France, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States ratified the Charter. United Nations Day

• October 24th is celebrated as United Nations Day all over the world.

First Regular Session of the UN

• The first regular meeting of the UN was held in London in January 1946.
• Trygve Lie from Norway was chosen as the first Secretary-General of the UN.

Headquarters of the UN

• The UN headquarters is located on First Avenue, UN Plaza, in New York City, USA.

The UN Flag and Emblem

• The UN General Assembly approved the UN flag on October 20, 1947.
• The flag has a light blue background with a white UN emblem in the center.
• The emblem shows a map of the world from the North Pole, surrounded by two olive branches (a symbol of peace).
• The UN flag should not be placed below any other flag in the world.
• The UN Emblem was approved on October 7, 1946.

Aims and Objectives

The main goals of the UN are:

1. To keep peace and safety in the world. The United Nations (UN) has three main goals:

2. To stop poverty, disease, and illiteracy and to make sure everyone has basic rights and freedoms.

3. To help countries be friends with each other and work together.

4. To be a place where countries can come together to achieve these goals.

Here are some important things to know about the UN:

• New countries can join the UN if the Security Council says it’s okay and two-thirds of the other countries in the UN agree.

• There are five permanent members of the Security Council: China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

• Each of these five countries has the power to veto, which means they can stop the Security Council from taking action.

• When the UN was first started, there were only 50 member countries. Now, there are 193 member countries. The United Nations (UN)

• The UN is an international organization that promotes peace and cooperation among countries.

• It was created in 1945 after World War II to prevent future wars.

• The UN has 193 member states, which are almost all the countries in the world.

Non-Members of the UN

• There are a few countries that are not members of the UN.
• These countries include Switzerland, Taiwan, and Vatican City.

Principal Bodies of the UN

• The UN has six principal bodies:
• The General Assembly
• The Security Council
• The Economic and Social Council
• The International Court of Justice
• The Trusteeship Council
• The Secretariat

Quick Facts about the UN

• The UN was established on October 24, 1945.
• The UN has its headquarters in New York City.
• The UN has about 50,000 employees.
• The UN is currently involved in 16 peacekeeping operations around the world.
• The official languages of the UN are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.
• The UN was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001.

The General Assembly (GA)

• The GA is the main deliberative, policymaking, and representative organ of the UN.

• It is composed of all member states of the UN.

• The GA meets once a year in regular sessions, which usually last from September to December.

• The GA can also hold special sessions and emergency special sessions. General Assembly (GA)

• The GA is the main body of the United Nations.

• Each country can send five representatives, but each country only gets one vote.

• The GA discusses and makes recommendations on any topic covered by the UN Charter, except for topics being handled by the Security Council.

• The GA meets every year in regular sessions starting on the third Tuesday in September.

Security Council (SC)

• The SC is responsible for international peace and security.

• The SC has 15 members: five permanent members with veto power (China, France, Russia, the UK, and the US) and 10 non-permanent members elected by the GA.

• Any country, whether or not it’s a UN member, can bring its problems to the SC.

• The SC can recommend peaceful solutions or take action to maintain or restore peace. If needed, the UN may use force to bring back peace. April 1989

• An Indian man received a special honor.

• Only two other Indians had received this honor before him.

• Their names were Mr. Justice B. N. Rao and Mr. Justice Nagendra Singh.

The Trusteeship Council

• Located in New York City.
• Made up of the five permanent members of the Security Council and other countries that are in charge of Trust Territories.
• Job: To protect the interests of people who live in territories that are not yet fully self-governing and are being ruled by another country.

The Secretariat

• Led by: A Secretary-General who is chosen by the General Assembly after the Security Council makes a recommendation.
• Term: Five years, and can be re-elected after the term ends.
• Job: The main administrative office of the UN that coordinates and oversees the activities of the UN.

Secretary-Generals of the UN

1. Trygve Lie (Norway) 1946-52
2. Dag Hammarskjold (Sweden); died in a plane crash) 1953-61
3. U. Thant (Myanmar) 1962-71
4. Dr. Kurt Waldheim Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

No.	Name of Agency	Abbreviation	Year of Establishment	Headquarters	Purpose
3.	Food and Agriculture Organization	FAO	1945	Rome	To improve nutrition, living standards, and the production and distribution of food and agricultural products, especially for rural populations.
4.	United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization	UNESCO	1946	Paris	To encourage cooperation among countries through education, science, and culture to promote justice, human rights, and freedom.
5.	World Health Organization	WHO	1948	Geneva	To ensure that all people have the highest possible level of health.
6.	International Bank for Reconstruction and Development	IBRD	1945	Washington	To support economic development in countries around the world.

Organization	Acronym	Year Founded	Headquarters	Mission
1.	United Nations	UN	1945	New York
2.	Food and Agriculture Organization	FAO	1945	Rome
3.	United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization	UNESCO	1945	Paris
4.	World Health Organization	WHO	1948	Geneva
5.	International Monetary Fund	IMF	1944	Washington, D.C.
6.	World Bank	WB	1944	Washington, D.C.
7.	World Meteorological Organization	WMO	1950	Geneva
8.	Inter-governmental Maritime Consultative Organization	IMCO	1958	London
9.	United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund	UNICEF	1946	New York
10.	General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (from 1994 it is known as World Trade Organization)	GATT (WTO)	1948	Geneva

• Year of Establishment: 1965
• Headquarters: New York
• Purpose: Helps developing countries increase the wealth-producing capabilities of their natural and human resources.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

• Year of Establishment: 1972
• Headquarters: Nairobi
• Purpose: Promotes international cooperation in matters relating to the human environment.

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)

• Year of Establishment: 1969
• Headquarters: New York
• Purpose: Promotes population-related programs.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

• Year of Establishment: 1951
• Headquarters: Geneva
• Purpose: Provides international protection for refugees.

United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)

• Year of Establishment: 1966
• Headquarters: Vienna
• Purpose: Extends assistance to less developed countries (LDCs) for the development and modernization of industries. 16. International Development Association (IDA)
• Founded in 1960 in Washington, D.C.
• An organization connected to the World Bank.
• Helps countries that are not as developed improve their living conditions.

17. International Finance Corporation (IFC)

• Founded in 1956 in Washington, D.C.
• Encourages economic growth by supporting private businesses in its member countries.

18. International Monetary Fund (IMF)

• Founded in 1945 in Washington, D.C.
• Works to improve cooperation between countries on money matters and expand international trade.

19. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

• Founded in 1947 in Montreal, Canada.
• Works to make international air travel safer by setting standards and rules.

20. Universal Postal Union (UPU)

• Founded in 1947 in Berne, Switzerland.
• Works to improve postal services around the world and encourage cooperation between countries on mail matters.

21. International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

• Founded in 1947 in Geneva, Switzerland.
• Works to improve communication technologies and services around the world. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is an international organization that sets rules and regulations for radio, telegraph, telephone, and space radio communications. The United Nations and Social Progress

The United Nations (UN) is a global organization that works to improve the lives of people around the world. It does this by providing food, health services, education, and vocational training to those who have been displaced by war or conflict.

One of the UN’s most important agencies is the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA). UNRWA was created in 1949 to help Palestinian refugees who had been displaced from their homes during the Arab-Israeli wars. UNRWA provides food, health services, education, and vocational training to Palestinian refugees in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the West Bank, and Gaza.

UNRWA is a vital organization that provides essential services to Palestinian refugees. Without UNRWA, many Palestinian refugees would not have access to food, healthcare, or education. UNRWA also plays an important role in promoting peace and stability in the Middle East. By providing services to Palestinian refugees, UNRWA helps to reduce tensions and prevent violence. European Union (EU)

• The European Union (EU) started as the European Community (EC).
• The EU was created on February 7, 1992, and officially began on November 1, 1993.
• The idea of the EU came after World War II. People wanted to make sure that such a terrible war would never happen again. A French foreign minister named Robert Schuman first talked about this idea in a speech on May 9, 1950.
• We celebrate “Europe Day” every year on May 9th to remember the beginning of the EU.
• The EU is made up of democratic countries in Europe that work together for peace and prosperity. No one country in the EU is more important than the others.
• The countries in the EU have created organizations where they share some of their power. This allows them to make decisions together about things that are important to all of them.
• By working together, the EU countries can make better decisions and solve problems more effectively. The European Union (EU) is a group of countries in Europe that work together on many different things. They have five main institutions that each have a specific job:

1. The European Parliament is made up of people elected by the citizens of the EU countries. They make laws and decisions that affect the whole EU.
2. The Council of the European Union is made up of representatives from the governments of the EU countries. They negotiate and agree on laws and decisions proposed by the European Parliament.
3. The European Commission is like the government of the EU. They propose laws and decisions, and they make sure that the EU laws are followed.
4. The Court of Justice makes sure that EU laws are followed and interpreted correctly.
5. The Court of Auditors checks that the EU’s money is spent correctly.

In addition to these five main institutions, there are also five other important bodies that help the EU work:

1. The European Economic and Social Committee represents the interests of different groups in society, such as workers, businesses, and environmental organizations.
2. The Committee of Regions represents the interests of regional and local governments.
3. The European Central Bank is responsible for managing the Euro, the currency used by many EU countries.
4. The European Ombudsman investigates complaints from citizens about how the EU institutions work.
5. The European Investment Bank lends money to businesses and governments to help them invest in projects that will benefit the EU. The European Union (EU)

• The EU is based on the rule of law, and all decisions are made according to treaties agreed upon by all EU members.

• The EU currently has 28 member states: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.

• Romania and Bulgaria joined the EU in January 2007, bringing the total number of member states to 27.

• Croatia became the 28th member state on July 1, 2013.

• There are currently 5 candidate countries for EU membership: Turkey, Iceland, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia.

• Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albania are officially recognized as potential candidates for EU membership.

• Kosovo is also listed as a potential candidate, but the European Commission does not recognize it as an independent country.

The Commonwealth

• The Commonwealth is a group of 54 independent and equal sovereign states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire.

• The Commonwealth is not a political union, but its members cooperate in various areas, such as trade, development, and education.

• The head of the Commonwealth is the British monarch, who is represented by a governor-general in each member state.

• The Commonwealth Secretariat is the central administrative body of the Commonwealth, and it is based in London, United Kingdom. The Commonwealth, initially known as the British Commonwealth of Nations, is a group of independent countries that were once part of the British Empire.

• It was formed in 1947.

• Constitution: The Commonwealth doesn’t have a written constitution, but most member countries share similar constitutional features and are united by common values and interests.

• Purpose and Objectives: Despite their differences, all Commonwealth members share certain principles. By following these ideals and principles, the Commonwealth can influence the international community for the betterment of humanity.

• Membership: There are 51 member countries (South Africa joined as the 51st member in May 1994), representing about a quarter of the world’s population. Commonwealth members are represented in other Commonwealth countries by diplomatic officers called High Commissioners (instead of ambassadors, who represent non-Commonwealth countries).

• Head of the Commonwealth: The British monarch, currently King Charles III, is the Head of the Commonwealth. Commonwealth:

• The British monarch (Queen Elizabeth II) is the symbolic leader of the Commonwealth.

• Other member countries have their own leaders but recognize the Queen as the head of the Commonwealth.

Secretary-General:

• Kamlesh Sharma, an Indian diplomat, became the Commonwealth Secretary-General on April 1, 2008.

Non-Aligned Movement (NAM):

• Founder Members of NAM:

  1. Marshal Tito - President of former Yugoslavia
  2. Dr. Sukarno - President of Indonesia
  3. G. A. Nasser - President of Egypt
  4. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru - First Prime Minister of India

• Credit for the Concept of NAM:

  • Pt. Nehru is credited with developing the concept of NAM.

• Establishment of NAM:

  • A conference of like-minded nations was held in April 1955 in Bandung, Indonesia, which became the birthplace of NAM.

• Basic Principles of NAM:

  1. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty
  2. Mutual non-aggression
  3. Mutual non-interference in each other’s affairs
  4. Equality and mutual benefit
  5. Peaceful coexistence

• Significance of these Principles:

  • These principles promote peace, cooperation, and understanding among nations. The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence (Panchsheel):

• These principles are the foundation for how the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) operates.

Membership:

• There are currently 118 members of the NAM. South Africa joined as the 109th member in May 1994.

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC):

• The idea for SAARC was first suggested in 1979 by the former President of Bangladesh, Zia-ur-Rahman, during his visit to Sri Lanka.
• SAARC was officially formed on December 8, 1985, in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

SAARC Members:

• Bhutan
• Bangladesh
• India
• The Maldives
• Pakistan
• Nepal
• Sri Lanka

Goals of SAARC:

• To improve the well-being of the people living in South Asia
• To make the region safer
• To speed up economic growth and cultural development
• To fight terrorism

SAARC Secretariat:

• The SAARC Secretariat is located in Kathmandu, Nepal.

Other World Organizations:

The European Economic Community (EEC):

• Also known as the European Common Market (ECM).

• The EEC was created on March 25, 1957, and is headquartered in Brussels, Belgium. It was established through the Treaty of Rome. European Economic Community (EEC)

• Formed: On 25 March 1957 in Rome, Italy. It started working on 1 January 1958.

• Goal: To encourage trade and economic growth among its member countries. It also aims to create a single market where goods, services, and people can move freely between member countries. The Treaty of Rome also ensures certain rights for citizens of all member nations.

• Original Members: Six countries: Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, West Germany, and Italy.

• Current Members: The EEC has grown to include 12 member states. Britain, Ireland, Norway, and Denmark joined later, but Norway later withdrew. Greece, Spain, and Portugal are the most recent members.

Caribbean Community (CARICOM)

• Formed: On 1 August 1973, with its headquarters in Georgetown, Guyana. It was created from the Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA).

• Goal: To coordinate economic policies and development among its member states. It sets common rules for trade, tariffs, and policies. It also has programs to help less developed member countries. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

• What is OPEC? OPEC is a group of countries that work together to control the production and pricing of crude oil.

• When was OPEC created? OPEC was created in 1960 by five countries: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela.

• Where is OPEC headquartered? OPEC’s headquarters are in Vienna, Austria.

• What is the purpose of OPEC? OPEC’s purpose is to control the production and pricing of crude oil in order to ensure a stable oil market and to protect the interests of its member countries.

• Who are the members of OPEC? The current members of OPEC are Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. Arab League (League of Arab States)

• Started: On March 22, 1945.

• Headquarters: Cairo, Egypt (until 1979), then Tunis, Tunisia (1979-1990), and back to Cairo (after 1990).

• Goal: To bring Muslim countries together and keep Arab countries friendly with each other.

• Members: Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

European Free Trade Association (EFTA)

• Started: May 1960.

• Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.

• Goal: To get rid of taxes on trade between member countries and help create a single market in Western Europe to boost world trade. EFTA countries have free trade agreements with the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Union (EU). North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

• Formed: April 4, 1949, in Brussels, Belgium.

• Goal: Member countries agreed to work together to defend themselves against armed attacks and to consult each other if any member nation felt threatened. If one member country was attacked, all the other members would come to its defense.

• Members: The treaty was first signed by Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Greece and Turkey joined in 1952, and West Germany and Spain joined in 1955 and 1982, respectively. The other members are Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia, making up a total of 26 member countries.

The Group of 77

• Formed: In 1964, under the auspices of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).

• Goal: To promote economic cooperation among developing countries and to give them a stronger voice in international economic decision-making.

• Members: The group originally had 77 members, but it has since grown to include 134 developing countries from all regions of the world. South-East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)

• Established: In 1954 in Bangkok, Thailand.

• Goal: To protect Southeast Asian countries from communism and promote economic cooperation.

• Members: Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. (Pakistan left in 1973.) SEATO was disbanded in 1977.

Colombo Plan

• Established: In 1950 in Colombo, Sri Lanka.
• Goal: To help newly independent Asian countries develop their economies.
• Members: Started with seven Commonwealth countries and now has 26 members.

Organization of African Unity (OAU)

• Established: In 1963 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

• Goal: To promote unity and cooperation among African countries. Organization of African Unity (OAU)

• Goal: To promote unity and solidarity among African nations, end colonialism, and coordinate policies in various areas such as politics, economics, defense, health, science, and culture.

• Members: All 51 independent African countries, except for white-dominated states and territories in the South.

• Disbanded: July 9, 2002, by its last chairperson, South African President Thabo Mbeki. It was replaced by the African Union.

Organization of American States (OAS)

• Established: April 30, 1948, in Washington, D.C.

• Purpose: To promote solidarity and cooperation among member countries in the Americas, protecting their independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity.

• Members: 34 active members, with Cuba’s participation suspended since 1962.

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

• Established: 1961, replacing the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC).

• Purpose: To promote economic growth and development among member countries through policy coordination and cooperation in various areas such as trade, investment, and development assistance.

• Members: 38 member countries, mostly developed countries from Europe, North America, and Asia-Pacific. Secretary-General:

• The Secretary-General is the leader of the organization.

• The Secretary-General is chosen in alphabetical order from the member countries.

• The Secretary-General serves for a three-year term.

Member Countries:

• The other member countries are Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, and Vietnam.

Central American Common Market (CACM):

• Established in 1960 with headquarters in Guatemala City.
• Aims at Central American integration, equalization of import duties and charges, and uniform control on foreign investment.
• Members: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua.

The French Community:

• Established in 1958, it is an organization like the British Commonwealth.
• Offers new institutions to the French overseas territories based on the common ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
• Members: French Republic, Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, Gabon, Senegal, Chad, Madagascar, and Djibouti.

Interpol:

• Established in 1923, it is a 188-nation Police Commission.

• Coordinates activities of member-nations with its headquarters in Paris. World Trade Organization (WTO)

• Started in 1995, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).

• It has 85 founding members, including India.

• The WTO is like the third important economic organization in the world, along with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

• The WTO can solve trade problems between countries and make free trade rules for areas like services and agriculture. It covers more areas than GATT.

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

• Started in 1989 when the Prime Minister of Australia, Bob Howke, called for better economic cooperation around the Pacific Ocean.
• APEC is a group of 21 countries around the Pacific Ocean that want to increase free trade and economic cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region.

Group of Eight (G8)

• Started in 1975 as G6 (France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States).

• Canada joined in 1976, making it G7.

• Russia joined in 1998, making it G8.

• The G8 is a group of eight countries that meet to discuss important economic and political issues. G7 (Group of Seven)

• Members: Italy, Japan, UK, US, Canada, France, Germany

• Formerly known as G8 when Russia was a member

• Does not include major economies like China, Brazil, and India

• Focuses on global food supply since 2009

Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)

• Established in 1997 in the Hague, Netherlands
• Promotes and ensures compliance with the chemical weapons convention
• Aims to eliminate the use and possession of chemical weapons

Amnesty International

• Founded in 1961 in London by Peter Benenson

• A global organization that investigates human rights violations

• Campaigns for the release of prisoners of conscience who have not used or advocated violence

• Advocates for fair trials and an end to torture and other cruel treatments Red Cross

• Founded: In 1863 by Jean Henri Dunant.

• Mission: To help people affected by war and natural disasters.

• Members: More than 500,000 members in 150 countries.

• Work: Provides medical care, food, shelter, and other assistance to people in need.

• Symbol: A red cross on a white background. The Red Cross

• The Red Cross is a humanitarian organization that has been helping people for over 130 years.

• It uses a red cross as its symbol, but in some places, like the Middle East, they use a red crescent instead.

• The Red Cross has won the Nobel Peace Prize three times, in 1917, 1944, and 1963.

• It has about 200 million members from all over the world.

• The Red Cross works with the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) to provide aid to people in need.

Systems of Measurements

• Scientists use different systems of measurement to measure things.

• Some of the most common systems are the CGS system (centimeter, gram, second), the FPS system (foot, pound, second), and the MKS system (meter, kilogram, second).

• To avoid confusion, scientists are trying to agree on one standard system of measurement. The Metric System

• The Metric System is a way of measuring things that uses multiples of ten. For example, there are 10 millimeters in a centimeter, 10 centimeters in a decimeter, and so on.

• The Metric System was created in France in 1791. It was later adopted by many other countries, including India in 1957.

The International System of Units (SI)

• In 1960, the International System of Units (SI) was created. The SI is a modernized version of the Metric System. It has seven basic units: the meter, the kilogram, the second, the ampere, the kelvin, the mole, and the candela.
• The meter is the unit of length. It is defined as the distance that light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second.
• The kilogram is the unit of mass. It is defined as the mass of a specific platinum-iridium cylinder that is kept in France.
• The second is the unit of time. It is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation emitted by a cesium-133 atom.
• The ampere is the unit of electric current. It is defined as the amount of current that flows through a conductor when one volt is applied across it.
• The kelvin is the unit of temperature. It is defined as 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
• The mole is the unit of amount of substance. It is defined as the amount of substance that contains exactly 6.02214076×10^23 elementary entities.
• The candela is the unit of luminous intensity. It is defined as the luminous intensity of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×10^12 hertz with a radiant intensity of 1/683 watt per steradian. Cesium-133 Atom: The cesium-133 atom has two energy levels, called hyperfine levels, in its ground state. When the atom transitions between these levels, it emits or absorbs a specific frequency of light. This frequency is used to define the unit of time, the second.

Ampere (A): The ampere is a unit of electric current. It is defined as the amount of current that, when flowing through two long, parallel wires placed one meter apart in a vacuum, creates a force of exactly 2 × 10^-7 newtons per meter of wire length between the wires.

Kelvin (K): The kelvin is a unit of temperature. It is defined as 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. The triple point of water is the temperature and pressure at which water can exist in all three states: solid, liquid, and gas.

Mole (mol): The mole is a unit of measurement for the amount of a substance. It is defined as the amount of a substance that contains exactly 6.02214076 × 10^23 elementary entities. An elementary entity can be an atom, molecule, ion, electron, or other particle. The candela (cd) is a unit of measurement for the intensity of light. It is defined as the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.

In simpler terms, the candela is a way of measuring how bright a light source is. It is based on the idea that a certain type of light, with a specific frequency, has a certain brightness. The candela is defined as the brightness of this specific type of light, when it is emitted in a certain direction. Time

• Second (s): A second is the base unit of time in the International System of Units (SI). It is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between two energy levels of the cesium-133 atom.

Speed

• Meter per second (m/s): A meter per second is a unit of speed that measures the distance traveled by an object in one second.

Acceleration

• Meter per second squared (m/s²): A meter per second squared is a unit of acceleration that measures the rate at which an object’s speed changes over time.

Force

• Newton (N): A newton is the SI unit of force. It is defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of one kilogram at a rate of one meter per second squared.

Pressure

• Pascal (Pa): A pascal is the SI unit of pressure. It is defined as the pressure exerted by a force of one newton acting on an area of one square meter.

Energy

• Joule (J): A joule is the SI unit of energy. It is defined as the energy transferred or work done when a force of one newton is applied over a distance of one meter.

Non-SI Units Used Along with the International System

• There are certain units that are accepted for use with the SI. These include units that are in continuous everyday use, such as the traditional units of time and angle, as well as a few other units that have become increasingly important in technical fields.

Derived Units of the International System (SI)

• The term “derived unit” refers to any unit that can be expressed as a combination of base units. For example, the unit of speed, meter per second, is derived from the base units of meter and second. The base units are the fundamental units of measurement in the International System of Units (SI). There are seven base units: meter, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela.

Derived units are units that are derived from the base units. There are many derived units, and each one has a specific name and symbol. For example, the unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz), and the unit of force is the newton (N).

The table lists some of the most important derived units and their SI units. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

Symbol	Unit	Description
e	Weber per ampere (Wb/A)	Magnetic flux density
°C	Degree Celsius (°C)	Temperature
rad	Radian (rad)	Plane angle
sr	Steradian (sr)	Solid angle
lm	Lumen (lm)	Luminous flux
lx	Lux (lx)	Illuminance
Bq	Becquerel (Bq)	Activity
Gy	Gray (Gy)	Absorbed dose
Sv	Sievert (Sv)	Dose equivalent
kat	Katal (kat)	Catalytic activity

Number System

• There are two popular numeral systems:
  • The Arabic system
  • The Roman system

Arabic Numerals

• The numerals we use today in calculations are known as Hindu-Arabic numerals.

Invention of Zero and the Hindu-Arabic Numbers

• Ancient Hindu mathematicians are believed to have invented the Arabic numerals, which were later adopted by the Arabs. The Arabic system of numbers was used as early as the 5th or 6th century BC, but zero was not used with these numbers at that time.

The system was brought to Europe from the Arabs around the 10th century and replaced the Roman system. These numbers were called Arabic numerals.

The zero was invented by the Hindus around 876 AD. It was represented by a small circle called ‘Shunya’, which means ‘vacant’ in Sanskrit.

The Italian mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci (1170-1240) popularized the Arabic system of numerals in his book ‘Book of the Abacus’, published in 1202.

The word ‘digit’ comes from the Latin word ‘digitus’, which means ‘finger’. This is because people used their fingers to count in the past.

The decimal system, which is based on powers of 10, also originated in India around 1000 BC. It was later popularized by a Flemish mathematician named Simon Stevin in the 16th century. In 1585, a mathematician named Simon Stevin (1548-1620) wrote a book called “De Thiende” (The Tenth). Before this book, numbers less than one were written as fractions.

The Romans used a different number system called Roman numerals about 2000 years ago. This system used letters from the English alphabet to represent numbers. There were seven basic symbols:

1. I = 1
2. V = 5
3. X = 10
4. L = 50
5. C = 100
6. D = 500
7. M = 1000

There was no zero in the Roman numeral system. The system worked based on the following rules:

• Repeating a letter repeated its value. For example, XX = 20 (10 + 10).
• A letter placed after a letter of greater value added to the value. For example, VI = 5 + 1 = 6.
• A letter placed before a letter of greater value subtracted from the value. For example, IV = 5 - 1 = 4.
• A dash over a number multiplied its value by 1000. For example, X = 10 x 1000 = 10,000.

Here are some examples of how Roman numerals work:

1 = I 2 = II 3 = III 4 = IV 5 = V 6 = VI 7 = VII 8 = VIII 9 = IX 10 = X 11 = XI 12 = XII 13 = XIII 14 = XIV 15 = XV 16 = XVI 17 = XVII 18 = XVIII 19 = XIX 20 = XX 8.4 Various Sciences

| Acoustics | The study of sound and sound waves. | | Aerodynamics | The study of forces acting on objects moving through the air, such as airplanes and missiles. | | Aeronautics | The study of flying and air travel. | | Agronomy | The science of managing soil and growing crops. | | Agrostology | The study of grasses. | | Anatomy | The study of the structure of the human body. | | Anesthesiology | The study of using anesthesia to control pain during medical procedures. | | Anthropology | The study of human origins, physical development, and cultural development. | | Archaeology | The study of past human life, culture, and history through material remains. | | Astronautics | The science of space travel and space vehicles. | | Astrophysics | The study of the physical properties of celestial objects and the universe. | Astronomy: The study of planets and other objects in the sky.

Astrogeology: The study of rocks and minerals on other planets.

Bacteriology: The study of bacteria.

Biology: The study of living things, including plants and animals.

Biophysics: The study of how physics relates to living things.

Botany: The study of plants.

Bryology: The study of mosses.

Cardiology: The study of the heart.

Carpology: The study of fruits and seeds.

Ceramics: The art of making objects from clay.

Cetology: The study of aquatic mammals, especially whales.

Chemistry: The study of elements and how they combine.

Chorology: The study of geographical areas and how plants and animals are distributed.

Cosmetology: The study of cosmetics and how to use them.

Cosmology: The study of the universe and how it came to be. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

Cosmology: The study of the universe, including its origin, nature, structure, and evolution.

Craniology: The study of skulls. (Note: This is not the same as phrenology, which is not a science.)

Cryogenics: The study of extremely low temperatures and their applications.

Cytology: A branch of biology that focuses on the structure and function of cells.

Cytopathology: The study of diseased cells.

Dactylology: The study of fingerprints.

Dermatology: A branch of medicine that deals with the skin.

Dietetics: The science of diet and nutrition.

Ecology: The study of the relationships between organisms and their environment.

Entomology: The study of insects.

Endocrinology: The study of the body’s hormone-secreting glands (endocrine glands).

Etymology: The study of the origin and history of words.

Genetics: A branch of biology that focuses on heredity and the laws that govern it.

Geology: The study of the chemical composition of the Earth’s crust.

Gerontology: The study of aging and the elderly. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

Branch of Medicine

• Gerontology: Studies the aging process, problems, and diseases.
• Gynecology: Deals with female diseases of the reproductive system.
• Hematology: Studies blood and its disorders.
• Hepatology: Deals with the liver.
• Histology: Studies tissues.

Other Fields

• Horticulture: Deals with flowers, fruits, vegetables, etc.
• Hydrology: Studies water in the hydrosphere and atmosphere.
• Hygiene: Deals with health and its preservation.
• Immunology: Deals with the body’s immune system.
• Lithology: Studies the characteristics of rocks.
• Morphology: Studies the external form and structure of living organisms.
• Mycology: Deals with fungi and fungal diseases.
• Nephrology: Deals with the kidneys. Nephrology: The study of kidneys and their diseases.

Neuropathology: The study of changes in the nervous system caused by diseases.

Obstetrics: The study of pregnancy, labor, and childbirth.

Oncology: The study of tumors and cancer.

Ophthalmology: The study of the eyes and related diseases.

Orology: The study of mountains.

Ornithology: The study of birds.

Orthopedics: The study of the skeletal system and its diseases.

Osteology: The study of bones.

Pediatrics: The study of children’s diseases.

Paleontology: The study of fossils and ancient life forms.

Parasitology: The study of parasites, especially those that cause diseases.

Pathology: The study of the causes, mechanisms, and manifestations of diseases.

Pharmacology: The study of drugs, their chemical properties, and their effects on the body. Try: Make an effort to do something.

Effects on the body: Changes that happen to the body as a result of something.

Physiology: The study of how living things work.

Psychiatry: The study and treatment of mental illness.

Radiology: The use of X-rays to diagnose and treat medical conditions.

Semiology: The study of signs and symbols.

Seismology: The study of earthquakes.

Theology: The study of religion.

Toxicology: The study of poisons.

Urology: The study of the urinary system.

Virology: The study of viruses.

Zoology: The study of animals.

Zymology: The study of fermentation.

Altimeter: A device that measures altitude.

Ammeter: A device that measures electric current. Measures strength of electric current

Instrument	Use
Anemometer	Measures wind speed and direction
Audiometer	Measures sound intensity
Barometer	Measures air pressure
Bolometer	Measures heat radiation
Calipers	Measure the size of objects
Calorimeter	Measures heat
Cardiogram (ECG)	Records heart activity
Chronometer	Measures time
Cytometer	Measures very low temperatures
Dynamo	Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
Dynamometer	Measures electrical power
Electroencephalograph (EEC)	Records brain activity
Electrometer	Measures small electrical differences
Electroscope	Detects the presence of electricity

Instrument	Purpose
Endoscope	Looks inside the body
Fathometer	Measures the depth of the ocean
Flux meter	Measures magnetic strength
Galvanometer	Measures electric current
Hydrometer	Measures the density of liquids
Hygrometer	Measures humidity
Hydrophone	Measures sound underwater
Kymograph	Records physiological movements like blood pressure and heartbeat
Lactometer	Measures the purity of milk
Manometer	Measures gas pressure
Microphone	Converts sound into electrical signals
Microscope	Magnifies small objects
Ohmmeter	Measures electrical resistance
Odometer	Measures the distance traveled
Periscope	Allows you to see above the water from a submarine
Polygraph	Records multiple physiological changes at the same time

Name of Instrument	Use
Sphygmomanometer	Measures blood pressure
Pyrometer	Measures very high temperatures
Quadrant	Measures altitudes and angles in navigation and astronomy
Radar	Detects the direction and distance of an approaching airplane using radio waves
Refractometer	Measures refractive indices
Resistance Thermometer	Measures temperature by determining the electrical resistance of a coil of thin wire
Salinometer	Determines the salinity of solutions
Sextant	Used by navigators to find the latitude of a place by measuring the elevation above the horizon of the sun or another star; also measures the height of distant objects
Stereoscope	Used to view two-dimensional pictures
Stethoscope	Used by doctors to hear and analyze heart and lung sounds

Invention	Use
Lung sounds	Used to listen to the sounds made by the lungs
Stroboscope	Used to view rapidly moving objects
Tachometer	Used to measure the speed of a rotating object
Galvanometer	Used to measure electric current
Telescope	Used to view distant objects in space
Theodolite	Used to measure horizontal and vertical angles
Tonometer	Used to measure the pitch of sound
Transponder	Used to receive a signal and transmit a reply immediately
Udometer	Used to measure the amount of rainfall
Viscometer	Used to measure the thickness of liquids
Voltmeter	Used to measure the voltage of an electrical circuit
Wattmeter	Used to measure the power of an electrical circuit
Wave meter	Used to measure the wavelength of a radio wave

Invention	Inventor	Country	Year
Airplane	Wright brothers	United States	1903
Ballpoint Pen	C. Biro	Hungary	1888
Barometer	E. Torricelli	Italy	1643
Bicycle	K. Macmillan	Scotland	1839
Celsius Scale	A. Celsius	France	1742
Movie Projector	Thomas Alva Edison	United States	1891
Computer	Charles Babbage	Britain	1834
Movie Camera	Friese-Greene	Britain	1889
Cinema	A. L. and J. L. Lumiere	France	1895
Mechanical Clock	Hsing and Ling-Tsan	China	1725
Pendulum Clock	C. Hugyens	Netherlands	1657
Diesel Engine	Rudolf Diesel	Germany	1892
Dynamite	Alfred Nobel	Sweden	1867
Dynamo	Michael Faraday	England	1831
Electric Iron	H. W. Seeley	United States	1882
Electric Lamp	Thomas Alva Edison	United States	1879
Electromagnet	W. Sturgeon	England	1823
Movie with Sound	Dr. Lee de Forest	United States	1923
Fountain Pen	L. E. Waterman	United States	1884
Gas Lighting	William Murdoch	Scotland	1792
Gramophone	Emile Berliner	United States	1887

Inventor: Thomas Alva Edison

Country: United States

Year: 1878

Explanation: Thomas Alva Edison, an American inventor, created the telephone in the United States in 1878. This invention allowed people to talk to each other over long distances using electrical signals. 1898

• Rayon: Viscose Co., US

1910

• Razor (safety): K. C. Gillette, US

1931

• Razor (electric): Col. J. Schick, US

1851

• Refrigerator: J. Harrison and A. Catlin, Australia, US

1835

• Revolver: Samuel Colt, US

1839

• Rubber (vulcanized): Charles Goodyear, US

1823

• Rubber (waterproof): Charles Macintosh, Scotland

1816

• Safety Lamp: Sir Humphry Davy, England

1849

• Safety Pin: W. Hunt, US

1830

• Sewing Machine: B. Thimmonnier, France

1919

• Scooter: G. Bradshaw, England

1775

• Ship (steam): J. C. Perier, France

1894

• Ship (turbine): Sir Charles Parsons, England

1837

• Shorthand (modern): Sir Isaac Pitman, England

1769

• Spinning Frame: Sir Richard Arkwright, England

1705

• Steam Engine (piston): Thomas Newcomen, England

1782

• Steam Engine: James Watt, Scotland

1913

• Stainless Steel: Harry Brearley, England

1776

• Submarine: D. Bushnell, US

1916

• Tank: Sir Ernest Sw Invention	Inventor(s)	Country	Year
  Terylene	J. Whinfield and J. Dickson	England	1941
  Thermometer	Galileo Galilei	Italy	1593
  Tractor	Benjamin Holt	US	1900
  Transistor	Bardeen, Shockley and Brattain	US	1947
  Typewriter	C. Sholes	US	1867
  Radio Valve	Sir J. A. Fleming	Britain	1904
  Watch	A. L. Breguet	France	1791
  X-ray	Wilhelm Roentgen	Germany	1895
  Zip Fastener	W. L. Judson	US	1891

Medical Discoveries

Discovery	Made by	Country	Year
Antibiotic (Penicillin)	Alexander Fleming	Scotland	1928
Antiseptic	Joseph Lister	Britain	1867
Blood Circulation	William Harvey	England	1616
Blood Transfusion	James Blundell	England	1818
Chloroform	James Simpson	Scotland	1847
Ether	Crawford Long	US	1842
Insulin	Frederick Banting and Charles Best	Canada	1921
Vaccination	Edward Jenner	England	1796 Lister

• In 1867, in Scotland, Lister made important discoveries in the field of medicine.

Aspirin

• In 1899, Dr. Felix Hoffmann, a German scientist, invented Aspirin.

Blood Circulation

• In 1628, William Harvey, a British scientist, made important discoveries about how blood circulates in the body.

Blood Group

• Between 1900 and 1902, K. Landsteiner, an Austrian scientist, discovered different blood groups.

Blood Transfusion

• In 1625, Jean-Baptiste Denys, a French scientist, performed the first blood transfusion.

Cholera and TB Germs

• In 1883, Robert Koch, a German scientist, discovered the germs that cause cholera and tuberculosis.

Diphtheria Germs

• Between 1883 and 1884, Klebs and Loffler, German scientists, discovered the germs that cause diphtheria.

Electro cardiogram (ECG)

• In 1903, William Einthoven, a Dutch scientist, invented the Electro cardiogram (ECG) machine.

Heart-Lung machine

• In 1953, John Heynsham Gibbon, an American scientist, invented the Heart-Lung machine.

Hypodermic Syringe

• In 1853, Alexander Wood, a British scientist, invented the Hypodermic Syringe.

Heart Transplant

• In 1967, Christian Barnard, a South African scientist, performed the first successful heart transplant.

Kidney Machine

• In 1944, W. J. Kolf, a Dutch scientist, invented the Kidney Machine.

Malaria Germs

• In 1880, A. Laveran, a French scientist, discovered the germs that cause malaria.

Organ Transplant

• In 1953, John P. Merril, an American scientist, performed the first successful organ transplant.

Scan (CAT)

• In 1973, Godfrey Hounsfield, an English scientist, invented the Scan (CAT) machine.

Sphygmomanometer

• In 1896, Scipione Riva-Rocci, an Italian scientist, invented the Sphygmomanometer.

Stethoscope

• In 1819, Rene Laennec, a French scientist, invented the Stethoscope.

Thermometer (Clinical)

• In 1867, Sir Thomas Allbutt, an English scientist, invented the Clinical Thermometer. Table 8.8: Important Vaccines

Vaccine	Developed by	Country	Year
Smallpox	Edward Jenner	England	1796
Cholera	Louis Pasteur	France	1880
Diphtheria and Tetanus	Emil Adolf Von Behring and Shibasaburo Kitasato	Germany/Japan	1891
TB Vaccine	Albert Calmette and Camille Guerin	France	1922
Polio Vaccine	Jonas E. Salk	US	1952
Oral Polio Vaccine	Albert Bruce Sabin	US	1955
Measles Vaccine	John F. Enders, Thomas Peeble	US	1953
Rabies Vaccine	Louis Pasteur	France	1885
Typhus Vaccine	Charles Nicolle	France	1909

Chapter: Physics

Fundamentals of Physics

Mechanics

Matter

• Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms and molecules. Matter:

• Matter is anything that we can see, touch, taste, or smell. It has mass and takes up space.

• Matter can exist in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. Solids have a definite shape and volume, liquids have a definite volume but no definite shape, and gases have no definite shape or volume.

• Matter can also exist in a fourth state called plasma. Plasma is a hot, ionized gas that is found in stars and other high-energy environments.

Mass:

• Mass is a measure of how much matter an object has.

• The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).

• Mass is different from weight, which is a measure of the force of gravity acting on an object. Weight:

• Weight is the force of gravity pulling an object towards the center of the Earth.

• The weight of an object depends on its mass and the strength of gravity.

• On the moon, gravity is weaker than on Earth, so objects weigh less there.

• Scales measure mass, while spring balances measure weight.

• Mass is measured in grams, while weight is measured in newtons.

Density:

• Density is the amount of mass in a given volume of a substance.
• Density is measured in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³).
• Water has a density of 1000 kg/m³.
• Relative density is the density of a substance compared to the density of water.
• Ice floats on water because it is less dense than water.
• A lactometer is used to test the purity of milk by measuring its density.

Force:

• Force is a push or pull that can change the motion of an object.

• Force is measured in newtons (N).

• The greater the force, the greater the change in motion.

• Forces can be balanced or unbalanced.

• Balanced forces do not change the motion of an object, while unbalanced forces do. Centrifugal Force:

• This is a force that seems to push objects away from the center of a circular path they are moving in.

Centripetal Force:

• This is a force that pulls objects towards the center of a circular path they are moving in.

Illustration:

• Imagine a stone tied to a string and you are swinging it around in a circle.
• You have to pull the string inwards to keep the stone moving in a circle.
• This pull on the stone is called centripetal force.
• The stone also pulls back on you with an equal and opposite force, which is called centrifugal force.

Applications:

• Curved rail tracks or roads are banked or raised on one side so that a fast-moving train or vehicle leans inwards.

• This provides the necessary centripetal force to keep the train or vehicle from flying off the track or road.

• A cyclist also leans inwards when turning a corner to provide themselves with the necessary centripetal force. Friction:

• Friction is a force that opposes the movement of one surface against another.

• Without friction, brakes wouldn’t work, and belts wouldn’t drive the wheels of machines.

• Friction can waste energy, so we use things like wheels, ball bearings, and lubricants to reduce it.

Energy:

• Energy is the ability to do work. It comes in different forms, like mechanical, electrical, potential, chemical, kinetic, and nuclear.
• Potential energy is the energy an object has because of its position. For example, a stretched rubber band or a full water reservoir.
• Kinetic energy is the energy an object has because of its motion. For example, a flying bullet or flowing water.
• Energy can’t be created or destroyed, but it can change from one form to another. Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

This is a fundamental law of physics called the Law of Conservation of Energy. It means that the total amount of energy in the universe is always the same. Energy can change forms, but it cannot be created or destroyed.

Surface Tension

• Surface tension is a force that pulls the surface of a liquid together. It is caused by the attraction between the molecules of the liquid.
• Surface tension makes water climb up a narrow capillary tube. It also makes rain drops spherical and allows a needle to float on water.
• Surface tension decreases as the temperature of a liquid increases. It vanishes at the critical temperature.

Motion and Work

• Motion is the change of position of an object over time.
• Speed is the rate at which an object moves.
• Velocity is the speed of an object in a particular direction. Acceleration: How fast an object’s speed changes. It’s measured in meters per second squared. Negative acceleration is called deceleration.

Work: When a force makes an object move, work is done. Work is equal to the force times the distance the object moves in the direction of the force.

Power: Power is how fast work is done. Horsepower (hp) and watts are units of power.

Elasticity: An object is elastic if it returns to its original shape and size after being deformed. In physics, elasticity means resistance to change. So, the stiffer an object is, the more elastic it is. That’s why steel is more elastic than rubber.

Heat: Heat is a form of energy that can raise the temperature of matter, increase its volume, or change its state (for example, from solid to liquid or liquid to gas). Matter and Its Properties

Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. It can exist in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. Each state has its own unique properties.

Latent Heat

Latent heat is the energy required to change the state of a substance without changing its temperature. For example, the latent heat of fusion is the energy required to melt a solid into a liquid, and the latent heat of vaporization is the energy required to vaporize a liquid into a gas.

Temperature

Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. The higher the temperature, the faster the particles are moving. Temperature can be measured in degrees Celsius (°C), degrees Fahrenheit (°F), or Kelvin (K).

Evaporation

Evaporation is the process by which a liquid changes into a gas. It occurs when the particles in a liquid gain enough energy to overcome the forces holding them together and escape into the air. Evaporation is affected by several factors, including temperature, humidity, and wind speed.

Transfer of Heat

Heat can be transferred in three ways: conduction, convection, and radiation.

• Conduction is the transfer of heat through direct contact between two objects. For example, when you touch a hot stove, heat from the stove is transferred to your hand through conduction.
• Convection is the transfer of heat through the movement of a fluid. For example, when you boil water, heat from the bottom of the pot is transferred to the water through convection.
• Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves. For example, heat from the sun is transferred to the Earth through radiation. Why are Metals Good Conductors?

Metals have many free electrons that can move around easily. These electrons can carry heat from one part of the metal to another. This is why metals feel cold to the touch on a cold day. The electrons in the metal absorb heat from your hand, which makes your hand feel cold.

Illustration:

In the winter, a steel chair feels colder than a wooden chair because steel is a good conductor of heat. When you touch the steel chair, the electrons in the chair absorb heat from your hand, which makes your hand feel cold. The wooden chair is not as good of a conductor of heat, so it does not absorb as much heat from your hand. This is why the wooden chair feels warmer than the steel chair.

Metals are good conductors while gas and air are poor conductors.

This is why two thin blankets are warmer than one thick blanket. The air between the two blankets acts as an insulator, which prevents heat from escaping. A new quilt is warmer than an old one because it encloses more air.

Eskimos make double-walled ice houses and the air in between two ice walls does not allow heat to pass.

This is why Eskimos can stay warm in their ice houses even when the temperature outside is very cold.

A thermos flask is made of double-walled glass bottles.

The air between the two glass bottles acts as an insulator, which prevents heat from escaping. This is why a thermos flask can keep hot liquids hot for a long time.

Radiation

Radiation is the transfer of heat from one point to another without heating the medium in between. This is how heat travels from the sun to the Earth. The sun’s rays do not heat the space between the sun and the Earth. Instead, they travel through space as waves and heat the Earth when they reach it.

Polished surfaces are good reflectors of heat.

This is why a shiny metal pot reflects heat better than a dull metal pot. The shiny surface of the pot reflects the heat waves back into the pot, which keeps the food inside the pot warm. Thermos Flask:

• The glass bottles in a thermos flask have two walls with a silver coating on the outside of the inner wall and the inside of the outer wall. This coating helps to keep heat inside the flask.

White Clothes in Summer:

• White clothes are better to wear in summer because they reflect more sunlight and keep you cooler. Black clothes absorb more sunlight and make you feel warmer.

Cloudy Nights:

• On a cloudy night, the heat from the earth is trapped by the clouds and sent back to the ground. This makes it feel warmer than on a clear night.

Convection:

• Convection is the transfer of heat through the movement of heated particles in a liquid or gas. For example, when you boil water, the heat from the bottom of the pot causes the water molecules to move faster and rise to the top. This creates a current of hot water that circulates throughout the pot.

Ventilators:

• Ventilators are placed at the top of walls in a room because warm air rises. The warm air escapes through the ventilators, and cooler air enters the room through doors and windows at lower levels.

Laws of Thermodynamics:

• The laws of thermodynamics describe how heat energy can be transferred from one object to another.

Zeroth Law:

• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two objects are in thermal equilibrium with each other, then they are at the same temperature. In other words, heat will not flow between two objects that are at the same temperature. Laws of Thermodynamics

1. The total amount of energy in a closed system remains constant.
2. Heat can only flow from a hotter object to a colder object.
3. It is impossible to reach absolute zero temperature.

Light

• Light is a form of energy that can be seen by the human eye.
• It travels in straight lines.
• When light hits an object, it can be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted.

Composition of Light

• Light is made up of different colors, which can be seen when light is passed through a prism.
• The colors of light are arranged in a spectrum, with red at one end and violet at the other. Isaac Newton’s Discovery of the Spectrum

Isaac Newton conducted an experiment where he passed a beam of light through a prism. He observed that the light separated into seven distinct colors:

1. Violet
2. Indigo
3. Blue
4. Green
5. Yellow
6. Orange
7. Red

This band of colors is called a spectrum, with violet and red at the opposite ends.

Color Visualization

Different objects have different colors because they absorb or reflect different parts of the spectrum. For example, a blue object absorbs the red, yellow, and green parts of white light and reflects only the blue color.

The color of an object depends on the type of light falling on it and the specific color components of the light that are reflected by the object. If an object absorbs all colors, it appears black. If it reflects all colors, it appears white.

Optical Illusions

• When a stick is partially submerged in water, it appears bent. This is because light rays traveling from the stick to our eyes bend as they pass from the air (a less dense medium) to the water (a denser medium).

• A pond looks shallower than it actually is because light rays traveling from the water to our eyes bend as they pass from the denser medium (water) to the less dense medium (air).

• A diamond sparkles because when light enters a diamond, it undergoes multiple internal reflections due to the diamond’s high refractive index. This causes the light to be scattered in different directions, creating a sparkling effect. - When light hits a diamond, it bends and bounces around inside the stone. This is called refraction.

• Because diamonds have a high refractive index, the light bends more when it enters a diamond than when it enters other materials.

• This causes the light to be reflected off the different faces of the diamond, creating a sparkly effect. Light Absorption:

• Black objects absorb all colors of light and reflect none. This is why they appear black.

Reflection:

• When light rays hit a surface and bounce back, it’s called reflection. The angle at which the light rays bounce back is the same as the angle at which they hit the surface.

Refraction:

• When light rays pass from one transparent material to another, they can change direction. This is called refraction. For example, when light rays pass from air into water, they bend towards the water.

Apparent Depth of Objects in Water:

• When you look at an object in water, it appears to be closer to the surface than it actually is. This is because of refraction. The light rays from the object bend towards the water, making it appear closer. Refraction of Light

When light passes from one medium to another, such as from air to glass, it changes direction. This is called refraction. The amount of refraction depends on the angle at which the light strikes the surface and the difference in the refractive indices of the two media.

Diffraction

Diffraction is the spreading out of light waves as they pass through a narrow opening or around an obstacle. This is because light is a wave, and waves spread out as they pass through small openings.

Dispersion

When white light passes through a prism, it is split into the colors of the rainbow. This is because each color of light has a different wavelength, and the prism refracts each wavelength at a different angle.

Rainbow

A rainbow is a beautiful example of dispersion. When sunlight passes through water droplets in the air, it is refracted and dispersed into the colors of the rainbow. Rainbow:

• A rainbow is a colorful arc that appears in the sky opposite the sun.
• The colors of the rainbow are caused by sunlight bouncing off water droplets in the air.

Scattering:

• When light hits a rough surface, it bounces off in different directions. This is called scattering.
• The sky is blue because blue light waves are scattered more than other colors.

Absorption:

• Some surfaces absorb more light than others.
• A black surface absorbs more light than a white surface. Principle of Reflection of Light:

When a person stands in front of a mirror, light from all parts of their body is reflected off the mirror and back to their eyes. This creates the illusion of a virtual image appearing behind the mirror.

Real Image:

A real image is one that is formed when light rays actually pass through a point. It can be projected onto a screen.

Virtual Image:

A virtual image is one that appears to come from a point, but light rays do not actually pass through that point. It cannot be projected onto a screen.

Plane Mirrors:

A plane mirror is a flat mirror with a perfectly smooth surface. It produces virtual images that are the same size and distance from the mirror as the object.

Uses of Plane Mirrors:

Plane mirrors are used in a variety of applications, including:

• Optical levels
• Sextants
• Kaleidoscopes
• Periscopes
• Telescope flats
• Dental mirrors

Curved Mirrors:

Curved mirrors are mirrors with a curved surface. They can produce either real or virtual images, depending on the shape of the mirror and the position of the object. There are two types of curved mirrors: concave and convex.

Concave Mirrors:

• Light rays bounce off concave mirrors and meet at a point called the focus.
• Concave mirrors can focus sunlight at one point, making them useful as burning glasses and in solar cookers.

Convex Mirrors:

• Convex mirrors produce smaller, upright virtual images of objects.
• Convex mirrors are used as rear-view mirrors in vehicles because they provide a wide field of view.

Principal Axis:

• The principal axis is a line that passes through the center of the mirror and the center of curvature.

Pole of a Mirror:

• The pole of a mirror is the point where the principal axis intersects the mirror’s surface. Principal Focus (F): This is the point where parallel light rays close to the axis come together to form a single point.

Focal Length (f): This is the distance between the principal focus and the center of the mirror.

Center of Curvature (c): This is the center of the circle that forms the mirror’s surface.

Radius of Curvature: This is the distance between the center of curvature and the center of the mirror.

Paraxial Ray: This is a light ray that is close to the principal axis and makes a small angle with it.

Uses of Concave Mirrors: These mirrors are used in reflecting telescopes, dental mirrors, headlamp reflectors, and shaving and make-up mirrors.

Uses of Convex Mirrors: These mirrors are used in safety viewers at dangerous corners, anti-shoplifting devices, and car wing mirrors.

Lenses: Lenses are used in various optical instruments such as microscopes, telescopes, cameras, and projectors. There are two types of lenses:

1. Convex or Converging Lens: When a parallel beam of light hits a convex lens, all the rays come together at a single point after passing through the lens.

2. Concave or Diverging Lens: When a parallel beam of light hits a concave lens, all the rays spread out after passing through the lens. Convex Lenses:

• When light rays pass through a convex lens, they converge (come together) at a point called the principal focus.
• Convex lenses have a positive radius of curvature (the surface of the lens curves outward) and a positive focal length (the distance between the lens and the principal focus).
• Convex lenses are used in magnifying glasses, eyeglasses to correct for long-sightedness, microscopes, telescope objectives, cameras, and projectors.

Concave Lenses:

• When light rays pass through a concave lens, they diverge (spread out) after passing through the lens.

• Concave lenses have a negative radius of curvature (the surface of the lens curves inward) and a negative focal length (the distance between the lens and the principal focus is negative).

• Concave lenses are used in wide-angle spyholes, eyeglasses to correct for short-sightedness, and wide-angle lenses on coach rear windows. Galilean Telescope

• Power of the Lens: The strength of a lens is described by its focal length or power. The power of a lens is calculated as:

$$\text{ Power of the lens }=\frac{1}{\text{ focal lenght in metres }}$$

• Convex lenses have positive power, while concave lenses have negative power. The power of a meniscus lens depends on which face of the lens is more sharply curved.

Sound

• Source of Sound: Sound is always produced by the vibrations of an object. It travels in the form of waves with alternating increases and decreases in pressure.

• Characteristics: Sound has three main characteristics:

  • Pitch or Frequency: Refers to the rate of vibration of sound and is measured in Hertz (Hz).
  • Loudness or Intensity: Measured in decibels (dB), a unit based on the weakest sound that can be detected by the human ear.
  • Quality: Allows us to distinguish between different sounds, such as music and speech.

Related Phenomena Sound Waves and Music

• Diffraction: Sound waves spread out as they move past an obstacle or through a narrow opening. This is why you can hear sound around corners.

• Reflection: Sound waves can bounce off surfaces and change direction. This is how you can hear your voice echo in a large room.

• Refraction: Sound waves can change direction when they move from one material to another. This is why your voice sounds different when you speak underwater.

• Echo: When sound waves bounce off a surface and come back to you, you hear an echo.

• Oscillation: When something vibrates, it moves back and forth. This is how sound waves are created. # Ultrasonic and Supersonic Sounds

• Sounds with frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz are called ultrasonic and we can’t hear them.

• Humans can usually hear sounds between 16 Hz and 20,000 Hz.

• Speeds faster than the speed of sound are called supersonic.

• Sound waves with frequencies lower than 16 Hz are called infrasonic.

How Do Bats Fly at Night?

• Bats can fly in the dark because they make ultrasonic waves that bounce off obstacles and come back to them, helping them avoid obstacles.

Speed of Sound in Different Materials

• Glass
• Steel
• Wood
• Bricks
• Ice-cold water
• Air

Speed of Sound

• The speed of sound depends on the material it’s traveling through.

• Usually, when we talk about the speed of sound, we mean the speed of sound in air at room temperature. The Speed of Sound

• The speed of sound in the air at sea level is about 331 meters per second, or 750 miles per hour.

• When there is water vapor in the air, the speed of sound increases slightly.

Electricity

• Electricity is a type of energy that comes from the charges that make up atoms. These charges are called electrons (negative) and protons (positive).

Electric Current

• Electric current is the flow of electric charges. It moves from positive to negative.
• Batteries provide direct current (DC), while the main power supply provides alternating current (AC).
• Devices like radios and TVs need DC, which is obtained from AC mains using a rectifier.

Heating Effect of Electricity

• When electricity passes through thin metal wires with high resistance, they heat up and glow. Metals like platinum or tungsten resist the flow of electric current, causing them to heat up. Fuse Wire

Fuse wire is made of a material that melts easily. When too much electricity flows through the fuse wire, it gets hot and melts, breaking the circuit and stopping the flow of electricity. This prevents damage to the electrical device.

Magnetic Effect of Electricity

When electricity flows through a wire, it creates a magnetic field. The strength and shape of the magnetic field depend on the amount of electricity flowing through the wire and the shape of the wire.

Types of Electricity

There are two main types of electricity: static electricity and current electricity.

• Static electricity is created when two objects rub together and electrons are transferred from one object to the other. This creates a positive charge on one object and a negative charge on the other.
• Current electricity is created when electrons flow through a conductor, such as a wire. This flow of electrons is called an electric current. Electrons and Static Electricity

When you rub a glass rod with a silk cloth, some electrons from the rod move to the cloth. This makes the rod positively charged, and the cloth negatively charged.

The same thing happens when you rub an ebonite comb on your hair. The comb becomes negatively charged, and your hair positively charged. This is why your hair stands on end when you comb it!

Current Electricity

The electricity that powers our homes and businesses is called current electricity. It flows in a continuous stream, unlike static electricity, which builds up and then discharges.

There are two types of current electricity: alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). AC reverses direction regularly, while DC flows in one direction only.

Household Wiring System

In our homes, electrical devices are connected in parallel to the power line. This means that the current can flow through any device without having to go through all of the others.

The power line consists of two conductors: a “hot” wire and a “neutral” wire. The hot wire carries the current to the devices, and the neutral wire carries it back to the power source.

There is also a third wire, called the “ground” wire, which is used for safety. The ground wire connects the electrical system to the earth, so that any excess current can be safely discharged.

The maximum amount of current that can flow through a circuit is determined by the circuit’s resistance. Resistance is a measure of how difficult it is for current to flow through a material. The higher the resistance, the less current can flow. The thickness of the wires and the highest temperature they can withstand. Fuses or circuit breakers are used to protect against excessive current and the resulting fire risk.

Magnets

• Magnets are materials that can attract pieces of iron, cobalt, and nickel.
• When a magnet is freely suspended, it points toward the north and south poles.
• The attracting power of a magnet is strongest at its poles.
• When a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece becomes a separate magnet.
• The two poles of a magnet have equal strength.
• Like poles repel each other, and unlike poles attract each other.

Types of Magnets

1. Artificial Magnets: These magnets are made by people.
2. Lodestones: These are naturally occurring magnets made of iron ore.

Types of Magnetic Substances

1. Ferro-Magnets: These materials are strongly magnetized by an external magnetic field. Magnetic Materials:

2. Ferromagnetic Substances: These materials are strongly attracted to magnets and can be permanently magnetized. Examples include iron, nickel, and cobalt.

3. Paramagnetic Substances: These materials are weakly attracted to magnets and can be temporarily magnetized. Examples include aluminum, chromium, copper sulfate, and liquid oxygen.

4. Diamagnetic Substances: These materials are repelled by magnets and cannot be magnetized. Examples include bismuth, antimony, gold, water, alcohol, and hydrogen.

Magnetic Induction:

• When a piece of soft iron or steel is placed near a strong magnet, it becomes magnetized.
• When an electric current flows through a coil of insulated copper wire, the steel or soft iron placed inside the coil becomes a magnet.
• This is because of the magnetic field created by the electric current. The electric bell works on this principle.

Earth’s Magnetic Field:

• Earth has its own magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic field. Earth’s Magnetic Field:

• The Earth’s magnetic field is like a giant magnet with its center at the Earth’s core.

• The magnetic field lines are similar to the lines of force around a bar magnet.

• The Earth’s magnetic field is important because it helps us navigate using compasses.

• The South Pole of the Earth’s magnet is near the geographic North Pole, and the North Pole of the Earth’s magnet is near the geographic South Pole.

• The Earth’s magnetic poles are not fixed in one place but move over time.

• The Earth’s magnetic field is not perfectly aligned with the Earth’s geographic axis but is tilted by about 15 degrees.

• A freely suspended magnet will point approximately toward the geographic North Pole but will be off by about 15 degrees due to the tilt of the Earth’s magnetic field. Earth’s Magnetism

• The Earth has a magnetic field that makes compasses point north.

• This magnetic field is caused by the movement of liquid iron in the Earth’s core.

• The Earth’s magnetic field is not exactly aligned with the Earth’s rotational axis. This means that true north (the direction to the North Pole) and magnetic north (the direction to the North Magnetic Pole) are not the same.

• The difference between true north and magnetic north is called declination.

• The angle between the magnetic field and the horizontal is called the angle of dip or inclination.

Declination and Angle of Dip

• Declination is the angle between true north and magnetic north.

• The angle of dip is the angle between the magnetic field and the horizontal.

• Declination and angle of dip vary from place to place on the Earth.

• The values of declination and angle of dip can be found on maps. Avogadro’s Hypothesis (1811)

• In 1811, Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro made a brilliant guess that turned out to be correct. He proposed that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain an equal number of molecules.

Newton’s Laws of Motion (1642-1727)

1. Law of Gravitation:

• Objects attract each other with a force that depends on their masses and the distance between them.
• The greater the mass of an object, the stronger its gravitational pull.
• The closer two objects are, the stronger the gravitational force between them.
• On Earth, the gravitational force between objects and the Earth makes them fall towards the ground.
• In a vacuum (a space with no air), all objects fall at the same rate, regardless of their mass.

2. First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia):

• An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will continue moving at a constant speed in a straight line unless an external force acts on it.

3. Second Law of Motion:

• The rate at which an object’s momentum changes is directly proportional to the force applied to it and occurs in the direction of the applied force.

• Momentum is the product of an object’s mass and velocity. Coulomb’s Law (1738-1806)

• The force between two electric charges becomes four times weaker when the distance between them is doubled.

• The unit of electric charge in the International System of Units (SI) is called the coulomb, named after Charles Augustin de Coulomb, who discovered this law.

Stefan’s Law (1835-1883)

• The total amount of energy emitted by a perfectly black object is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

Pascal’s Law (1623-1662)

• When pressure is applied to a confined fluid, it is transmitted equally to every point in the fluid. Pascal’s Law:

When pressure is applied to a fluid, it gets transmitted equally to every part of the fluid without any loss. This principle is used in hydraulic machines like the hydraulic press.

As we go higher in the atmosphere, the air pressure decreases.

The unit of pressure in the International System of Units (SI) is the pascal (Pa), named after Blaise Pascal, who established this law.

Hooke’s Law:

According to Hooke’s Law, the amount a spring stretches is directly proportional to the force applied to it. In other words, if you double the force, the spring will stretch twice as much.

Lenz’s Law:

Lenz’s Law states that when a changing magnetic field induces an electric current, the direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the change in the magnetic field.

Dalton’s Law:

Dalton’s Law states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures that each gas would exert if it were present alone in the same volume. In 1803, Dalton came up with his atomic theory. He said that matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. These atoms can’t be broken down any further during chemical changes.

Atoms of the same element are all the same and weigh the same. Atoms of different elements are different and have different weights. When atoms of different elements combine, they form chemical compounds. The proportions of atoms in these compounds are always simple.

Faraday’s Laws (1791-1867)

Law of Electrolysis: When electricity passes through a chemical compound, it causes a chemical change. The amount of change is proportional to the amount of electricity that passes through.

Law of Electromagnetic Induction: When a magnetic field changes, it creates an electric field. The strength of the electric field is proportional to how fast the magnetic field is changing. The direction of the electric field is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. Curved Rail Tracks or Curved Roads When a train or vehicle moves fast on a curve, it tends to lean inwards. To prevent this, curved rail tracks or roads are banked or raised on one side. This banking provides the necessary centripetal force to keep the train or vehicle moving safely around the curve.

How Do Bats Fly in the Dark? Bats produce high-pitched sound waves that bounce off objects in their path. By listening to these echoes, bats can create a mental map of their surroundings and navigate in the dark.

Why Do Water Pipes Burst at Hill Stations on Cold Frosty Nights? When the temperature drops below freezing, water inside pipes can turn into ice. As ice takes up more space than water, it puts pressure on the pipes and can cause them to burst.

Why Does Smoke Curl Up in the Air? Smoke contains hot gases that are lighter than the surrounding air. These gases rise and follow a curved path due to the swirling air currents, creating the characteristic curl of smoke. Q. Why does an electric bulb explode when it is broken?

A. An electric bulb has a partial vacuum inside. When the bulb breaks, air rushes in and causes a small explosion.

Q. Why does a man fall forward when he jumps out of a running train or bus?

A. When a man is in a moving train or bus, he is also moving. When he jumps out, his feet stop moving when they hit the ground, but his upper body keeps moving forward. This causes him to fall forward.

Q. Why is one’s breath visible in winter but not in summer?

A. In winter, the water vapor in our breath condenses into tiny droplets of water that we can see. In summer, the water vapor evaporates quickly, so we don’t see it.

Q. Why doesn’t the electric filament in an electric bulb burn up?

A. The electric filament in an electric bulb is made of tungsten, which has a very high melting point (3410°C). The temperature of the filament when it is glowing is only 2700°C, so it doesn’t melt. Also, the bulb is filled with an inert gas like argon or nitrogen, which prevents the filament from burning up. Why does blotting paper absorb ink?

• Blotting paper has tiny holes that act like straws. When blotting paper touches ink, the ink is sucked up into the holes and spread out.

Why does a small ball of iron sink in water but a large ship float?

• A small ball of iron is heavier than the water it pushes aside, so it sinks. A large ship is lighter than the water it pushes aside, so it floats.

Why does ice float on water?

• Ice is less dense than water, so it floats on top.

A man with a load jumps from a high building. What will be the load experienced by him?

• The man will feel weightless because he and the load are falling at the same speed.

A piece of chalk when immersed in water, emits bubbles.

• Chalk is made of calcium carbonate, which reacts with water to form carbon dioxide gas. The gas bubbles rise to the surface. Why does chalk bubble when immersed in water?

Chalk is made up of tiny holes called capillaries. When chalk is put in water, the water is pulled up into the capillaries by a force called capillary action. The air that is trapped in the capillaries is pushed out in the form of bubbles.

Why does a liquid stay hot or cold for a long time in a thermos flask?

A thermos flask has two layers of glass with a vacuum between them. The vacuum prevents heat from being transferred by conduction or convection. The inner layer of glass is coated with a reflective material that reflects heat back into the flask. This combination of factors keeps the liquid inside the flask hot or cold for a long time.

Why does a ball bounce when it falls?

When a ball falls, it hits the ground and is deformed. The ball’s elasticity causes it to push back against the ground and bounce up. This is an example of Newton’s Third Law of Motion, which states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Why is standing in boats or double-decker buses not allowed, particularly on the upper deck of buses?

When people stand in a boat or on the upper deck of a bus, the center of gravity of the vehicle is raised. This makes the vehicle more likely to tip over.

Why is it recommended to add salt to water while boiling dal?

Adding salt to water raises the boiling point of the water. This means that the water will take longer to boil, which gives the dal more time to cook. 1. The presence of salt and other impurities in seawater raises its boiling point compared to pure water.

2. Adding soap to water reduces its surface tension, making it easier to spray. The energy required for spraying is directly proportional to the surface tension.

3. Steel is more elastic than rubber for the same amount of stress applied.

4. The sky appears blue because violet and blue light have shorter wavelengths and are scattered more by particles in the atmosphere. Red light, with its longer wavelength, passes through the atmosphere more directly, resulting in a blue sky.

5. When a partially filled pen is taken to a higher altitude, the air pressure and density decrease. This causes the ink to leak out due to the reduced pressure inside the pen. On the moon, will the weight of a man be less or more than his weight on the earth?

Answer: On the moon, a person’s weight will be less than their weight on Earth. This is because the moon’s gravity is only about one-sixth of Earth’s gravity.

Why do some liquids burn while others do not?

Answer: Liquids that can combine with oxygen in the air and produce heat can burn. For example, oil can burn, but water cannot.

Why can we see ourselves in a mirror?

Answer: We can see ourselves in a mirror because light rays from our faces bounce off the mirror and enter our eyes.

Why does a solid chunk of iron sink in water but float in mercury?

Answer: Iron is denser than water, so it sinks in water. However, iron is less dense than mercury, so it floats in mercury.

Why is a new quilt warmer than an old one?

Answer: A new quilt is warmer than an old one because it has more loft. Loft is the amount of air that is trapped between the fibers of the quilt. The more loft a quilt has, the warmer it will be. Why are white clothes more comfortable in summer than dark or black ones?

White clothes reflect heat, while dark or black clothes absorb heat. This means that white clothes stay cooler in the sun, making them more comfortable to wear in hot weather.

Why does a rose appear red and grass green in daylight?

Roses absorb all colors of light except red, which they reflect. This is why we see roses as red. Grass absorbs all colors of light except green, which it reflects. This is why we see grass as green.

Why does a ship rise as it enters the sea from a river?

The density of seawater is higher than the density of river water. This means that seawater is more buoyant than river water. When a ship enters the sea from a river, it displaces more seawater than it does river water. This causes the ship to rise.

Why is cooking quicker in a pressure cooker?

A pressure cooker traps steam inside the pot, which increases the pressure. This higher pressure raises the boiling point of water, allowing food to cook faster. Pressure cooker: When you close the lid of a pressure cooker, the steam inside can’t escape. This increases the pressure inside the cooker, which raises the boiling point of water. This means that the water can get hotter than 100 degrees Celsius, which cooks food faster.

Wood crackling: When wood burns, the heat causes the gases and tar vapors inside the wood to expand and escape. This creates a crackling sound.

Stars twinkling: The light from stars travels through the Earth’s atmosphere before it reaches our eyes. The atmosphere is made up of layers of air that are at different temperatures. As the light passes through these layers, it is refracted, or bent. This causes the stars to appear to twinkle.

Rolling a barrel: It is easier to roll a barrel than to pull it because the rolling force of friction is less than the dynamic force of sliding friction. This means that it takes less force to keep a barrel rolling than it does to keep it sliding.

Falling objects in a vacuum: In a vacuum, there is no air resistance. This means that all objects, regardless of their mass, will fall at the same speed. Similar gravitational pull on all:

Everything on Earth experiences the same amount of gravitational pull from the Earth. This means that a small object and a large object will fall at the same speed if they are dropped from the same height.

When a man fires a gun, he is pushed back slightly. Why?

When a man fires a gun, the bullet shoots out of the barrel with a lot of force. This force also pushes the gun back in the opposite direction. This is because of Newton’s Third Law of Motion, which states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Ice wrapped in a blanket or sawdust does not melt quickly. Why?

Wood and wool are both bad at conducting heat. This means that they don’t allow heat to pass through them easily. When ice is wrapped in a blanket or sawdust, the blanket or sawdust prevents the heat from the air from reaching the ice. This is why the ice doesn’t melt as quickly.

Why do we perspire on a hot day?

When our body temperature rises, our sweat glands start to produce sweat. This is our body’s way of cooling down. When the sweat evaporates, it takes heat away from our body, which makes us feel cooler.

Why does ice float on water but sink in alcohol?

Ice is less dense than water, which means that it weighs less for its size. This is why ice floats on water. However, ice is denser than alcohol, which means that it weighs more for its size. This is why ice sinks in alcohol.

Why do we perspire before rains?

Before it rains, the air is usually very humid. This means that there is a lot of water vapor in the air. When our skin comes into contact with this humid air, the water vapor condenses on our skin and turns into sweat. This is why we perspire before rains. 1. When the air is full of water vapor, sweat doesn’t evaporate as quickly, so we feel hotter.

2. A thermometer in boiling water won’t go above 100°C because all the extra heat is being used to turn the water into vapor.

3. Cupping our hands around our mouths when we shout helps direct the sound in one direction, making it louder for the person we’re talking to.

4. If a corked bottle of water is left outside on a cold night, the water will freeze and expand, breaking the bottle. Why is a small gap left at the joint between two rails?

To allow the rails to expand when they get hot from the friction of a moving train.

Why cannot a copper wire be used to make elements in electric heater?

Copper melts at a low temperature (108.3°C) and reacts with oxygen in the air to form a black powder. For heater elements, a metal with higher resistance is needed to produce heat.

Why are water or mercury droplets always round when dropped on a clean glass?

The surface of a liquid acts like a stretched membrane, holding the molecules together. This force causes the molecules below to compress into the smallest possible volume, which is a sphere. Since a sphere has the smallest volume for a given mass, the droplets take a round shape.

Why does an ordinary glass tumbler crack when very hot tea or milk is poured in it?

When hot liquid is poured into a tumbler, the inner surface of the glass expands quickly while the outer surface remains cooler and expands less. This uneven expansion creates stress in the glass, causing it to crack. Why does a glass tumbler crack when hot water is poured into it?

The inner layer of the tumbler gets heated first and expands before the outer layer. This causes an unequal expansion of the two layers, which puts stress on the glass and causes it to crack.

Why is a compass used as an indicator of direction?

The magnetic needles of a compass are influenced by the Earth’s magnetic field. This causes them to align in a north-south direction, which allows us to identify direction.

Why is water from a hand pump warm in winter and cold in summer?

In winter, the outside temperature is lower than the temperature of the water flowing out of the pump. This makes the water feel warm. In summer, the outside temperature is higher than the temperature of the water, so the water feels cold.

Why is a rainbow seen after a shower?

After a shower, the clouds contain water droplets that act like a prism. When white light passes through these water droplets, it is dispersed into a spectrum of colors, creating a rainbow.

Why does a swimming pool appear less deep than it actually is?

The rays of light coming from the bottom of the pool pass from a denser medium (water) to a less dense medium (air). This causes the rays to bend away from the normal, making the pool appear less deep than it actually is. Why does moisture gather outside a tumbler containing cold water?

• The water vapour in the air condenses when it comes into contact with the cold surface of the tumbler and appears as droplets of water.

Why does kerosene float on water?

• Kerosene is less dense than water, so it floats on top of it. This is similar to how cream rises to the top of milk because it is less dense than milk.

Why is the water in an open pond cool even on a hot summer day?

• As the water evaporates from the surface of the pond, it takes heat away with it, which cools the water.

Why is it less difficult to cook rice or potatoes at higher altitudes?

• The air pressure is lower at higher altitudes, which means that water boils at a lower temperature. This makes it easier to cook rice or potatoes because they can reach their boiling point more quickly.

Why is it difficult to breathe at high altitudes?

• The air is thinner at high altitudes, so there is less oxygen available to breathe. This can make it difficult to breathe, especially for people who are not used to it. Why is it harder to breathe at higher altitudes?

The air is thinner at higher altitudes, so there is less oxygen in each breath. This can make it harder to breathe and cause altitude sickness.

Why are winter nights and summer nights warmer during cloudy weather than when the sky is clear?

Clouds trap heat from the ground, so they act like a blanket and keep the air warmer.

Why is a metal tire heated before it is fixed on wooden wheels?

When the metal tire is heated, it expands and becomes bigger. This makes it easier to fit onto the wooden wheel. As the tire cools down, it shrinks and tightens around the wheel.

Why are fuses provided in electric installations?

Fuses are safety devices that protect electrical equipment from damage. When too much current flows through a fuse, the fuse wire melts and breaks the circuit, stopping the flow of electricity. 1. Why is it easier to lift a heavy object under water than in air?

Answer: When an object is submerged in water, it experiences an upward force called buoyancy. This force is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the object. So, the object feels lighter in water than in air.

2. If a highly pumped up bicycle tyre is left in the hot sunlight, it bursts. Why?

Answer: When the air inside the tyre is heated up, it expands. If the tyre is already highly pumped up, there is not enough space for the air to expand. This can cause the tyre to burst.

3. What will be the colour of green grass in blue light?

Answer: Grass will appear dark in blue light because it absorbs all other colours of light except its own green colour. The blue light falling on grass will be absorbed by it, so the grass will appear dark.

4. Why do two eyes give better vision than one?

Answer: Two eyes give better vision than one because they do not form exactly similar images. This slight difference in the images helps the brain to create a more detailed and accurate perception of the world. Stereoscopic vision

When we look at an object with both eyes, our brains combine the two slightly different images into a single three-dimensional image. This is called stereoscopic vision.

Swimming in the sea vs. a river

It is easier to swim in the sea than in a river because the density of sea water is higher. This means that sea water is more buoyant, so it provides more support for your body.

Who will learn swimming faster - a fat person or a thin person?

A fat person will likely learn swimming faster than a thin person because fat displaces more water. This means that a fat person will float more easily and will have less resistance to overcome when swimming.

Why is a flash of lightening seen before thunder?

Light travels faster than sound, so we see a flash of lightening before we hear the thunder.

Why cannot a petrol fire be extinguished by water?

Water is heavier than petrol, so it sinks below the petrol and does not extinguish the fire. In addition, the temperature of a petrol fire is so high that it evaporates water before it can extinguish the fire. Why do we place a wet cloth on the forehead of a patient suffering from high temperature?

When a person has a high temperature, their body is producing too much heat. Placing a wet cloth on their forehead helps to cool them down by evaporating the water. This process of evaporation takes heat away from the body, which helps to lower the person’s temperature.

When a needle is placed on a small piece of blotting paper which is placed on the surface of clean water, the blotting paper sinks after a few minutes but the needle floats. However, in a soap solution the needle sinks. Why?

The surface tension of water is what keeps the needle floating. Surface tension is the force that causes the surface of a liquid to act like a thin, elastic membrane. In clean water, the surface tension is strong enough to support the weight of the needle. However, when soap is added to the water, the surface tension is reduced. This means that the water can no longer support the weight of the needle, and it sinks.

To prevent multiplication of mosquitoes, it is recommended to sprinkle oil in the ponds with stagnant water. Why?

Mosquitoes lay their eggs in stagnant water. When oil is sprinkled on the water, it creates a thin layer on the surface. This layer of oil prevents oxygen from getting to the mosquito eggs, which kills them. Q. Why does oil rise on a cloth tape of an oil lamp? A. The tiny holes in the cloth tape suck up the oil because of the oil’s capillary action.

Q. Why are ventilators in a room always made near the roof? A. Because hot air is lighter than cold air, it rises and escapes through the ventilators at the top of the room. This allows cooler air to enter the room and take its place.

Q. How does ink get filled in a fountain pen? A. When the rubber tube of a fountain pen is dipped in ink and squeezed, the air inside the tube is pushed out. When the pressure is released, the ink rushes in to fill the space where the air used to be.

Q. Why are air coolers less effective during the rainy season? A. During the rainy season, the air is already saturated with moisture, so air coolers are less effective at cooling the air. 1. Why does grass gather more dew at night than metallic objects like stones?

Grass is good at radiating heat, which means it can release heat energy into the surrounding environment. This causes water vapor in the air to condense on the grass, forming dew. Additionally, grass constantly releases water through transpiration, which adds to the amount of water vapor in the air near the grass. This makes the air near the grass more saturated with water vapor, which slows down evaporation and allows more dew to form.

2. If a lighted paper is introduced into a jar of carbon dioxide, its flame extinguishes. Why?

Carbon dioxide does not support burning. For burning to occur, oxygen is required. When a lighted paper is introduced into a jar of carbon dioxide, the carbon dioxide replaces the oxygen in the jar, and the flame can no longer burn.

3. Why does the mass of an iron rod increase on rusting?

Rust is hydrated ferric oxide, which means it contains iron, oxygen, and hydrogen. When iron rusts, it combines with oxygen and hydrogen from the air, which increases its mass.

4. Why does milk curdle?

Milk curdles when it is exposed to an acid, such as lemon juice or vinegar. The acid causes the proteins in the milk to coagulate, which means they clump together and form curds. Why does milk turn sour?

Milk contains a sugar called lactose. When bacteria in the milk react with lactose, they produce lactic acid. This acid causes the milk to curdle and turn sour.

Why does hard water not lather soap profusely?

Hard water contains minerals like calcium and magnesium. These minerals react with soap to form a scum that prevents the soap from lathering.

Why is it dangerous to have a charcoal fire burning in a closed room?

When charcoal burns, it produces carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas that can cause death.

Why is it dangerous to sleep under trees at night?

At night, plants release carbon dioxide as they respire. This can reduce the oxygen content of the air, making it dangerous to breathe.

Why does ENO’s salt effervesce on the addition of water?

ENO’s salt contains tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate. When water is added, these two compounds react to produce carbon dioxide gas. This gas causes the effervescence. In this process, the sugar in the milk is converted into lactic acid. Lactic acid has a sour taste, which is why sour milk tastes sour. Periodic Table:

• The chemical elements can be arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
• Elements with similar properties appear together in the periodic table.

Lightest and Most Complex Elements:

• Hydrogen is the lightest and simplest naturally occurring element. It has atomic number 1, with 1 proton and 1 electron.
• Uranium is the most complex naturally occurring element. It has atomic number 92, with 92 protons, 92 electrons, and 146 neutrons.

Common Elements:

• Oxygen is the most common element in the Earth’s crust (lithosphere).
• Nitrogen is the most common element in the Earth’s atmosphere.
• Hydrogen is the most common element in the universe.

Rarest Element:

• Astatine is the rarest element.

Lightest and Heaviest Elements:

• Lithium is the lightest element that is a metal.

• Radon is the heaviest element that is a gas.

• Hydrogen is the lightest element that is a gas. The periodic table:

• In 1869, a Russian scientist named Dimitri Mendeleev created a chart of all the known elements. He called it the periodic table.

• At that time, there were only 59 elements known. But Mendeleev thought there must be more elements that had not been discovered yet.

• He left 33 empty spaces in his table for these undiscovered elements.

• Mendeleev gave these undiscovered elements names like “ekasilicon,” “ekaaluminum,” and “ekaboron.” These names meant “one like silicon,” “one like aluminum,” and “one like boron.”

• By 1939, all of Mendeleev’s empty spaces had been filled in. The last element to be discovered was “ekacesium,” which is now called francium.

Transuranic elements:

• Today, there are 118 known elements.
• 92 of these elements are found in nature.
• 26 of these elements are man-made.
• The man-made elements are called transuranic elements.
• Neptunium (Element 93) was the first transuranic element to be discovered. It was discovered in 1940. After the discovery of wrencium (Lr) in 1961, scientists found more new elements. Here are some of them:

1. Rutherfordium (Rf) with atomic number 104.
2. Darmstadtium (Ds) with atomic number 110.
3. Dubnium (Db) with atomic number 105.
4. Roentgenium (Rg) with atomic number 111.
5. Seaborgium (Sg) with atomic number 106.
6. Copernicium (Cr) with atomic number 112.
7. Bohrium (Bh) with atomic number 107.
8. Flerovium (Fl) with atomic number 114.
9. Hassium (Hs) with atomic number 108.
10. Livermorium (Lv) with atomic number 116.
11. Meitnerium (Mt) with atomic number 109.

There are four more elements that scientists think they have found, but they need to do more tests to be sure. These elements are called Ununtrium (Element 113), Ununpentium (Element 115), Ununseptium (Element 117), and Ununoctium (Element 118).

In 2003, Russian scientists said they had found element 115, but other scientists didn’t believe them. They wanted the Russian scientists to do more tests to prove that they had really found the element. The Helmholtz Center did more tests, and now other scientists are reviewing their work. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) are working on adding a new element to the periodic table.

• They have already approved the names for elements 116 (livermorium), 117 (ununseptium), and 118 (ununoctium), but they haven’t decided on permanent names for the last two yet.
• Ununoctium has a very short half-life of only 0.89 milliseconds.

Elements are divided into two main groups: metals and non-metals.

• Metals are elements like lead, gold, and mercury.

• Non-metals are elements like chlorine, bromine, and carbon.

• Some elements, like boron, silicon, germanium, and antimony, can act like both metals and non-metals. These elements are called metalloids.

• There are also elements that are neither metals nor non-metals. These elements are called noble gases. Helium, argon, neon, krypton, radon, and xenon are noble gases that are found in the atmosphere. ## Metals

• Elements can be divided into two groups: metals and non-metals. Most of the elements (about 80%) are metals.

• Metals are hard, shiny, and can be easily stretched or hammered into different shapes. They also conduct heat and electricity well. All metals are solid at room temperature, except for mercury and gallium, which are liquid. Metals have high melting and boiling points.

Chemical Properties of Metals

• Metals tend to lose electrons when they react with other substances. When they react with acids, they usually replace the hydrogen in the acid. However, copper, silver, and gold are exceptions to this rule.
• Metal chlorides are true salts, and metal oxides are usually basic. Metal hydrides are ionic, unstable, and reactive.
• All metals are reactive, meaning they can react with common substances like oxygen (in the air), hydrogen, halogens, sulfur, water, and acids. However, the extent to which they react varies. Metals and Their Reactions

Each metal reacts differently to its surroundings.

Free Metals

Only gold, platinum, and silver are not affected by air and water under normal conditions. These metals are known as free metals.

Minerals and Ores

Various compounds of metals, called minerals, are found in nature. These minerals can be mined.

The mineral from which metal can be economically extracted is called ore.

Metallurgy

The process of extracting metals from their ores is called metallurgy. Metallurgy involves several steps:

Calcination: The concentrated ore is heated in the absence of air.

Roasting: The ore is heated in excess air.

Smelting: The roasted ore is mixed with coke and heated in a furnace to obtain free metal.

Steel and Iron

Steel is a form of iron. To make steel from iron, the carbon content is reduced from 5% to 0.5-1.5%.

Heat Treatment of Steel

Quenching: If steel is heated to bright redness and then suddenly cooled in water or oil, it becomes extraordinarily hard and brittle.

Tempering: By controlled heating and cooling, the hardness and brittleness of quenched steel can be reduced, making it stronger and more durable. Annealing:

• Heating quenched steel to a temperature between 250-325 degrees Celsius can remove its brittleness without affecting its hardness.
• This process is called annealing, and it involves heating the steel to a temperature below red hot and then cooling it, making it softer.

Rusting of Iron:

• Most metals are found in nature in a combined form and must be extracted from their ores.
• When these metals are exposed to the air, they tend to return to their original form through a process called corrosion.
• In the case of iron, this process is known as rusting.
• Rusting involves the formation of hydrated ferric oxide, and it requires both water and oxygen to occur. Without water or an electrolyte, rusting cannot happen.
• During rusting, hydrogen and oxygen elements are added to the iron, causing its mass to increase.
• Rusting can be prevented by coating the surface of iron with metals or non-metals, or by alloying it with other metals. Electroplating and Hot Dipping

Electroplating is a process where a metal coating is applied to a surface using an electric current. Nickel and chromium are commonly used for electroplating.

Hot dipping is a process where a metal coating is applied to a surface by dipping it into a molten metal bath. When zinc is applied to iron using hot dipping, it is called galvanizing.

Non-metals

Non-metals are elements that tend to gain electrons to form negative ions called anions. They are usually found as powders or gases, except for bromine, which is a liquid at room temperature.

Non-metals are not shiny and do not conduct heat or electricity well. They cannot be flattened into sheets or stretched into wires like metals. They also have lower melting points than metals.

Alloys

Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals or non-metals. They are often more useful than the individual elements they are made of. Here are some important alloys:

Aluminum Alloys

• AA-8000: used for building wire
• Al-Li (aluminum-lithium): used in aerospace applications
• Al-Cu (aluminum-copper): used in electrical wiring and cookware Lithium Alloys

1. Lithium-sodium alloy (lithium, sodium)
2. Lithium-mercury alloy (lithium, mercury)

Alnico Alloys

1. Alnico (aluminum, nickel, copper)

Duralumin Alloys

1. Duralumin (copper, aluminum)

Magnalium Alloys

1. Magnalium (aluminum, 5% magnesium)

Magnox Alloys

1. Magnox (magnesium oxide, aluminum)

Nambe Alloys

1. Nambe (aluminum plus seven other unspecified metals)

Silumin Alloys

1. Silumin (aluminum, silicon)

Zamak Alloys

1. Zamak (zinc, aluminum, magnesium, copper)

Aluminum Complex Alloys

1. Aluminum forms other complex alloys with magnesium, manganese, and platinum.

Bismuth Alloys

1. Wood’s metal (bismuth, lead, tin, cadmium)
2. Rose metal (bismuth, lead, tin)
3. Field’s meal
4. Cerrobend

Cobalt Alloys

1. Stellite (cobalt, chromium, tungsten or molybdenum, carbon)
2. Talonite (cobalt, chromium)
3. Ultimet (cobalt, chromium, nickel, molybdenum, iron, tungsten)

Copper Alloys

1. Beryllium copper (copper, beryllium)
2. Billon (copper, silver)
3. Brass (copper, zinc)
   • Calamine brass (copper, zinc)
   • Chinese silver (copper, zinc)
   • Dutch metal (copper, zinc)
   • Gilding metal (copper, zinc)
   • Muntz metal (copper, zinc)
   • Pinchbeck (copper, zinc)
   • Prince’s metal (copper, zinc) 1. Brass (copper and zinc)

2. Bronze (copper and tin)

3. Tombac (copper and zinc)

4. Aluminum bronze (copper and aluminum)

5. Arsenical bronze (copper and arsenic)

6. Bell metal (copper and tin)

7. Florentine bronze (copper, aluminum, or tin)

8. Glucydur (beryllium, copper, and iron)

9. Guanin (likely a manganese bronze of copper, manganese, with iron sulfides and other sulfides)

10. Gunmetal (copper, tin, and zinc)

11. Phosphor bronze (copper, tin, and phosphorus)

12. Ormolu (Gilt Bronze) (copper and zinc)

13. Speculum metal (copper and tin)

14. Constantan (copper and nickel)

15. Copper-tungsten (copper and tungsten)

16. Corinthian bronze (copper, gold, and silver)

17. Cunife (copper, nickel, and iron)

18. Cupronickel (copper and nickel)

19. Cymbal alloys (Bell metal) (copper and tin)

20. Devarda’s alloy (copper, aluminum, and zinc)

21. Electrum (copper, gold, and silver)

22. Hepatizon (copper, gold, and silver)

23. Heusler alloy (copper, manganese, and tin)

24. Manganin (copper, manganese, and nickel)

25. Nickel silver (copper and nickel)

26. Nordic gold (copper and aluminum) Gallium Alloys

• Galinstan (gallium, indium, tin)

Gold Alloys

• Electrum (gold, silver, copper)
• Rose gold (gold, copper)
• White gold (gold, nickel, palladium, or platinum)

Indium Alloys

• Field’s metal (indium, bismuth, tin)

Iron or Ferrous Alloys

• Steel (carbon)

• Iron (carbon)

• Fernico (nickel, cobalt)

• Elinvar (nickel, chromium)

• Invar (nickel)

• Kovar (cobalt)

• Spiegeleisen (manganese, carbon, silicon)

• Ferroalloy Ferroalloys:

• Ferroboron (iron and boron)

• Ferrochrome (iron and chromium)

• Ferromagnesium (iron and magnesium)

• Ferromanganese (iron and manganese)

• Ferromolybdenum (iron and molybdenum)

• Ferronickel (iron and nickel)

• Ferrophosphorus (iron and phosphorus)

• Ferrotitanium (iron and titanium)

• Ferrovanadium (iron and vanadium)

• Ferrosilicon (iron and silicon)

Lead Alloys:

• Antimonial lead (lead and antimony)
• Molybdochalkos (lead and copper)
• Solder (lead and tin)
• Terne (lead and tin)
• Type metal (lead, tin, and antimony)

Magnesium Alloys:

• Magnox (magnesium and aluminum)
• T-Mg-Al-Zn (Bergman phase)
• Elektron (magnesium-based alloy)

Mercury Alloys:

• Amalgam (mercury with almost any metal except platinum)

Nickel Alloys:

• Alumel (nickel, manganese, aluminum, and silicon)
• Chromel (nickel and chromium)
• Cupronickel (nickel, bronze, and copper)
• German silver (nickel, copper, and zinc)
• Hastelloy (nickel, molybdenum, chromium, and sometimes tungsten)
• Inconel (nickel, chromium, and iron)
• Monel metal (copper, nickel, iron, and manganese)
• Mu-metal (nickel and iron)
• Ni-C (nickel and carbon)
• Nichrome (chromium, iron, and nickel)
• Nicrosil (nickel, chromium, silicon, and magnesium)
• Nisil (nickel and silicon) Nitinol (nickel, titanium, shape memory alloy)

Potassium Alloys

1. KLi (potassium, lithium)
2. NaK (sodium, potassium)

Rare Earth Alloys

Mischmetal (various rare earths)

Silver Alloys

1. Argentium sterling silver (silver, copper, germanium)
2. Billon (copper or copper bronze, sometimes with silver)
3. Britannia silver (silver, copper)
4. Electrum (silver, gold)
5. Goloid (silver, copper, gold)
6. Platinum sterling (silver, platinum)
7. Shibuichi (silver, copper)
8. Sterling silver (silver, copper)

Tin Alloys

1. Britannium (tin, copper, antimony)
2. Pewter (tin, lead, copper)
3. Solder (tin, lead, antimony)

Titanium Alloys

1. Beta C (titanium, vanadium, chromium, other metals)
2. 6al-4v (titanium, aluminum, vanadium)

Uranium Alloys

1. Staballoy (depleted uranium with titanium or molybdenum)
2. Uranium may also be alloyed with plutonium

Zinc Alloys

1. Brass (zinc, copper)
2. Zamak (zinc, aluminum, magnesium, copper)

Zirconium Alloys

Z Zircaloy is a metal alloy made of zirconium and tin. Sometimes, it also contains niobium, chromium, iron, or nickel. Alloy

An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. Alloys are often stronger and more durable than pure metals.

Composition

The composition of an alloy is the percentage of each metal in the alloy.

Commercial Utility

The commercial utility of an alloy is the purpose for which it is used.

Examples of Alloys

• Phosphor Bronze: This alloy is made of copper and a small amount of phosphorus. It is used to make springs, boat propellers, and other electrical components.
• Aluminum Bronze: This alloy is made of copper and aluminum. It is used to make utensils, decorative articles, coins, and jewelry.
• Brass: This alloy is made of copper and zinc. It is used to make utensils, inexpensive jewelry, hose nozzles and couplings, standing dies, condenser sheets, and cartridges.
• Gun Metal: This alloy is made of copper, tin, and zinc. It is used to make guns, gears, and castings.
• Coinage Alloy: This alloy is made of copper and nickel. It is used to make coins.
• Solder: This alloy is made of lead and tin. It is used to solder, or join, two metals together.
• Stainless Steel: This alloy is made of iron, carbon, chromium, and nickel. It is used to make a variety of products, including cutlery, cookware, and building materials. Minerals

Minerals are natural substances made up of chemicals. They have a fixed composition and specific physical properties. Some minerals are made up of only one element, like graphite and diamond (both forms of carbon). Others are made up of two or more elements, like quartz (silicon and oxygen) and calcite (calcium, carbon, and oxygen).

Uses of Minerals

Minerals are used in a variety of ways. Some are used to make everyday objects, like utensils, automobile parts, and cutlery. Others are used in more specialized applications, like meter scales, measuring tapes, and pendulum rods.

Here are some examples of how minerals are used:

• Invar: This alloy of iron and nickel is used to make meter scales and measuring tapes because it has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, meaning it does not expand or contract much with changes in temperature.
• Duriron: This alloy of iron and silicon is used in laboratory plumbing because it is resistant to corrosion.
• Tungsten steel: This alloy of iron, tungsten, and chromium is used to make high-speed cutting tools because it is very hard and wear-resistant.
• Sterling silver: This alloy of silver and copper is used to make jewelry, art objects, and other decorative items.
• Type metal: This alloy of lead, antimony, and tin is used to make type characters for printing and decorative objects like statuettes and candlesticks. Most minerals are made up of two or more elements, like halite (NaCl) or rock salt. The most common types of minerals are silicates, oxides, sulphides, halides, and carbonates.

Minerals can be divided into two groups: metallic or ore minerals, and non-metallic minerals. Examples of non-metallic minerals include carbon and sulphur.

Here is a table of some common minerals, their composition, and their commercial uses:

Mineral	Composition	Commercial Use
Albite	Sodium aluminium silicate	Glass, ceramics
Anhydrite	Calcium sulphate	Cement, fertilizers, chemicals
Anorthite	Calcium aluminium silicate	Glass, ceramics
Apatite	Calcium phosphate flour-phosphate or chlorophosphate	Phosphate
Aragonite	Calcium carbonate	Essential for replicating reef conditions in aquariums
Azurite	Copper carbonate	Source of copper
Bauxite	Aluminium oxide	Production of aluminium
Calcite	Calcium carbonate	Cement, lime, fertilizer
Cassiterite	Tin oxide	Source of tin
Chromite	Iron chromium oxide	Production of stainless steel
Coal	Carbon	Fuel, energy production
Copper	Copper	Electrical wiring, plumbing, jewelry
Diamond	Carbon	Jewelry, industrial abrasives
Feldspar	Potassium aluminium silicate	Glass, ceramics, pottery
Galena	Lead sulphide	Source of lead
Gold	Gold	Jewelry, currency, electronics
Graphite	Carbon	Pencils, lubricants, electrodes
Gypsum	Calcium sulphate dihydrate	Drywall, plaster, fertilizer
Halite	Sodium chloride	Table salt, food preservation
Hematite	Iron oxide	Iron ore, pigment
Ilmenite	Iron titanium oxide	Source of titanium
Kaolinite	Aluminium silicate	Ceramics, paper, rubber
Magnetite	Iron oxide	Iron ore, magnets
Malachite	Copper carbonate hydroxide	Ornamental stone, source of copper
Mica	Potassium aluminium silicate	Electrical insulators, electronics
Olivine	Magnesium iron silicate	Gemstone, industrial abrasive
Pyrite	Iron sulphide	Source of iron, sulphur
Quartz	Silicon dioxide	Glass, electronics, jewelry
Rutile	Titanium dioxide	Source of titanium
Saltpetre	Potassium nitrate	Fertilizer, gunpowder
Silver	Silver	Jewelry, currency, photography
Sulphur	Sulphur	Fertilizer, gunpowder, matches
Talc	Magnesium silicate	Talcum powder, ceramics
Tourmaline	Complex silicate	Gemstone, piezoelectric material
Zinc	Zinc	Galvanizing, batteries, alloys

• Hydrated Aluminum Oxide | Source of aluminum
• Calcite | Calcium carbonate | Cement, plaster, paint, glass, fertilizers
• Calamine | Zinc carbonate | Source of zinc
• Cassiterite | Tin oxide or Tinstone | Source of tin
• Cerussite | Lead carbonate | Source of lead
• Chalcocite | Copper sulphite | Source of copper
• Cinnabar | Mercuric sulphite | Source of mercury
• Dolomite | Calcium magnesium carbonate | Cement and building stone (marble)
• Fluorite | Calcium fluoride | Glass, enamel
• Galena | Lead sulphide | Source of lead (main ore)
• Gypsum | Hydrated calcium sulphate | Plaster of Paris, glass, fertilizer
• Halite | Sodium chloride | Source of common salt
• Haematite | Ferric oxide | Important source of iron
• Kaolinite | Hydrated aluminum silicate | Porcelain tiles, filters, earthenware
• Malachite | Copper carbonate | Source of copper
• Mircocline | Potassium aluminum silicate | Glass, ceramics
• Pyrite | Iron sulphide | Source of iron Minerals

Mineral	Source	Uses
Pyrite	Sulfur	Jewelry, electronics, batteries
Quartz	Silica	Glass, cement, abrasives
Rutile	Titanium oxide	Paint, sunscreen, welding rods
Talc	Magnesium silicate	Talcum powder, ceramics, paper
Topaz	Hydrous aluminum fluorosilicate	Jewelry, gemstones

Chemical Compounds

• Atoms of elements usually combine with other atoms to form molecules of a compound.
• For example, two oxygen atoms combine to form a molecule of oxygen, written as O2.
• In a compound, atoms of different elements combine in specific ratios. For example, two iron atoms (Fe) combine with three oxygen atoms to form a molecule of iron oxide (Fe2O3).
• There are millions of known chemical compounds, with tens of thousands in common use.

Chemical Reactions and Chemical Change

• Chemical change happens all around us, from the rusting of iron to the digestion of food.
• A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances change into one or more new substances.
• Chemical reactions involve the breaking and forming of chemical bonds between atoms.
• Chemical reactions can be classified into several types, including:
• Combination reactions: Two or more substances combine to form a single product.
• Decomposition reactions: A single substance breaks down into two or more products.
• Single-replacement reactions: One element replaces another element in a compound.
• Double-replacement reactions: Two compounds exchange ions to form two new compounds. Chemical changes happen when substances change into new substances with different properties.

Examples of chemical changes:

• When coal burns, it combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water vapor.
• When iron rusts, it combines with oxygen to form iron oxide.
• When beer ferments, yeast converts sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
• When concrete and cement set, they combine with water to form a hard, solid material.
• When food is digested, it is broken down into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body.

Characteristics of chemical changes:

1. The products of a chemical change have different properties than the reactants.
2. The mass of the products of a chemical change is equal to the mass of the reactants.
3. When substances are formed in different ways, they always have the same composition. Chemical Composition:

• In substances like carbon dioxide (CO2), the ratio of carbon (C) to oxygen (O) is always 3:8 by weight, no matter how it is formed.

Energy Changes in Reactions:

• Chemical reactions can release or absorb energy. For example, burning coal in air releases energy as heat and light, while combining carbon and sulfur absorbs heat.

Chemical Equations:

• Chemical changes can be represented by equations. For instance, the burning of carbon (C) with oxygen (O2) to form carbon dioxide (CO2) can be written as:

$$ \mathrm{C}+\mathrm{O}{2} \rightarrow \mathrm{CO}{2} $$

• The small numbers below the elements (subscripts) indicate the number of atoms in each molecule.

• Another example is the reaction between hydrogen (H2) and chlorine (Cl2) to form hydrogen chloride (HCl):

$$ \mathrm{H}{2}+\mathrm{Cl}{2} \rightarrow 2 \mathrm{HCl} $$

• In this case, a coefficient (2) is added before HCl to show that two molecules of HCl are formed. Chemical Reactions

There are many different types of chemical reactions. Two common types are double decomposition and oxidation.

Double Decomposition

In a double decomposition reaction, two compounds react to form two new compounds. For example, when magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) reacts with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) and magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) are formed.

Oxidation

Oxidation is a reaction in which a substance combines with oxygen. For example, when iron is exposed to oxygen, it rusts. This is because the iron combines with oxygen to form iron oxide. Oxidation and Reduction

• Oxidation is a process where atoms or molecules lose electrons.
• Reduction is a process where atoms or molecules gain electrons.
• Oxidation and reduction always happen together.

Example

When hydrogen gas (H2) reacts with copper oxide (CuO), the copper oxide is reduced to copper (Cu) and the hydrogen gas is oxidized to water (H2O).

Chemical Reactions

• Chemical reactions can happen slowly, like rusting, or quickly, like an explosion.
• The speed of a chemical reaction can be increased by using a catalyst, which is a substance that helps the reaction happen without being changed itself.

Air

• Air is a mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth.

• Air is made up of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and small amounts of other gases like argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, ozone, and water vapor.

• Air also contains pollutants. Air

• Air is made up of different gases.

• We can separate these gases and mix oxygen and nitrogen to make air.

• Air does not conduct heat well.

• Oxygen in the air helps things burn and allows us to breathe. Nitrogen reduces the effect of oxygen.

• Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere when things burn and when we breathe. Water vapor is created when water evaporates from the sea, rivers, and ponds.

Water Vapor in the Air

• Air contains about 0.4% water vapor.
• If we put a glass of ice cubes in the open air, the outside of the glass will become covered in water droplets. This is because the water vapor in the air condenses on the cold surface of the glass.

Carbon Dioxide

• Air contains about 0.03% carbon dioxide.
• If we put limewater in the open air, it will turn milky because it absorbs carbon dioxide from the air.

Water

• In the eighteenth century, Cavendish showed that water is a chemical compound. Water

• Water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen. There are two hydrogen atoms for every one oxygen atom.

• Water can be made by combining hydrogen and oxygen with electricity. For every one part of hydrogen, eight parts of oxygen are needed.

• Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius and freezes at 0 degrees Celsius.

Hard and Soft Water

• Hard water does not make soap lather easily.
• Soft water makes soap lather easily.

Types of Hardness in Water

• Temporary hardness is caused by calcium and magnesium bicarbonates. It can be removed by boiling or adding lime.
• Permanent hardness is caused by calcium and magnesium sulphates and chlorides. It can be removed by adding washing soda or distilling the water.

Rain Water

• Rainwater is the purest form of water because it is free from impurities. Condensed Water Vapor: Water vapor in the air that has turned into liquid water. It’s soft because it doesn’t have certain salts like bicarbonates, sulphates, and chlorides of calcium and magnesium.

River Water: As river water flows over the earth’s surface, it picks up minerals from the soil and becomes hard water. It also contains various pollutants.

Oxygen: A gas that doesn’t have any color, smell, or taste. It doesn’t dissolve easily in water and is a bit heavier than air. Oxygen doesn’t burn on its own but helps other things burn. It’s found a lot on Earth, both by itself and mixed with other elements.

How to Get Oxygen: In a lab, you can heat potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide together to make oxygen. You can also get small amounts of oxygen by heating things like oxides or salts that have a lot of oxygen in them. Another way to get oxygen is to pass an electric current through water.

Why Oxygen is Important: Plants and animals need oxygen to breathe, and it’s also essential for almost all types of burning. Hydrogen

• Atomic mass: 15.999
• Melting point: -218.4 degrees Celsius
• Boiling point: -183.0 degrees Celsius
• Density at 0 degrees Celsius: 1.329 kilograms per cubic meter
• Valency: 2

Hydrogen is:

• A colorless, highly flammable gas
• The lightest of all known substances
• Most abundant element in the universe
• Found in volcanic gases
• Burns with a pale blue flame
• Does not help combustion
• Slightly soluble in water
• Used in the manufacture of vanaspati ghee, alcohol, and ammonia
• Can be obtained from water, acids, and alkalies
• Prepared in a laboratory by the action of dilute sulfuric acid on commercial zinc

Atomic Number: 1 Relative Atomic Mass: 1.008 Melting Point: -259.14 degrees Celsius Boiling Point: -252.5 degrees Celsius Density: 0.08988 kilograms per cubic meter Valency: 1

Nitrogen

• A colorless, tasteless, and odorless gas
• Makes up nearly four-fifths of the Earth’s atmosphere
• Essential for plant growth
• Used in the manufacture of fertilizers, explosives, and plastics Nitrogen

• Nitrogen makes up about 78% of the air we breathe.
• It is a gas that does not burn or help other things burn.
• It dissolves a little bit in water.

How to make nitrogen

• In a lab, you can make nitrogen by heating ammonium nitrite.
• On a large scale, you can get nitrogen from the air. First, you liquefy the air, then you let it evaporate. Nitrogen evaporates first, leaving oxygen behind.

Some facts about nitrogen

• Atomic number: 7
• Melting point: -209.86 degrees Celsius
• Valencies: 3 and 5
• Relative atomic mass: 14.007
• Boiling point: -195 degrees Celsius

Carbon Dioxide

• Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is heavier than air.
• It is produced when we breathe, when things burn, and when organic matter decomposes.
• Carbon dioxide is acidic and can turn limewater milky.

How to make carbon dioxide

• You can make carbon dioxide by reacting dilute acids with carbonates.
• You can also make it by fermenting sugar.
• In a lab, you can make it by treating marble pieces with hydrochloric acid.

Uses of carbon dioxide

• Carbon dioxide is used in food refrigeration, carbonated beverages, and fire extinguishers. In Table 10.4, there is a row about hydrochloric acid. It says that hydrochloric acid is found in digestive juices. This means that hydrochloric acid is a natural acid that is produced by our bodies. ## Industrial Chemistry

Soaps

• Soaps are made from fats and oils that have been reacted with an alkali, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. The resulting product is a salt of a fatty acid, which is a long chain of carbon atoms with a carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end.
• Soaps have two ends: a charged end that attracts water and a hydrocarbon end that attracts oil. This allows them to dissolve both water and oil, which is why they are so good at cleaning.

Cleansing Action of Soaps

• When you wash something with soap and water, the soap molecules surround the dirt and oil on the surface. The charged end of the soap molecule attracts the water, while the hydrocarbon end attracts the oil. This causes the dirt and oil to be suspended in the water, so that it can be rinsed away. ## Glass

• Glass is a combination of different materials, including sand (silica), soda ash (sodium carbonate), and lime stone (calcium carbonate).

• These materials are mixed together and heated to a very high temperature until they melt and form a liquid.

• The liquid is then shaped into different objects, such as bottles, windows, and cups.

Cement

• Cement is a material used to make concrete.

• It is made by mixing together limestone, clay, and a small amount of gypsum.

• The mixture is heated until it forms a clinker, which is then ground into a powder.

• When the powder is mixed with water, it forms a paste that can be used to make concrete. Best cement:

• Portland cement is the best type of cement.

• It is made up of different materials, including calcium oxide, iron oxide, magnesium oxide, alkali, silicon dioxide, sulfur trioxide, and aluminum oxide.

How cement is made:

• The raw materials are crushed and mixed together.
• The mixture is ground into a fine powder.
• The powder is heated in a kiln at a very high temperature.
• This causes the calcium oxide to combine with the aluminum silicate to form calcium silicate and aluminate.
• Gypsum is added to the mixture, and it is ground again to form cement.

Coal:

• Coal is formed from the remains of plants that lived millions of years ago.
• When coal is heated in the absence of air, it produces coke and volatile matter.
• Coke is a solid residue, and volatile matter includes coal gas and liquid. Organic Chemistry

Carbon Compounds

• Before 1828, scientists thought that organic compounds could only be found in living things. They believed that a special “vital energy” was needed to make organic compounds.
• In 1828, a German chemist named Friedrich Wohler proved this theory wrong. He made an organic compound called urea in his lab by evaporating a solution of an inorganic compound called ammonium cyanide.
• Today, we know that organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds.

Organic and Inorganic Compounds

• Most organic compounds can be burned, while most inorganic compounds cannot.

• Most organic compounds are gases or liquids at room temperature, while most inorganic compounds are solids. Solids and Liquids

• Most organic compounds are liquids or solids with relatively low melting points.

• Most inorganic compounds are solids with high melting points.

• While most organic compounds are insoluble in water, most inorganic compounds are soluble.

Carbon

• Carbon is the twelfth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust.
• It is unique because it can easily combine with itself to form large molecules of carbon atoms linked in long chains or rings.
• There are more than a million different combinations of carbon atoms.

Different Forms of Carbon

• There are many different forms of carbon, including diamond, graphite, charcoal, lamp black, coke, gas carbon, coal, and animal charcoal.

Allotropic Forms of Carbon

• When a substance exists in different crystalline modifications, it is called allotropy.
• The different forms of the substance are called allotropes.
• Carbon shows allotropy because it exists in different forms. Carbon can take different forms, called allotropes. Two of these allotropes are diamond and graphite.

Coke, charcoal, and lamp black were once thought to be shapeless forms of carbon. However, we now know that they all contain tiny crystals of graphite.

Diamond and graphite have different structures and properties, but they share the same chemical symbol, C. They both react with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide when heated strongly.

Diamond is the hardest natural substance known. Its name comes from the Greek word “adamas,” which means invincible. It is the purest form of carbon. Diamonds:

• Diamonds are made of pure carbon.
• They are very hard and can’t be scratched by anything else.
• Diamonds don’t let heat or electricity pass through them.
• They don’t react with chemicals, but they can burn in the air if they are very hot.
• Diamonds don’t dissolve in any liquids.

Synthetic Diamonds:

• Since 1955, people have been able to make diamonds in a lab.
• They do this by heating and pressurizing carbon compounds.

Uses of Diamonds:

• Clear diamonds are used in jewelry.
• Dark diamonds are used to make cutting tools.

Famous Diamonds:

• The Koh-i-Noor is the most famous diamond in the world.
• It was mined in India, but the British took it.
• The Cullinan is the largest diamond in the world.
• It was found in South Africa in 1905.

Graphite:

• Graphite is a dark gray solid.
• It feels soapy and shiny.
• Graphite conducts electricity and heat well.
• It is used to make pencils. - When graphite is mixed with acids or alkalies, it undergoes a chemical change. However, when it is heated with nitric acid, it forms graphite acid.
• Graphite is used as a lubricant, in paints, for making electrodes, and in lead pencils.
• Pure graphite is made by heating coke in an electric furnace at a temperature of about 2500 degrees Celsius without air.

Petroleum

• Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons that is thought to have come from the breakdown of animal and plant fats under high pressure and temperature.
• Fractional Distillation is a process that separates petroleum into different products based on the fact that lower hydrocarbons boil at a lower temperature than higher ones.

Table 10.5 Products Obtained from Petroleum

S. No	Fraction	Distillation Temperature Range $(K)$	Approx. $$	Uses
1.	Gaseous hydrocarbons	Less than 293	3	Used as fuel and in the production of gasoline and rubber
2.	Light distillates-Pe Petroleum

• A naturally occurring, flammable liquid found in the Earth’s crust.
• Used to make gasoline, diesel, and other products.

Ether

• A colorless, flammable liquid that is used as a solvent and an anesthetic.

Petrol or gasoline

• A flammable liquid used to power cars and other vehicles.

Kerosene oil

• A flammable liquid used for heating and cooking.

Gas oil, diesel, or heavy oil

• A flammable liquid used to power trucks, buses, and other heavy vehicles.

Lubricating oils, gaseous and petroleum jelly

• Used to lubricate machinery and engines.

Paraffin (wax)

• A solid, waxy substance used to make candles, boot polish, and other products.

Asphalt, petroleum coke (Bitumen and coke)

• A black, sticky substance used to pave roads and make roofing materials.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

• A mixture of hydrocarbons such as propane, butane, and pentane.

• Used as a fuel for cooking, heating, and transportation. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

• LPG is a mixture of propane and butane gases.

• These gases are stored in cylinders under pressure to keep them in a liquid state.

• Cooking gas cylinders contain LPG in liquid form.

Synthetic Rubber

• Synthetic rubber is made from certain hydrocarbons through a process called polymerization.
• Some examples of synthetic rubber include:
  • Neoprene: made from chloroprene
  • BUNA-S: made from styrene and butadiene
  • BUNA-N: made from butadiene and acrylonitrile
• Rubber is made harder by a process called vulcanization, which involves heating rubber with sulfur.

Synthetic Fibers

• Nylon: the first synthetic fiber, made from adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine
• Terylene: made from terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol

Plastics

• Plastics are synthetic materials that are neither rubber nor fiber but are used as substitutes for these materials.

• Plastics are also polymers, made from a variety of raw materials, including:

  • Polyethylene (PE)
  • Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
  • Polystyrene (PS)
  • Polypropylene (PP) Polyethylene

• Polyethylene is a plastic made from ethylene gas.

• Ethylene gas is put under pressure and heated in the presence of a catalyst.

• This causes the ethylene gas molecules to link together to form long chains.

• These long chains are what make up polyethylene plastic.

Radioactivity

• Radioactivity is when an atom breaks down and releases energy.
• This can happen naturally or be caused by humans.
• When an atom breaks down, it can release different types of radiation, including alpha, beta, and gamma rays.
• Alpha rays are the least harmful, while gamma rays are the most harmful.
• Radioactivity can be used for good, such as in medicine and power generation.
• However, it can also be used for bad, such as in nuclear weapons. ## Radioactive Emissions

Sub-atomic Particles (Radiation)

1. Alpha $(\alpha )$ particles: These are positively charged helium atoms that can’t penetrate very far. They can be stopped by a sheet of paper or aluminum foil.
2. Beta ( $\beta$ ) particles: These are negatively charged light particles that can penetrate more than alpha particles.

Penetrating Particles (Radiation)

These are also called Gamma $(\gamma )$ emissions. They are like light but have shorter wavelengths and higher energy. They can pass through several centimeters of lead.

X-rays

• X-rays are a type of radiation similar to light but can penetrate solids.
• X-rays are produced when cathode rays hit a metal with a high atomic mass, like tungsten.

X-ray Photographs

X-rays can pass through thick objects without being completely absorbed. Nuclear Reaction and Atomic Energy

• Nuclear Reaction: When a nucleus is hit with a tiny particle like a neutron or proton, or with another nucleus, it can change into different things very quickly. The first time this was seen was in 1919 when Rutherford shot alpha particles at nitrogen.
• Nuclear Fission: Nuclear fission is when a big nucleus breaks into two smaller ones and releases a lot of energy. In 1939, Otto Hahn and F. Steersman from Germany found that when they shot slow neutrons at uranium, it split into two smaller pieces and made a lot of heat. This splitting of uranium is called nuclear fission. Types of Nuclear Fission

1. Controlled Nuclear Fission: This type of fission happens in nuclear reactors. The rate of the fission reaction is slowed down, and the energy produced can be used for helpful things.
2. Uncontrolled Nuclear Fission: This type of fission happens in an atom bomb. The fission reaction is not controlled, and a lot of heat is produced. The process continues until all the fissionable material is used up.

The First Atom Bomb

On August 6, 1945, an atom bomb was dropped on the city of Hiroshima in Japan. The bomb was made of plutonium-239. On August 9, 1945, another atom bomb was dropped on the city of Nagasaki in Japan.

Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion is a nuclear reaction where lighter atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus. This reaction also produces a lot of heat. If nuclear fusion can be controlled, it could be a great source of energy.

Atomic Energy (Nuclear Energy)

Atomic energy or nuclear energy is the energy that comes from nuclear fission or nuclear fusion. Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy, also known as atomic energy, is a type of energy that comes from the nucleus of an atom. When atoms are split apart, a lot of energy is released. This energy can be used to generate electricity or power machines.

How Nuclear Energy Works

Nuclear energy is created when the nucleus of an atom is split apart. This process is called nuclear fission. When an atom is split, it releases a lot of energy in the form of heat and radiation. This heat can be used to boil water and create steam, which can then be used to generate electricity.

Benefits of Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy has a number of benefits, including:

• It is a clean source of energy. Nuclear power plants do not produce greenhouse gases, which contribute to climate change.
• It is a reliable source of energy. Nuclear power plants can operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, regardless of the weather.
• It is a relatively inexpensive source of energy. Nuclear power plants can produce electricity at a competitive cost compared to other sources of energy.

Risks of Nuclear Energy

There are also some risks associated with nuclear energy, including:

• The potential for nuclear accidents. Nuclear power plants are complex facilities, and there is always the potential for an accident to occur.
• The long-term storage of nuclear waste. Nuclear power plants produce radioactive waste, which must be stored safely and securely for thousands of years.
• The proliferation of nuclear weapons. Nuclear power plants can produce materials that can be used to make nuclear weapons.

Overall, nuclear energy is a complex technology with both benefits and risks. It is important to weigh the benefits and risks carefully before making a decision about whether or not to support nuclear energy. The pressure and volume of a gas are directly related to its temperature.

• The absolute temperature is measured from absolute zero, which is about -273 degrees Celsius.

• When the temperature of a gas increases by 1 degree Celsius, its pressure increases by 1/273 of its original pressure at 0 degrees Celsius.

• If the pressure of a gas stays the same, its volume will increase by 1/273 of its original volume at 0 degrees Celsius for every 1 degree Celsius increase in temperature.

• In other words, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature when the pressure is constant.

• This principle was discovered by the French scientist Jacques Alexandre Charles. Gay-Lussac’s Law

• Law of Gaseous Volume: This law says that when gases react with each other, the amounts of the gases that react and the amounts of the gases that are made are in simple whole number ratios. For example, one unit of nitrogen gas reacts with three units of hydrogen gas to make two units of ammonia gas.

• Law of Thermal Expansion: This law says that when you heat a gas, it will expand by the same amount for every degree that the temperature increases.

Hess’ Law

• This law says that the amount of heat that is released or absorbed in a chemical reaction is the same, no matter how many steps the reaction takes. Graham’s Law of Diffusion:

• This law says that how fast two gases spread out (diffuse) depends on how heavy they are.

• The lighter the gas, the faster it will spread out.

• A Scottish chemist named Thomas Graham (1805-1860) discovered this law.

Henry’s Law:

• This law says that the amount of gas that dissolves in a liquid depends on the pressure of the gas.
• The higher the pressure, the more gas will dissolve in the liquid.
• This law was discovered by a British chemist named William Henry in 1803.

Lambert’s Law:

• This law says that when light passes through a material, the amount of light that is absorbed is the same for each layer of the material that is the same thickness.
• For example, if you have a piece of colored glass, the amount of light that is absorbed by the glass will be the same for each layer of glass that is the same thickness.

Raoult’s Law:

• This law says that the amount of vapor pressure that is lowered by a solute (something that is dissolved in a liquid) is proportional to the amount of solute that is dissolved in the liquid.

• The more solute that is dissolved in the liquid, the lower the vapor pressure will be.

• This law was discovered by a French chemist named Francois-Marie Raoult in 1887. Law of Conservation of Mass and Matter

• Matter cannot be created or destroyed.

• The total amount of mass or matter in a system always stays the same, without any increase or decrease in quantity.

Important Chemical Processes

• Bessemer Process: This method turns pig iron into steel by blowing air through the melted metals to get rid of impurities like carbon, silicon, phosphorus, and manganese that are usually found in pig iron.
• Clemmensen Reduction: This process changes aldehydes and ketones into hydrocarbons by heating them with a mixture of zinc and hydrochloric acid.
• Gattermann Reaction: This process turns aromatic hydrocarbons into aldehydes by reacting them with carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride in the presence of a copper catalyst. Haber Process: A method for making ammonia by combining nitrogen and hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst.

Kolbe Reaction: A process for making hydrocarbons by passing electricity through a solution of the alkali salts of aliphatic carboxylic acids.

Solvay Process: A method for making sodium carbonate from calcium carbonate and sodium chloride. The process involves heating calcium carbonate to produce calcium oxide and carbon dioxide, which is then bubbled into a solution of sodium chloride in ammonia. Sodium hydrogen carbonate is precipitated, which is then heated to produce sodium carbonate.

Bayer Process: A method for extracting aluminium oxide from bauxite by treating it with hot caustic soda solution under pressure. Bergius Process:

• A method for making lubricants and synthetic fuel, like petrol, from coal.
• It involves heating a mixture of powdered coal, heavy oil or tar, and hydrogen under pressure.
• A catalyst like iron, tin, or lead is used in the process.
• Developed by German chemist Friedrich Bergius, who won the Nobel Prize in 1931.

Bosch Process:

• A method for producing industrial hydrogen.
• It involves passing steam over extremely hot coke to create water gas (a mix of carbon monoxide and hydrogen).
• In the presence of a catalyst (a metal oxide), this water gas reacts with more steam to release hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
• Named after German chemist Carl Bosch (1874-1940).

Down Process:

• A method for producing sodium metal.
• It involves the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride (NaCl).
• The molten sodium and calcium formed at the cathode are then separated.

Frasch Process:

• A method for extracting sulfur from underground deposits.
• Superheated water is forced down into the deposits, melting the sulfur.
• The molten sulfur is then pumped up to the surface. Sulphur Mining:
• Sulphur is found underground in deposits.
• Compressed air is used to melt the sulphur.
• The melted sulphur is collected.
• This process was invented by Herman Frasch in 1891.

Hall-Heroult Process:

• This process is used to make aluminum.
• Aluminum oxide is dissolved in cryolite.
• Electricity is passed through the mixture, which separates the aluminum from the oxygen.
• This process was developed in 1885 by Charles Hall in the US and P. T. Heroult in France.

Parkes Process:

• This process is used to extract silver from lead ore.
• Molten zinc is added to molten lead ore.
• The lead separates from the silver, leaving zinc-silver.
• The zinc-silver is heated, which turns the zinc into a gas and leaves the silver behind.

Brown-ring Test:

• This test is used to check for nitrates in a solution.
• Iron sulphate solution is added to the solution being tested.
• Concentrated sulphuric acid is carefully added to the side of the test tube.
• If nitrates are present, a brown ring will form at the junction of the two liquids. Flame Test: This test helps us identify specific elements. We dip a clean platinum wire into the mixture we want to test and heat it using a Bunsen flame. Different elements produce different flame colors. For example:
• Brilliant orange-yellow: Sodium
• Crimson: Strontium
• Apple green: Barium

Beilstein’s Test: This test is used to detect the presence of halogens (like chlorine, bromine, or iodine) in an organic compound. We heat a clean copper wire in a flame until it stops producing a green flame. Then, we dip the wire into the solution we want to test and heat it again. If chlorine, bromine, or iodine is present, the flame will turn bright green.

Fehling’s Test: This test helps us detect sugars and aldehydes in a solution. We mix equal amounts of copper sulfate solution (Fehling A) and sodium tartrate solution (Fehling B) in a test tube. If the solution contains sugars or aldehydes, it will turn a reddish-brown color when heated. Ube: When ube is boiled with a specific solution, it forms a red precipitate if sugar or aldehyde is present.

Kjeldahl Method: This method is used to measure the amount of nitrogen in an organic compound. The compound is boiled with concentrated sulfuric acid and copper sulfate (a catalyst) to convert the nitrogen into ammonium sulfate. Then, an alkali is added to the mixture, and it is boiled again to distill off ammonia. This ammonia is passed into a standard acid solution and measured by titrating the solution.

Molish’s Test: This test is used to detect carbohydrates in a solution. A small amount of alcoholic alpha-naphthol is mixed with the solution being tested, and concentrated sulfuric acid is slowly poured down the side of the test tube. If a deep violet ring forms when the two liquids meet, it indicates the presence of carbohydrates.

Rast’s Method: This method is used to determine the molecular weight of a substance by measuring how much the freezing point of camphor is lowered when a known weight of the substance is added to it.

Schiff’s Test: This test is used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones. When an aldehyde is mixed with Schiff’s reagent (a solution of fuchsin and sulfurous acid), it forms a purple or red color. Ketones do not react with Schiff’s reagent. Aldehydes and Ketones

Aldehydes and ketones are two types of organic compounds. Aldehydes have a carbonyl group (C=O) at the end of a carbon chain, while ketones have a carbonyl group in the middle of a carbon chain.

Schiff’s Reagent

Schiff’s reagent is a solution of rosaniline and sulphurous acid. It is used to test for the presence of aldehydes. When an aldehyde is added to Schiff’s reagent, it oxidizes the reduced form of the dye rosaniline back to its original magenta colour.

Testing for Aldehydes and Ketones

Aldehydes restore the colour of Schiff’s reagent immediately, while ketones restore the colour slowly. This difference can be used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones.

Common Substances and Their Chemical Compositions

The table below lists some common substances and their chemical compositions.

Substance	Chemical	Composition	Formula
Alum	Potash	Potassium, Sulphur, Aluminium, Hydrogen and Oxygen	$\mathrm{K}{2} \mathrm{SO}{4} \mathrm{Al}{2}\left(\mathrm{SO}{4}\right)_{3}$
Bleaching Powder	Calcium hypochlorite	Calcium, Chlorine, Oxygen	$\mathrm{CaCl}(\mathrm{OCl}){4} \mathrm{H}{2} \mathrm{O}$
Blue Vitriol	Copper sulphate	Copper, Sulphur and Oxygen	$\mathrm{CuSO}{4} 5 \mathrm{H}{2} \mathrm{O}$
Calomel	Mercurous chloride	Mercury, Chlorine	$\mathrm{Hg}{2} \mathrm{Cl}{2}$
Caustic Lotion	Silver, nitrate	Silver Substance	Chemical
—	—	—	—
Nitrogen, Oxygen	AqNO3	Nitrogen, Oxygen	AqNO3
Candy Fluid	Potassium permanganate	Potassium, Manganese, Oxygen	KMnO4
Caustic Potash	Potassium hydroxide	Potassium, Hydrogen, Oxygen	KOH
Chalk	Calcium carbonate	Calcium, Carbon, Oxygen	CaCO3
Caustic Soda	Sodium hydroxide	Sodium, Hydrogen, Oxygen	NaOH
Baking Soda	Sodium bicarbonate	Sodium, Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen	NaHCO3
Common Salt	Sodium chloride	Sodium, Chlorine	NaCl
Epsom Salt	Magnesium sulphate	Magnesium, Sulphur, Oxygen	MgSO4 7H2O
Galena	Lead sulphide	Lead and Sulphur	PbS
Green Vitriol	Iron sulphate	Iron, Sulphur, Oxygen	FeSO4 7H2O
Glauber’s salt	Sodium sulphate	Sodium, Sulphur, Oxygen	Na2SO4 10H2O
—	—	—	—
Sodium sulfate decahydrate	Gypsum	Sodium, Sulfur, Oxygen, Hydrogen	Na2SO4 · 10H2O
Calcium sulfate dihydrate	Gypsum	Calcium, Sulfur, Oxygen, Hydrogen	CaSO4 · 2H2O
Sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate	Hypo	Sodium, Sulfur, Hydrogen, Oxygen	Na2S2O3 · 5H2O
Nitrous oxide	Laughing gas	Nitrogen, Oxygen	N2O
Calcium hydroxide	Lime water	Calcium, Hydrogen, Oxygen	Ca(OH)2
Lead monoxide	Litharge	Lead, Oxygen	PbO
Potassium nitrate	Nitre	Potassium, Nitrogen, Oxygen	KNO3
Calcium sulfate hemihydrate	Plaster of Paris	Calcium, Sulfur, Hydrogen, Oxygen	2CaSO4 · H2O
Sodium silicate	Quartz	Sodium, Silicon, Oxygen	Na2SiO3
Calcium oxide	Quick lime	Calcium, Oxygen	CaO
Lead tetroxide	Red lead	Lead, Oxygen	Pb3O4

Various Sciences

The Cell

The cell is the smallest unit of life that can exist on its own.

Historical Background

1. In 1665, Robert Hook, a scientist from England, used his own microscope to see a tiny compartment in a piece of cork. He called this compartment a “cell.”
2. In 1824, R. J. H. Dutrochet figured out that both animals and plants are made up of cells.
3. In 1831, Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in plant cells.
4. In 1838, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann proposed the cell theory, which states that all living things are made up of cells and that the cell is the basic unit of life.
5. In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added to the cell theory by saying that all cells come from other cells.

Cell Structure

The cell is made up of different parts, each with its own function. The main parts of a cell are:

• Cell membrane: The cell membrane is a thin layer that surrounds the cell and protects it from its surroundings.
• Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance that fills the cell. It contains all of the cell’s organelles.
• Nucleus: The nucleus is a round or oval structure that contains the cell’s DNA. DNA is the genetic material that controls the cell’s activities.
• Organelles: Organelles are small structures that perform specific functions within the cell. Some of the most important organelles are:
  • Mitochondria: Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell. They produce energy for the cell.
  • Chloroplasts: Chloroplasts are found in plant cells. They use sunlight to produce food for the plant.
  • Ribosomes: Ribosomes are responsible for making proteins.
  • Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes that helps to transport materials around the cell.
  • Golgi apparatus: The Golgi apparatus is a complex of membranes that packages and distributes proteins.
  • Lysosomes: Lysosomes are small sacs that contain enzymes that break down waste products.

Cell Function

Cells perform a variety of functions, including:

• Metabolism: Metabolism is the process by which cells convert food into energy.
• Reproduction: Cells reproduce by dividing in two. This process is called cell division.
• Response to stimuli: Cells can respond to changes in their environment by changing their behavior. For example, a plant cell may open its stomata (pores) to let in carbon dioxide when the light intensity increases.
• Transport: Cells transport materials into and out of the cell. This process is called transport.

Cell Theory

The cell theory is one of the most important theories in biology. It states that:

• All living things are made up of cells.
• The cell is the basic unit of life.
• All cells come from other cells.

The cell theory has been supported by over 150 years of research. It is one of the foundations of modern biology. The Cell

1. Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things.
2. In 1831, Robert Brown discovered the nucleus, which is the control center of the cell.
3. The fluid inside the cell is called protoplasm.

Cell Size

1. Most cells are very small, between 3 and 30 microns in size. (A micron is one thousandth of a millimeter.)
2. The smallest cells are bacteria, which are about 0.2 to 0.5 microns in size.
3. The largest cell is the ostrich egg, which is about 18 centimeters (7 inches) in diameter.

Cell Structure

1. Every cell is surrounded by a membrane, which is a thin layer that protects the cell and allows it to take in nutrients and get rid of waste.
2. Inside the membrane is the protoplasm, which is the living material of the cell.
3. The nucleus is the control center of the cell and directs all of the cell’s activities.
4. The cytoplasm is the rest of the cell, where most of the cell’s activities take place.

Cell Wall

1. Plant cells have a cell wall, which is a rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane and helps to protect the cell. The cell membrane, also known as the plasmalemma, is the outer layer of the cytoplasm. It is found in both animal and plant cells and is made up of living substances like proteins.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of tubes or channels inside the cytoplasm. It helps in making proteins and transporting materials within the cell.

Ribosomes are small, dense, round bodies found in the cytoplasm. They are made up of RNA and proteins and help in making proteins from amino acids.

Golgi bodies are bag-like structures made of stacks of membranes. In plants, they are called dictysomes. They help in releasing different substances, such as the pectic material that makes up the cell wall in plants. They also help in forming the cell plate during cell division.

Vacuoles are fluid-filled sacs inside cells. In plant cells, they are very large and surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast. In animal cells, they are smaller and more numerous. Iny:

• Iny is a small organelle found in cells.
• It helps the cell to regulate its water balance and maintain its shape.

Mitochondria:

• Mitochondria are rod-shaped or spherical structures found in all cells.
• They contain DNA and enzymes that help the cell produce energy.

Plastids:

• Plastids are small bodies found in plant cells.
• There are two types of plastids: leucoplasts and chromoplasts.
• Leucoplasts are colorless and store starch, protein, or lipids.
• Chromoplasts are colored and can be either photosynthetic or non-photosynthetic.
• Photosynthetic chromoplasts produce food from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight.
• Non-photosynthetic chromoplasts provide color to flowers, fruits, and leaves.

Nucleus:

• The nucleus is a round, oval, cylindrical, or elongated organelle found in cells.

• It is surrounded by a nuclear membrane and contains nucleoplasm.

• Nucleoplasm is made up of chromatin and nucleoli.

• Chromatin is made up of DNA, RNA, and proteins.

• The nucleus controls all cell activities and is responsible for the transfer of heredity. Centrosome:

• A dense area of cell material located near the nucleus.

• Found in animal cells.

• Contains two small dot-like bodies called centroils.

• Helps in cell division by forming a spindle in lower plants.

Cilia and Flagella:

• Fine extensions of the cell surface.
• Similar in structure.
• Help in movement and locomotion.
• In some animals, they also help in feeding.

Cell Inclusions:

• Non-living substances present in the cytoplasm or vacuoles of a cell.
• In animal cells, inclusions include secretory granules, hemoglobin in red blood cells, food material like glycogen in liver cells, and pigments in skin, eye, and hair cells.
• In plant cells, inclusions include food particles like starch, oil globules, and excretory products like resin and gum.

Cell Division:

• Process by which cells divide to produce new cells.
• Essential for growth, development, and reproduction of all living organisms. Living things grow when their cells get bigger and divide to make more cells. There are two ways that cells can divide:

1. Mitosis: This is the most common way that cells divide. It happens in all cells of the body except for the reproductive cells. When a cell divides by mitosis, it makes two new cells that are exactly the same as the original cell.

2. Meiosis: This type of cell division only happens in reproductive cells. It makes gametes, which are cells that contain half the number of chromosomes as the original cell. This is important for sexual reproduction, because when two gametes combine, they create a new cell with the correct number of chromosomes. Cell Division

Cell division is the process by which a cell divides into two or more new cells. Before cell division, the cell gets ready and is called the interphase. During interphase, the cell becomes more active.

Cell division has two main steps:

1. Division of the nucleus
2. Division of the cytoplasm

During cell division, the chromatin material of the cell gets organized into chromosomes.

Plant and Animal Cells

Plant and animal cells are different in a few ways.

• Plant cells have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, while animal cells do not.
• Plant cells have chloroplasts, which are organelles that help them photosynthesize. Animal cells do not have chloroplasts.
• Plant cells lack centrioles, which are organelles that help organize the mitotic spindle. Animal cells have centrioles.
• Plant cells have a large sap-filled vacuole. Animal cells have smaller vacuoles. Classification of Living Organisms

There are millions of different kinds of living things on Earth. Some of these organisms are still alive, while others have died and become fossils.

A scientist named Carl Von Linne developed a system for classifying living things in the 18th century. His system is still used today.

Scientific Names

Carl Von Linne also created a system for naming living things. This system is called scientific nomenclature.

In scientific nomenclature, each organism has two names. The first name is the genus name, and the second name is the species name.

For example, the scientific name for the cat is Felis catus. Felis is the genus name, and catus is the species name.

Species

A species is a group of organisms that are very similar to each other. They can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

For example, all cats are members of the same species. They can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

Genus

A genus is a group of related species. The species in a genus have some common characteristics.

For example, all cats are members of the genus Felis. All Felis species have sharp claws, retractable teeth, and fur. Different types of living things are grouped based on their similarities and differences. For example, cats, lions, and tigers are all different species, but they share some common characteristics. So, they are placed in the same group called a genus. Genera are then grouped into families, families into orders, orders into classes, and classes into phyla.

The lowest level of classification is the species, and the highest level is the phylum. Different phyla make up either the plant kingdom or the animal kingdom.

Each organism has two names: a generic name and a specific name. The generic name starts with a capital letter, and the specific name starts with a small letter. For example, the scientific name for the common housefly is Musca domestica, and the scientific name for humans is Homo sapiens. The scientific name for wheat is Triticum aestivum.

Here’s a table that shows the order of classification:

Classification	Example
Species	Musca domestica (housefly)
Genus	Musca
Family	Muscidae
Order	Diptera
Class	Insecta
Phylum	Arthropoda
Kingdom	Animalia

Category	Dog	Human
Kingdom	Animal	Animal
Sub-kingdom	Metazoa	Metazoa
Phylum	Chordata	Chordata
Sub-phylum	Vertebrae	Vertebrae
Class	Mammal	Mammal
Order	Carnivora	Primate
Family	Canidae	Hominidae
Genus	Canis	Homo
Species	Familians	Sapiens

General Classification

In the past, all living things were divided into two main groups:

1. Plants
2. Animals

Some single-celled organisms, like bacteria and fungi, used to be considered plants. But in recent decades, scientists have disagreed with this classification and have been working to improve the classification system. In 1969, R. H. Whittaker proposed a new system that divided all living things into five main kingdoms. The Five Kingdoms of Living Things

Scientists have created a system to classify all living things into five groups called kingdoms. These kingdoms are:

1. Monera (true bacteria and blue-green algae)
2. Protista (golden algae and yellow-green algae)
3. Fungi (slime molds, bread molds, and sac fungi)
4. Plantae (plants)
5. Animalae (animals)

Some scientists also include viruses in the Monera kingdom, while others consider them to be outside the normal classification system.

Here’s a brief description of each kingdom:

Monera:

• Organisms with simple cells that lack a nucleus
• Diverse nutritional habits, including photosynthesis, chemosynthesis, and absorption
• Reproduce asexually by simple cell division
• Examples: true bacteria, fungus-like bacteria, blue-green algae

Protista:

• Unicellular or colonial organisms with a nucleus
• Diverse nutritional habits, including photosynthesis, chemosynthesis, and absorption
• Reproduce both sexually and asexually, involving meiosis and nuclear fusion
• Mobility by means of advanced flagella
• Examples: Euglena, Paramecium, Amoeba

Fungi:

• Organisms that lack chlorophyll and cannot make their own food
• Absorb nutrients from their surroundings
• Reproduce both sexually and asexually
• Examples: mushrooms, yeast, molds

Plantae:

• Organisms that contain chlorophyll and can make their own food through photosynthesis
• Have cell walls made of cellulose
• Reproduce both sexually and asexually
• Examples: trees, flowers, grasses

Animalae:

• Organisms that cannot make their own food and must eat other organisms to survive

• Have a nervous system and can move around

• Reproduce sexually

• Examples: humans, insects, fish Types of Algae:

• Ophytes: These are a type of algae that have a unique cell structure and are found in both freshwater and marine environments.

• Dinoflagellates: These are a type of algae that have two flagella and are found in both freshwater and marine environments. Some dinoflagellates can produce bioluminescence, which is the emission of light by a living organism.

• Golden algae: These are a type of algae that have a golden-brown color and are found in both freshwater and marine environments.

• Yellow-green algae: These are a type of algae that have a yellow-green color and are found in both freshwater and marine environments.

Fungi:

• Fungi are organisms that are made up of many cells and do not have chlorophyll, which is the green pigment that plants use to make food.

• Fungi get their food by absorbing nutrients from their surroundings.

• Examples of fungi include slime molds, water molds, white ruts, bread molds, and sac fungi.

Plantae:

• Plantae are organisms that are made up of many cells and have a cell wall.

• Plantae make their own food by photosynthesis, which is the process of using sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into food.

• Plantae include all botanical organisms, such as trees, shrubs, herbs, and flowers.

Animalae:

• Animalae are organisms that are made up of many cells and do not have a cell wall.

• Animalae get their food by eating other organisms.

• Animalae include all protozoa and metazoa zoological organisms.

Important Biological Phenomena:

Photosynthesis:

• Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants use sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into food.

• The energy from sunlight is trapped in plant cells by chloroplasts, which are small organelles that contain chlorophyll. Plants have chlorophyll, which gives them their green color. When sunlight hits the chlorophyll, it creates tiny electric currents. These currents change ADP (adenosine diphosphate) into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and split water molecules in the cells into oxygen and hydrogen. This starts the complex process of photosynthesis. Oxygen is released into the air, and hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide to make glucose, which is a fuel used by living things.

All chemical reactions that happen in living things have two parts:

1. Anabolism: This is when living things make complex organic molecules from simple ones. For example, they make proteins from amino acids.
2. Catabolism: This is when living things break down complex molecules into simple ones to get energy. For example, they break down hydrocarbons into simpler forms. Respiration

Respiration has two meanings: breathing and the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from cells.

Internal respiration or cell respiration happens inside cells. It’s the chemical reactions that give an organism energy. Internal respiration that uses oxygen is called aerobic respiration. Anaerobic respiration happens without oxygen. Both plants and animals respire.

Animals need oxygen to release the energy in their food and get rid of waste, like carbon dioxide.

Skin Breathing: Slow-moving animals breathe through their skin.

Gill Breathing: Fish have gills that absorb oxygen from water. Breathing

• Tracheal Breathing: Insects have a network of tubes that carry oxygen to all parts of their bodies.
• Lung Breathing: More evolved animals have lungs to breathe.

Fertilization

Fertilization is when two sex cells (gametes) come together to make a fertilized egg (zygote). The zygote then grows into a new offspring.

External Fertilization: In some animals like frogs, toads, and many water creatures, fertilization happens outside the body. The male gamete (sperm) swims through the water to fertilize the female gamete (egg). The fertilized egg then develops into a new individual.

Internal Fertilization: In mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects, fertilization happens inside the female’s body. The male gamete (sperm) is released into the female’s body, where it fertilizes the egg. In birds and reptiles, the fertilized egg is laid and develops outside the female’s body. In mammals, the fertilized egg develops inside the female’s body until it is born. Fertilization in Flowering Plants:

In higher plants, fertilization is a complex process that involves pollen grains. These pollen grains are carried to the egg-bearing part of the plant by wind or insects. This process is called pollination. When a pollen grain lands on the stigma, it germinates and sends a pollen tube down through the style to the ovule. The male reproductive cell in the pollen tube then fuses with the egg cell in the ovule, which can then develop into an embryo plant.

Transpiration:

Transpiration is the process by which water evaporates from the stems and leaves of plants. This process helps to cool the leaves on hot days and prevents them from drying out. It also helps to draw water up from the roots to the leaves, where the excess water is released into the atmosphere.

Human Body:

Anatomy and Physiology:

Blood:

• Blood is a connective tissue that is made up of a red, viscous fluid.

• On average, a healthy man has about 5 liters of blood in his body, while a woman has about 4 liters. - The average person has about 60 to 80 milliliters of blood for every kilogram of body weight. This means that a person who weighs 70 kilograms has about 4.2 to 5.6 liters of blood.

• Blood is made up of two main parts: the solid or cellular part called blood cells (35%) and the liquid part called plasma (65%).

• Blood cells are of two types: red blood cells (RBCs) and white blood cells (WBCs).

• Plasma is made up of water (90%), proteins (7%), nutrients, salts, nitrogen waste, carbon dioxide, and hormones.

• Blood also has platelets (thrombocytes), which help to stop bleeding. The normal platelet count is between 150,000 and 300,000 per cubic millimeter of blood.

• Red blood cells (erythrocytes) make up about 54% of the blood and contain a pigment called hemoglobin, which gives blood its red color. Hemoglobin is an iron-containing pigment.

• Red blood cells are produced in the spleen and bone marrow. Haemoglobin:

• Haemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.

• It does this by forming a chemical compound with oxygen.

White Blood Corpuscles (WBC):

• White blood cells are part of the body’s defence system.
• They help fight infection.
• There are normally between 4,500 and 11,000 white blood cells per cubic millimetre of blood.
• White blood cells are larger than red blood cells and have a nucleus.

Blood Grouping:

• Human blood is classified into four groups: A, B, AB, and O.
• The O blood group can be given to anyone, so people with O blood are called universal donors.
• The AB blood group can receive blood from anyone, so people with AB blood are called universal recipients.

Table of Blood Groups:

Blood Group	Can Donate Blood To	Can Receive Blood From
A	A, AB	A, O
B	B, AB	B, O
AB	AB	A, B, AB, O
O	A, B, AB, O	O

• Blood clotting is the body’s way of stopping bleeding.
• Plasma has a protein called fibrinogen that turns into fibrin, which is needed for blood to clot. The liver makes fibrinogen.

Rh Factor

• The Rh factor is a protein found on red blood cells.

• Most people have the Rh factor and are called Rh-positive.

• People who don’t have the Rh factor are called Rh-negative. Rh- Blood Type

• Rh- blood does not have anti-Rh antibodies naturally. But it can make them if it comes into contact with Rh+ blood.

• If someone with Rh- blood gets a blood transfusion from someone with Rh+ blood, their body will start making anti-Rh antibodies.

• If they get another transfusion of Rh+ blood, the anti-Rh antibodies will attack the donor’s red blood cells and cause them to clump together. This can be dangerous and even fatal.

Blood Transfusion

• Blood transfusion is when blood is taken from one person (the donor) and given to another person (the recipient).
• It is done to replace blood that has been lost or to improve the quality of the blood.
• Blood transfusions are very important, but they can also be dangerous if the blood types are not matched correctly.
• The first blood transfusion was done in 1825 by James Blundell in London.

Blood Pressure

• Blood pressure is the force of the blood pushing against the walls of the blood vessels.

• It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg).

• Normal blood pressure is around 120/80 mm Hg.

• High blood pressure (hypertension) is when the blood pressure is too high.

• Low blood pressure (hypotension) is when the blood pressure is too low. Blood Pressure:

• Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of blood vessels.

• When the heart pumps blood, it creates pressure in the arteries.

• The highest pressure is called systolic pressure, and the lowest pressure is called diastolic pressure.

• Blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg).

• Normal blood pressure for a healthy young adult is around 120/80 mm Hg.

• High blood pressure (hypertension) is when the systolic pressure is over 140 mm Hg or the diastolic pressure is over 90 mm Hg.

• Low blood pressure (hypotension) is when the systolic pressure is below 90 mm Hg or the diastolic pressure is below 60 mm Hg. Blood Pressure

• High blood pressure is called Hypertension, and low blood pressure is called Hypotension.

• Blood pressure depends on many things, like how strong the heart beats, how much blood there is, how thick the blood is, how flexible the arteries are, and how much resistance the capillaries give to blood flow.

The Skeletal System (Bones)

• Adults have 206 bones in their skeletal system.
• The bones in your hands and feet make up half of all the bones in your body.
• When a baby is born, they have 300 bones, but as they grow, 94 of those bones fuse together.
• The longest bone in the human body is the femur, which is in the thigh. It makes up about 27.5% of a person’s height, and the average length is about 50 cm.
• The smallest bone in the human body is the stapes, which is in the middle ear.

Functions of Bones

1. They connect tissues in the body.
2. They make the body stiff.
3. They provide levers for muscles to work on.
4. They give the body its shape.
5. They protect internal organs. Bones

Bones are made up of different materials, including organic matter, phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, fluoride of calcium, phosphate of magnesia, soda, and chloride of sodium.

Important Bones

Skull Bones (Cranium)

The skull is made up of eight bones:

• Frontal bone (forehead)
• Two parietal bones (sides of the head)
• Occipital bone (back of the head)
• Two temporal bones (sides of the head)
• Sphenoid bone (base of the skull)
• Ethmoid bone (between the eyes)

Facial Bones

The facial bones are made up of 14 individual bones:

• Two lachrymal bones (tear ducts)

• Two nasal bones (bridge of the nose)

• Two cheek bones (malar bones)

• One vomer bone (between the nostrils)

• Two sponge bones (turbinate bones)

• Two palate bones (roof of the mouth) Bones of the Head

• The skull is made up of two upper jaw bones (maxilla) and one lower jaw bone (mandible).

Upper Extremities (Shoulder and Arms)

• There are 32 bones in the shoulder and arms.

Shoulder Bones

• Two scapula (triangular-shaped shoulder blades)
• Two clavicles (collar bones)

Bones of the Arm

• Each arm has 30 bones:
  • One humerus (the largest bone of the arm)
  • One radius (outer bone)
  • One ulna (inner bone)
  • Eight carpals (wrist bones)
  • Five metacarpals (bones of the middle hand)
  • Fourteen phalanges (bones of the fingers)

Backbone (the Spine)

• The backbone is also called the vertebrae. It encloses the spinal cord.
• In childhood, the backbone has 33 separate bones.
• In adults, there are only 26 separate vertebrae because some bones fuse together.
• The 26 vertebrae are divided into five regions:
  • Cervical vertebrae (neck bones) - seven
  • Dorsal vertebrae (support the ribs) - twelve
  • Lumbar vertebrae (backbones) - five
  • Sacrum (also called ‘Sacred Bones’) - five vertebrae fused together
  • Coccyx (tailbone) - four vertebrae fused together The spine of an adult human has 26 bones called vertebrae. These bones are divided into four sections.

The chest bones, also known as the thorax, form a protective cage around the lungs and heart. The thorax consists of one sternum (breastbone) and 24 ribs.

The hip bone, also known as the pelvis, is made up of three bones that fuse together in adulthood. These bones are the ilium, the ischium (seat bone), and the pubis. The female pelvis is wider than the male pelvis to allow for childbirth. Bones of the Pelvis

The pelvis is made up of several bones, including:

1. Sacrum: This is the bone at the back of the pelvis.
2. Iliac crest: This is the top of the pelvis.
3. Acetabulum: This is the hip joint.
4. Ischium: This is the bone that forms the back of the hip joint.
5. Ishial tuberosity: This is the bump on the back of the pelvis that you can sit on.
6. Ilium: This is the bone that forms the front of the pelvis.
7. Pubis: This is the bone that forms the front of the hip joint.

Bones of the Leg

Each leg has 30 bones, including:

1. Femur: This is the thigh bone. It is the longest bone in the human body.
2. Tibia: This is the shin bone.
3. Fibula: This is the calf bone.
4. Patella: This is the kneecap.
5. Tarsus: These are the ankle bones. There are seven of them.
6. Phalanges: These are the toe bones. There are 14 of them.

Muscular System

Muscles are tissues that are attached to bones. They are made up of fibers that can contract and relax to move the body.

There are about 630 important muscles in the human body. They make up about 40% of the body’s weight. There are also about 100 joints and about 10,000 kilometers of blood vessels in the human body. Water makes up about 70% of the human body’s tissues.

The largest muscle in the body is the gluteus maximus, or buttock muscle. The longest muscle in the body is the sartorius muscle, which runs from the hip to the knee. Sartorius Muscle (Tailor’s Muscle)

• The Sartorius muscle is the longest muscle in the body.
• It starts at the top of the hip bone, crosses the upper thigh diagonally, goes behind the thigh bone, and attaches to the shin bone.

Smallest Muscle

• The Stapedius muscle is the smallest muscle in the human body.
• It controls the stapes, a small bone in the middle ear that helps us hear.
• The Stapedius muscle is less than 1/20 of an inch long.

Main Organs

• The heart is located in the center of the chest, just behind the breastbone.
• It is surrounded by a tough membrane called the pericardium.
• The average weight of the heart is about 340 grams in men and 225 grams in women.
• The heart contracts and relaxes, which causes it to beat. - The heart pumps blood around the body.
• When the heart squeezes, it is called systole.
• When the heart relaxes, it is called diastole.
• The heart rate is the number of times the heart beats per minute.
• The normal heart rate for men is 70-72 beats per minute.
• The normal heart rate for women is 78-82 beats per minute.
• Blood vessels are tubes that carry blood around the body.
• Arteries carry blood away from the heart.
• Veins carry blood back to the heart.
• The largest artery in the body is the aorta.
• The smallest arteries are called arterioles.
• Veins have valves to prevent blood from flowing backward. Human Body Temperature:

The average human body temperature is around 37 degrees Celsius (98.6 degrees Fahrenheit). However, some people, especially young children, may have slightly higher or lower temperatures. Body temperature can also vary throughout the day, usually rising a bit in the afternoon and dropping a bit during sleep.

Blood Circulation:

• The pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries impure blood. It carries blood from the heart to the lungs.
• The pulmonary vein is the only vein that carries pure blood. It carries blood from the lungs back to the heart.
• The heart’s contractions force both impure and pure blood into two ventricles.
• The pure blood from the left ventricle goes into the large aorta, which takes it to various parts of the body.
• The impure blood from the right ventricle goes into the pulmonary artery, which takes it to the lungs.
• When the ventricles relax, the auricles fill with blood again. The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body. The blood is pumped to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen. The oxygenated blood is then pumped back to the heart, which pumps it to the rest of the body.

The lungs are two spongy organs located in the chest cavity. They are responsible for purifying the blood and supplying it with oxygen. The entire blood supply (4.5-5 liters) washes through the lungs about once a minute.

The liver is the largest gland in the human body. It is located on the right side of the stomach and is dark brown in color. The liver performs a variety of functions, including detoxifying the blood, producing bile, and storing glycogen. The gall bladder is a small organ that is attached to the liver. It stores bile, which is a fluid that helps digest fats. The gall bladder can hold up to 2 ounces of bile.

The liver is a large organ that does many important things. It helps digest food, stores energy, and removes toxins from the blood.

Bile is an important fluid that helps digest fats. It is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Bile does not contain any digestive enzymes, so it does not directly help to break down food. However, it does help to break down fats into smaller pieces so that they can be more easily digested by other enzymes.

Bile contains water, bile salts, and bile pigments. Bile salts are chemicals that help to break down fats. Bile pigments are chemicals that give bile its color. - Sodium bicarbonate neutralizes the acid and makes the churned food called Chyme Alkaline.

• Glycocholate and taurocholate of sodium break down the fats of tissues into small globules.

Kidneys

• The two kidneys are located in the upper back of the belly, one on each side of the spine.
• A kidney is about 4 inches long, 2 inches wide, and 1 inch thick. A long tube called the Ureter comes out of each kidney. Urine travels through the Ureters to the bladder.
• Each kidney has thousands of tiny glands called Uriniferous Tubules.

Functions: Kidneys filter waste products from the blood and get rid of them in the urine.

• Kidneys also remove extra water, salts, and waste products from the blood and keep the blood’s pH level balanced. (The pH value is a number that shows how acidic or basic something is.) Blood Flow and Urine Output

• About one-fourth of the blood pumped by the heart (1.2-1.4 liters per minute) flows through the wide renal vessels.

• A healthy adult produces about 1.4 liters of urine per day.

Human Body Water Content

• The human body is made up of about 45 liters (70%) of water.

Spleen

• The spleen is a large lymphatic gland located near the diaphragm on the left side of the body.
• It plays a significant role in developing immunity, but it is not essential for life and can be removed.
• The spleen’s main functions include:
  • Forming lymphocytes and antibodies
  • Producing red blood cells (RBCs)
  • Storing RBCs
  • Removing worn-out RBCs and foreign particles from the bloodstream

Human Brain

• The human brain consists of two main parts:
  • The cerebrum, which is the largest part of the brain and is responsible for higher-level functions such as thinking, memory, and language.
  • The cerebellum, which is located at the back of the brain and is responsible for coordinating movement and balance. The Nervous System

The nervous system is made up of the brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves. The brain is the control center of the body. It is located inside the skull. The spinal cord is a long, thin bundle of nerves that runs from the brain down the back. The nerves are like wires that carry messages between the brain and the rest of the body.

The Brain

The brain is the most important organ in the body. It controls everything we do, from thinking and feeling to moving and breathing. The brain is made up of billions of tiny cells called neurons. Neurons communicate with each other by sending electrical signals.

The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is a long, thin bundle of nerves that runs from the brain down the back. The spinal cord carries messages between the brain and the rest of the body. It also controls reflexes, which are automatic responses to stimuli.

The Nerves

The nerves are like wires that carry messages between the brain and the rest of the body. There are three types of nerves: sensory nerves, motor nerves, and mixed nerves. Sensory nerves carry messages from the body to the brain. Motor nerves carry messages from the brain to the body. Mixed nerves carry both sensory and motor messages.

The Central Nervous System

The central nervous system is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The central nervous system controls everything we do, from thinking and feeling to moving and breathing.

The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system is made up of all the nerves that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. The peripheral nervous system carries messages between the brain and the rest of the body. 1. Cerebrum:

• The brain is divided into two halves, called hemispheres, which are separated by a deep groove called the corpus callosum.
• It controls our voluntary actions and is responsible for our intelligence, memory, imagination, and willpower.

2. Cerebellum:

• The cerebellum is a large part of the brain located at the back of the head, above the medulla. It has ridges and furrows on its surface.
• It helps us coordinate our movements and maintain our balance.

3. Medulla Oblongata:

• The medulla oblongata is the lowest part of the brain and connects to the spinal cord.
• It controls involuntary actions such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion.

4. Spinal Cord:

• The spinal cord is a long, thin tube of nervous tissue that runs from the brain down the back.
• It carries messages between the brain and the rest of the body.

5. Nerves:

• Nerves are bundles of fibers that carry messages between the brain and the rest of the body.

• They transmit nerve impulses, which are electrical signals that travel along the nerve fibers. Nerves:

• Efferent nerves: These nerves carry signals from the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to the rest of the body.

• Motor nerve fibers: These are efferent nerves that control muscle movement.

• Afferent nerves: These nerves carry signals from the body to the central nervous system.

• Sensory nerve fibers: These are afferent nerves that transmit information from the skin and deeper tissues to the brain, often resulting in sensations such as touch, pain, and temperature.

Classification of Nerves:

• Cranial nerves: These nerves are attached to the brain and come out of the skull.
• Spinal nerves: These nerves are attached to the spinal cord, which is protected by the backbone. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, each named after the group of vertebrae they pass through.

Sense Organs:

• Skin: The skin is the largest organ of the human body and covers the muscles. Skin
• The average adult male has about 20 square feet of skin, while the average adult female has about 17 square feet.
• The skin is made up of two layers: the epidermis and the dermis.
• The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin and does not have any nerves or blood vessels. It is constantly being renewed.
• The dermis is the inner layer of the skin and contains nerves, blood vessels, hair follicles, and sweat glands.

Tongue

• The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth that is used for tasting, speaking, chewing, and swallowing.
• The tongue is covered in a mucous membrane and extends from the floor of the mouth to the back of the throat. The Tongue

The hyoid bone is a small bone at the back of the mouth. It helps the tongue move up and forward to the lips. The top and sides of the tongue are free, but the bottom is attached to other parts of the mouth.

Muscles of the Tongue

The tongue has two types of muscles: extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic muscles attach the tongue to other parts of the body, while intrinsic muscles allow the tongue to move in different directions.

Papillae

The top of the tongue is covered in small bumps called papillae. These papillae give the tongue its rough texture and help it to taste food.

Color of the Tongue

The tongue is usually pinkish-red, but it can change color due to illness or other factors.

Taste Buds

The tongue is an organ of taste. It has taste buds that are scattered over its surface, but they are most concentrated at the back of the tongue.

The Nose

The nose is the main organ of smell. It is also part of the respiratory system, which helps us breathe. The Nose

The nose is made up of two main parts: the external part that we can see, and the internal part that is made up of two cavities or nasal fossae. The nasal fossae are separated by a vertical septum and are subdivided by spongy or turbinated bones that project from the outer wall into three passages (meatuses). The various sinuses in the ethmoid, sphenoid, frontal, and superior maxillary bones communicate with the meatuses through narrow apertures.

The margins of the nostrils are usually lined with a number of stiff hairs (vibrissae) that project across the openings and serve to arrest foreign substances such as dust and small insects, which might otherwise be drawn up with the current of air intended for respiration.

The skeleton or framework of the nose is partly composed of the bones forming the top and sides of the bridge and partly of cartilage.

The Eye

The eyeball is almost a perfect sphere. It is made up of three layers: the outer layer (the sclera), the middle layer (the choroid), and the inner layer (the retina). The sclera is the white part of the eye, and it protects the inner parts of the eye. The choroid is a dark layer that contains blood vessels that nourish the eye. The retina is the innermost layer of the eye, and it contains the light-sensitive cells that allow us to see. The eye is a round organ that is about 2.5 centimeters in diameter. It has three layers: the outer layer is called the sclera, the middle layer is called the choroid, and the inner layer is called the retina. The front of the eye is covered by a clear membrane called the cornea.

The inside of the eye is filled with two fluids: the aqueous humor and the vitreous humor. The aqueous humor is a watery fluid that fills the front of the eye, and the vitreous humor is a gel-like fluid that fills the back of the eye.

The lens of the eye is a transparent structure that is located behind the iris. The iris is the colored part of the eye, and it controls the amount of light that enters the eye. The lens changes shape to focus light on the retina.

The retina is the light-sensitive layer of the eye. It contains millions of cells called photoreceptors that convert light into electrical signals. These signals are then sent to the brain, which interprets them as images. On the Retina

• Light has to pass through all the parts of the eye (cornea, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor) before it can reach the retina.
• The light is focused on the retina, where it forms an upside-down image.
• The brain then interprets the image.

The Ear

• The ear has two main jobs:
  • Detecting and understanding sounds
  • Keeping the body balanced
• The ear is divided into three main parts:
  • The outer ear
  • The middle ear
  • The inner ear
• Sound waves travel to the eardrum, which vibrates.
• The vibrations are sent to the inner ear, where they cause waves in a fluid called perilymph.
• The waves vibrate the basilar membrane, which is divided into different parts that respond to different frequencies of sound.
• The brain then interprets the sounds. The inner ear has about 10,000 sensory structures called rods or corti. These structures change the vibrations of the basilar membrane into nerve signals. These signals travel to the brain through the auditory nerve, where they are interpreted as sound.

The ear also helps us keep our balance. Three semicircular canals, the utricle, and the saccule are all filled with fluid. The semicircular canals sense movement in three different directions and send this information to the brain. The utricle and saccule sense when the head is tilted and work with the canals to help us keep our balance.

Glands of the Human Body

• Organs in the human body make liquid products called secretions. Glands

Glands are small organs that make and release substances called secretions. There are two main types of glands:

1. Ducted glands also called exocrine glands, release their secretions through ducts or tubes. For example, the liver produces bile, which is released into the small intestine through the bile duct. The salivary glands produce saliva, which is released into the mouth through the salivary ducts.

2. Ductless glands also called endocrine glands or internally secreting glands, release their secretions directly into the bloodstream. For example, the thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate metabolism. The adrenal glands produce hormones that help the body respond to stress.

Table of Ductless Glands

Name of Gland	Function
Thymus	Helps build resistance to diseases and aids in physical development in early childhood
Thyroid	Regulates metabolism
Prostrate	Regulates blood pressure and sexual potency
Gonads	Relates to the reproductive system and secretes sex hormones
Adrenal	Causes acceleration of the breath, heightens emotion, and increases physical strength during fear or stress

• Helps digest proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
• Makes insulin, which helps control blood sugar levels.
• Too little insulin can cause diabetes.

Pituitary:

• Called the “master gland” because it controls other glands.
• Affects growth and metabolism. Teeth:
• From the age of six, elephants have four chisel-shaped front teeth, two cone-shaped side teeth, and six back teeth for crushing and grinding food.
• The two wisdom teeth, which are the furthest back, grow later and don’t do much.
• Saliva, which is made in the mouth, helps to wet the food, and an enzyme in it called ptyalin starts to break down carbohydrates.

Gullet:

• The gullet, also known as the esophagus, is a 25-centimeter-long tube that connects the mouth to the food pipe (pharynx).
• Peristalsis, which is the contraction of the tube’s walls, moves food down to the stomach.

Stomach:

• The stomach is like a storage area where food can be kept until it’s ready to be digested.
• Gastric juices made in the stomach help break down the food.

Small Intestine:

• The small intestine is 6-7 meters long and 2 centimeters wide and is coiled up.
• Food from the stomach mixes with bile and pancreatic juice in the small intestine and moves forward through peristalsis.
• The part of the intestine closest to the stomach is called the duodenum. Process of Digestion

After you chew your food, it turns into a mushy mixture called chyme. Then, bile and other secretions mix with the chyme and turn it into a creamy liquid called chyle. The nutrients from the chyle are absorbed through the walls of your small intestines and into your bloodstream. The leftover waste is pooped out.

Digestive Secretions

• Saliva: This is made in your mouth by glands under your tongue. It helps you swallow your food by making it slippery. Saliva also has an enzyme called ptyalin that breaks down starches (carbs) into maltose.

• Gastric Juice: This is made in your stomach and contains hydrochloric acid and enzymes. Hydrochloric acid kills bacteria and helps you digest proteins. Enzymes help break down proteins into smaller molecules.

• Bile: This is made in your liver and stored in your gallbladder. It helps you digest fats by breaking them down into smaller molecules.

• Pancreatic Juice: This is made in your pancreas and contains enzymes that help you digest proteins, carbs, and fats. Stomach Juice

• Kills bacteria in food.

• Helps digest food.

• Made of:

  • 90% water
  • 5% enzymes (pepsin, renin, and gastric lipase)
  • 5% hydrochloric acid

• Pepsin and hydrochloric acid break down proteins into smaller molecules called peptones and proteoses.

• Renin curdles milk into a substance called casein.

• Gastric lipase breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids.

Pancreatic Juice

• Produced in the pancreas.
• Meets food in the duodenum (part of the small intestine) along with bile juice from the liver and intestinal juice from the small intestine.
• Contains enzymes that break down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
• Amylase breaks down starch into smaller molecules.
• Lipase breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids.

Important Hormones

Hormone	Produced by	Action
Adrenalin	Adrenal glands	Controls blood pressure
Insulin	Pancreas	Controls blood sugar levels
Estrogen	Ovaries	Affects female reproductive system

• The female reproductive organs are responsible for producing eggs and nurturing a developing fetus.

Testosterone

• Testosterone is a hormone produced by the testes in males. It is responsible for the development of male reproductive organs and secondary sexual characteristics, such as a deep voice and facial hair.

Thyroxin

• Thyroxin is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland. It is responsible for regulating growth and metabolism.

Digestive Enzymes

• Digestive enzymes are proteins that help break down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body.

Erepsin

• Erepsin is an enzyme produced by the intestinal glands in the small intestines. It breaks down peptides into amino acids.

Maltase

• Maltase is an enzyme produced by the intestinal glands. It breaks down maltose into glucose.

Lactase

• Lactase is an enzyme produced by the intestinal glands. It breaks down lactose into glucose.

Sucrase

• Sucrase is an enzyme produced by the intestinal glands. It breaks down sucrose into glucose. Parts of the body involved in sexual reproduction in complex organisms:

Female:

• Vulva (including the clitoris)
• Vagina (including the cervix)
• Labia
• Uterus
• Fallopian tubes
• Ovaries
• Skene’s glands
• Bartholin’s glands

Male:

• Penis (including the glans penis and foreskin)
• Testicles
• Scrotum
• Prostate
• Seminal vesicles
• Epididymis
• Cowper’s glands

Additional information:

• The term “genitalia” is used to describe the sex organs.
• The term “genital area” is often used to describe the externally visible sex organs.
• The parts of the sex organs that are not visible from the outside are called the “internal genitalia.”
• A gonad is a sex organ that produces gametes (eggs or sperm).
• The sex organs develop from the same starting point and then differentiate into male or female organs. Female Reproductive Organs

Each organ in the female reproductive system has a corresponding organ in the male reproductive system. For example, the ovaries in females produce eggs, while the testes in males produce sperm. The uterus in females is where a fertilized egg implants and grows into a baby, while the prostate gland in males helps to produce semen, which carries sperm. Chromosomes:

• Chromosomes are thread-like structures found inside the nucleus of cells.
• Each cell has a specific number of chromosomes, which come in pairs.
• Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 in total).
• Chromosomes contain protein molecules and two types of nucleic acid molecules: RNA (ribonucleic acid) and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
• DNA is mostly found in chromosomes, while RNA is mostly found in nucleoli, both of which are located in the nucleus.

Genes:

• Genes are hereditary units located within chromosomes.

• Genes are responsible for passing on physical and mental traits from parents to offspring.

• Genes are made up of DNA molecules arranged in specific patterns.

• These patterns determine hereditary traits and control the processes of life.

• In 1896, Gregor Mendel discovered that certain hereditary factors exist in all living things.

• Wilhelm Johannsen, a Danish biologist, later named these factors “genes.” Isolation of Pure Gene:

• In 1969, scientists at Harvard University were able to separate and take pictures of a single gene.

Artificial Gene:

• Dr. Hargobind Khorana, an Indian-American scientist who won the Nobel Prize in 1968, made a fake gene in a lab in 1970. He did this by putting together proteins.

Genetic Code:

• The genetic code is like a set of instructions that tells living things how to grow and what traits they will have. It’s found in the chromosomes of cells, which are made of DNA.

Genetic Engineering:

• Genetic engineering, also known as bio-engineering, is a way of changing the genes of living things to create new organisms with specific traits.

• It started when scientists discovered DNA in 1953 and then figured out how to change DNA in living cells in 1973. Recombinant DNA or Gene Splicing:

• Scientists use chemicals called enzymes to cut genes from the DNA of one organism (the donor). These enzymes act like molecular knives.

• The isolated gene is then inserted into the DNA of a bacterium, usually the intestinal bacterium called E. coli. This is done using another enzymatic reaction.

• The resulting hybrid DNA is put back into E. coli cells. These cells can now grow and reproduce, carrying the hybrid DNA in their nuclei. They can also exhibit the traits and characteristics coded by the foreign gene.

• The four DNA bases (A, G, T, and C) are like the letters of an alphabet. They can be used to store information.

• This genetic information is passed on through RNA (ribonucleic acid). RNA also has four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil (U). RNA provides a template for assembling amino acids in a specific sequence, which builds a protein.

• A group of three DNA or RNA bases is called a triplet or codon. Each codon codes for a particular amino acid. Information is passed from DNA to RNA in this way. ## Sex Determination

• Out of the 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) in a human body, only 44 (22 pairs) are truly similar. The other two, called the X and Y chromosomes, are sex chromosomes.

• Two X chromosomes make a female, while an X and a Y chromosome make a male. So, the sex of a child depends on whether the female egg is fertilized by a sperm carrying an X chromosome or a Y chromosome.

Twins

1. Fraternal Twins: Sometimes, two eggs are released from the ovaries at the same time. If both of these eggs get fertilized, they develop into two separate babies. These twins can be of the same sex or different sexes.
2. Identical Twins: These twins develop from a single fertilized egg. During the first division of the zygote (egg), the cell splits into two similar cells that grow into two separate embryos. Since they come from the same zygote, these twins have the same genetic makeup and are always of the same sex. Identical Twins

Identical twins are twins who share the same genes. They are formed when a single fertilized egg splits into two separate embryos. This can happen at any time during the first few days of development.

Siamese Twins

Siamese twins are identical twins who are born joined together. They are very rare, occurring in only about 1 in every 200,000 births. Siamese twins can be joined at the head, chest, or hip.

Separation of Siamese Twins

Siamese twins can usually be separated surgically. However, this is a complex and risky procedure. If the twins share a vital organ, such as the heart, it may not be possible to separate them.

The First Siamese Twins

The first Siamese twins who received wide publicity came from Siam (now Thailand) in the 19th century. They were named Chang and Eng Bunker. They were born in 1811 and lived until 1874.

Human Genetics

Human genetics is the study of how genes are passed down from parents to children. It is a branch of medical science that helps us understand how our physical and mental characteristics are determined. Genetics: The Science of Heredity

Genetics is the study of how traits are passed down from parents to their children. It’s a relatively new field of science, but it’s already had a big impact on our understanding of health and disease.

Two Main Components of Genetics

There are two main components of genetics:

• Heredity: This is the study of how similar traits are passed down from parents to their children.
• Variation: This is the study of how traits can be different between individuals, even if they have the same parents.

How Genetics Can Help Us

Genetics can help us understand a lot about health and disease. For example, it can help us:

• Understand the underlying cause of diseases
• Understand why some people are more likely to get certain diseases than others
• Develop new treatments for diseases
• Prevent genetic disorders

Conclusion

Genetics is a powerful tool that can help us understand a lot about health and disease. As the field continues to grow, we can expect to see even more benefits from this research. Genetics and its Applications

Genetics is the study of how traits are passed down from parents to offspring. It can be divided into several branches, including:

1. Cytogenetics: This field studies the structure of the nucleus of a cell and its parts, including chromosomes.
2. Molecular and Developmental Genetics: This field studies the molecular structure of genetic material, how it affects embryonic development, and how it functions in normal and abnormal conditions.
3. Eugenics: This field applies the principles of heredity to improve human health and well-being.
4. Physiological Genetics: This field studies how genetic material controls the normal functions of various cell organelles.
5. Population Genetics: This field studies how genetic material is distributed and behaves within a population.

Genetics has many practical applications, including:

1. Counseling and antenatal diagnosis: Genetic counseling can help individuals and families understand their risk of developing genetic disorders and make informed decisions about reproduction. Antenatal diagnosis can be used to identify genetic disorders in a fetus before birth.
2. Legal problems: Genetics can be used to solve legal problems such as disputed parentage or the identification of criminals.
3. Agriculture: Genetics can be used to develop crops that are more resistant to pests and diseases, and that produce higher yields.
4. Medicine: Genetics can be used to develop new treatments for genetic disorders and to identify individuals who are at risk of developing certain diseases.

Genetics is a rapidly growing field, and new discoveries are being made all the time. As our understanding of genetics increases, so too will its potential to improve our lives. 6. Clinical Genetics:

• This field uses knowledge about genetic material to understand diseases and how they pass from one generation to another.
• It also includes methods for diagnosing and preventing genetic disorders.

7. Environmental Genetics:

• This field focuses on changing genetic material in living things using advanced technologies like genetic engineering and recombinant DNA.

8. Radiation Genetics:

• This field studies how different types of radiation affect genetic material and can cause diseases.

9. Biochemical Genetics:

• This field looks at the biochemistry of genetic material and how it affects normal metabolic processes.
• It also includes immunogenetics and blood groups, which are related to the genetic material that produces antigens and antibodies.

10. Genetic Counselling:

• This field provides advice and support to individuals and families about genetic conditions and their implications. Genetic Counseling:

A genetic counselor, also known as a medical geneticist, helps people understand and manage genetic disorders. They provide information about the causes, risks, and recurrence of inherited conditions, as well as the potential effects of radiation and mutant viral strains used in biological warfare. Some newer drugs, including anticancer medications, can also cause genetic problems due to mutations, and genetic counselors can help patients understand these risks.

Human Diet:

A balanced diet is one that contains all the essential nutrients the human body needs to grow and function properly. For an average adult, a balanced diet should provide around 3000 calories per day and include all essential elements in the right proportions. This means consuming approximately 400-500 grams of carbohydrates, 70 grams of protein, and 75 grams of fat daily. The ratio of fat, protein, and carbohydrates should be around 1:1:4. Food and Nutrition

• Food should be easy to digest and cooked well to kill any harmful bacteria.
• Growing children, nursing mothers, and people with certain diseases need more carbohydrates, proteins, and fat.
• A sportsman needs two and a half times more carbohydrates than an ordinary person.

Vitamins

Vitamin	Source	Deficiency results in
Vitamin A	Animal fat, eggs, carrots, mangoes, papayas, tomatoes, spinach, whole milk	Poor growth, rough and dry skin, less resistance to infection, and night blindness
Vitamin B Complex	Brewer’s yeast, cereals, eggs, fruits, liver, meat, pulses	Poor growth, beri-beri, pellagra, and diarrhoea
Vitamin C	Fresh fruit, oranges, lemons, milk, fresh vegetables	Sore mouth and gums, capillary bleeding, delayed healing of wounds, and scurvy
Vitamin D	Oily fish, dairy products, and sunlight	Weak bones and teeth, and rickets in children

Vitamin	Sources	Deficiency Diseases
Vitamin A	Products, eggs, milk, sun’s rays, butter	Rickets in children, osteomalacia and osteoporosis in adults
Vitamin E	Wheat germ, milk, cereals, egg yolk, beef, liver, mutton, spinach, soyabeans	Thought to interfere with reproduction and also causes certain degenerative diseases of the nervous system, liver damage, haemorrhage; also abortion, menstruation irregularities
Vitamin K	Green leafy vegetables, oats, fish, rye, peas	Delayed clotting of blood, liver damage, increased tendency to haemorrhage
Vitamin P	In almost all sources of vitamin C like oranges, lemons and other citrus fruits.	Unhealthy blood capillaries

Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

AIDS is a deadly disease that attacks the body’s immune system. It was first reported in the United States in early 1981 and quickly spread worldwide, causing a global health crisis. The World Health Organization (WHO) is deeply concerned about the impact of AIDS and is working to prevent its spread and find a cure. - During the 1980s, the world faced a serious health challenge: a deadly and incurable disease called AIDS.

• Causes: AIDS is caused by a virus called HIV-III, which attacks and weakens the body’s immune system. At first, it was thought to be a sexually transmitted disease found only in homosexual men. But later, it was discovered that the main ways AIDS spreads are:

1. Sharing needles for injecting drugs
2. Receiving blood transfusions with infected blood
3. Anal sex, which can cause tiny tears in the skin and make it easier for the virus to enter the body
4. Having unprotected sex with an infected person

• Symptoms: People with AIDS often get a severe lung infection called Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and a type of skin cancer called Kaposi’s Sarcoma. These complications, along with brain damage and severe diarrhea, can lead to death.

• Treatment: Unfortunately, there is no cure for AIDS yet. However, Encouraging Results with AZT

• AZT (short for 3-azido-3-deoxythymidine) is a medication that has shown promising results in treating AIDS.

• It is taken orally four times a day.

• However, its long-term effects are still unknown.

• AZT does not cure AIDS, but it can help control the multiplication of the virus.

Efforts to Develop a Vaccine

• Scientists are working to develop a vaccine against AIDS.
• Even if a vaccine is successfully developed, it will not be available for general use until at least 1999.

Common Diseases

Malaria

• Malaria is a tropical disease that is spread by mosquitoes.
• It is caused by a parasite called Plasmodium.
• Symptoms of malaria include shivering, fever, and repeated attacks that can lead to an enlarged spleen, anemia, pigmentation of the face, and general weakness.
• Malaria can be treated with medications such as quinine or plaurdine.
• Prevention involves keeping the environment free from mosquitoes.

Tuberculosis

• Tuberculosis is an infectious disease that is spread through the air.

• It is caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

• Symptoms of tuberculosis include coughing, fever, weight loss, and fatigue.

• Tuberculosis can be treated with antibiotics.

• Prevention involves avoiding contact with people who have tuberculosis and getting vaccinated. Tuberculosis

• Cause: Tuberculosis is caused by a type of bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It was discovered by Robert Koch in the mid-19th century. People who are malnourished, have weak chests, or live and work in unhealthy conditions are more likely to get tuberculosis.

• Symptoms: People with tuberculosis may feel weak, have a fever (usually in the evening), and cough. They may also cough up blood.

• Cure/Prevention: Tuberculosis can be treated with antibiotics, such as streptomycin. Surgery may also be necessary. Tuberculosis can be prevented by getting the BCG vaccine and living and working in a healthy environment. The BCG vaccine was developed in 1906 by Calmette and Guerin in Paris.

Cholera

• Cause: Cholera is an acute epidemic disease that is spread through water and food. It is caused by a bacteria called Vibrio cholerae. People who are exposed to cold weather, have an empty stomach for a long time, or eat unripe or overripe fruits or stale food are more likely to get cholera.

• Symptoms: People with cholera may vomit, have stomach pain, and have frequent loose stools. They may also have a fever and lose consciousness.

• Cure/Prevention: Cholera can be treated by avoiding contaminated food and water. It can also be prevented by getting the cholera vaccine. Tetanus

• Cause: Tetanus is caused by bacteria called Bacillus tetanus and Clostridum tetani. These bacteria live in soil, dust, and animal manure. Tetanus can occur when a deep wound is exposed to these bacteria.

• Symptoms: Tetanus causes painful muscle contractions, usually starting in the neck and jaw. These contractions can spread to other parts of the body and can lead to paralysis.

• Treatment/Prevention: Tetanus can be prevented by getting vaccinated against the disease. If you have a deep wound, it is important to clean it thoroughly and seek medical attention to prevent tetanus infection.

Diphtheria

• Cause: Diphtheria is caused by a bacterium called Corynebacterium diphtheria. This bacterium infects the throat and can cause a thick, gray membrane to form on the back of the throat.
• Symptoms: Diphtheria can cause a sore throat, fever, and difficulty breathing. In severe cases, diphtheria can lead to paralysis and death.
• Treatment/Prevention: Diphtheria can be prevented by getting vaccinated against the disease. If you have symptoms of diphtheria, it is important to seek medical attention immediately.

Typhoid

• Cause: Typhoid is caused by a bacterium called Salmonella typhi. This bacterium is spread through contaminated food and water.
• Symptoms: Typhoid can cause a fever, headache, muscle aches, and diarrhea. In severe cases, typhoid can lead to dehydration, malnutrition, and death.
• Treatment/Prevention: Typhoid can be prevented by getting vaccinated against the disease. It is also important to practice good hygiene, such as washing your hands frequently and avoiding contaminated food and water. Food and water contamination

Food and water can become contaminated with bacteria from sewage or from people who don’t wash their hands properly. This can cause illnesses such as:

• Typhoid fever: Symptoms include fever, slow pulse, abdominal tenderness, and a rose-colored rash.
• Plague: Symptoms include acute body ache, reddish eyes, sudden rise of temperature, and inflammation of neck glands and glands in armpit and thighs.
• Typhus: Symptoms include high fever, skin eruptions, and severe headache.

Prevention

To prevent these illnesses, it is important to:

• Wash your hands frequently with soap and water.
• Drink only clean water.
• Avoid eating raw or undercooked food.
• Get vaccinated against typhoid fever and plague if you are traveling to an area where these diseases are common.

Treatment

If you think you may have one of these illnesses, it is important to see a doctor right away. Treatment may include antibiotics, rest, and fluids. Sulphonamides and antibiotics

Sulphonamides and antibiotics are medicines that are used to treat bacterial infections. They work by killing or stopping the growth of bacteria.

Pneumonia

Pneumonia is an infection of the lungs. It is caused by bacteria called Diplococus pneumonia. Symptoms of pneumonia include chills, pain in the chest, rusty sputum, rapid breathing, and abdominal pain. Pneumonia can be treated with antibiotics.

Gonorrhoea

Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted infection (STI). It is caused by bacteria called Neisseria gonorrhea. Symptoms of gonorrhoea include redness, swelling, and pus discharge through the urethra (the tube that carries urine out of the body), and painful urination. Gonorrhoea can be treated with antibiotics such as penicillin G or tetracycline.

Syphillis

Syphillis is an STI caused by bacteria called Treponema pallidum. It is transmitted through sexual contact with an infected person. Symptoms of syphillis include a hard, painless sore on the genitalia, and a skin eruption. Syphillis can be treated with penicillin.

Whooping Cough

Whooping cough is a respiratory infection that is caused by bacteria called Nemophilus pertusis. It is spread through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Symptoms of whooping cough include a severe cough, usually at night. Whooping cough can be prevented by immunizing infants with immunity serum.

Some Blood Diseases

Anaemia is a condition where the red blood cells (RBCs) are seriously reduced in number or are deficient in haemoglobin. Symptoms of anaemia include fatigue, weakness, pale skin, and shortness of breath. Anaemia can be treated with iron supplements or blood transfusions. Leukemia (Blood Cancer):

• Leukemia is a type of cancer that starts in the bone marrow.
• It causes the body to make too many white blood cells (WBCs).
• These extra WBCs crowd out the red blood cells (RBCs), which carry oxygen to the body’s tissues.
• This can lead to anemia, which is a condition in which the body doesn’t have enough healthy RBCs.
• Leukemia is usually incurable, but bone marrow transplants can sometimes help.

Agranulocytosis:

• Agranulocytosis is a condition in which the body has too few WBCs.
• This can make the body more likely to get infections.
• Agranulocytosis can be caused by certain medications, radiation therapy, or autoimmune diseases.
• It can be treated with antibiotics and other medications.

Thrombocytopenia:

• Thrombocytopenia is a condition in which the body has too few platelets.
• Platelets are cells that help the blood to clot.
• Thrombocytopenia can be caused by certain medications, radiation therapy, or autoimmune diseases.
• It can be treated with platelet transfusions and other medications.

Hemophilia:

• Hemophilia is a rare bleeding disorder that is passed down from parents to their children.
• It is almost always seen in males.
• Hemophilia is caused by a lack of a protein that helps the blood to clot.
• This can lead to easy bruising and bleeding, which can be life-threatening.
• Hemophilia can be treated with clotting factor concentrates and other medications.

Hemorrhage:

• Hemorrhage is the loss of blood from the body.

• It can be caused by a variety of injuries, such as cuts, bruises, or broken bones.

• Hemorrhage can also be caused by certain medical conditions, such as bleeding disorders or cancer.

• Severe hemorrhage can be life-threatening. Blood can leak from blood vessels. This can happen because of external wounds, or it can happen inside the body. When blood leaks inside the body, it can collect in the tissues or escape into the body cavity. Presbyopia:

• Presbyopia is a common condition that affects most people after the age of 40-42.

• It causes difficulty in reading and working with objects close at hand.

• Presbyopia can be corrected by using convex lenses.

Conjunctivitis:

• Conjunctivitis is an inflammation of the eyes.
• It causes itchiness and reddening of the eyes, making them sensitive to light.
• Conjunctivitis can be treated with a simple solution of weak salt water or boric acid.
• Antibiotic eyedrops may also be prescribed.

Trachoma:

• Trachoma is a bacterial infection of the eyes.
• It is caused by a germ called chlamydiae and spreads by direct contact.
• Trachoma affects both eyes and causes mild itching and irritation.
• Trachoma can be treated with oral tetracycline antibiotics.

Cataract:

• Cataract is a condition in which the lens of the eye becomes cloudy.
• It occurs with aging and causes progressive blurring of vision.
• Distant vision is mostly affected, while near vision may be improved in the early stages.
• Cataracts can be treated with surgery called lens extraction. Skin Rash: Some foods can cause skin rashes. Allergies can also be triggered by materials like the color of clothes and furnishings.

Arthritis: This is a condition where the joints become inflamed.

Asthma: This is a respiratory problem where the bronchial tubes become narrow. It can be caused by infections or allergies to dust and other particles in the air.

Bronchitis: This is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes caused by bacteria or viruses. It can be fatal for infants and can also occur as a secondary infection in adults.

Cancer: This is a condition where body cells grow abnormally, often forming malignant tumors. There are many causes of cancer, and some types are still incurable.

Diabetes: This is a condition where there is too much sugar in the body because the pancreas (a digestive gland) is not producing enough insulin to control blood sugar levels. Treatment for diabetes involves a controlled diet (low in carbohydrates) and taking insulin.

Epilepsy: This is a condition where a person experiences sudden and periodic loss of consciousness, often accompanied by convulsions, due to abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Sorders

• Glandular Fever (Mumps): A sickness that makes the glands in the neck swell up and causes a high fever. It’s common in kids and young adults and is likely caused by a virus.

• Hepatitis: A disease that affects the liver. It can be caused by infections or inflammation. The main symptom is jaundice, which makes the skin and eyes turn yellow.

• Hernia: A weakness in the muscles around an organ that lets it bulge out. It’s often found in the groin area and can be fixed with surgery.

• Jaundice: A condition where there’s too much bilirubin (a substance made by the liver) in the blood. It causes the skin, eyes, and urine to turn yellow.

• Leukemia: Also known as blood cancer.

• Measles: A contagious disease caused by a virus. It causes a red rash on the body and a fever. It usually goes away after about ten days.

• Migraine: A severe headache that can cause problems with vision and speech. It’s often accompanied by nausea.

• Pellagra: A disease caused by a lack of nicotinic acid (a type of vitamin B). Symptoms include diarrhea, mental confusion, and skin problems. Osteomalacia:

• A disease caused by a lack of Vitamin D.

• Bones become soft and weak, leading to pain and frequent fractures.

• The backbone may bend.

Pleurisy:

• Inflammation of the thin layer of tissue that covers the lungs and lines the chest cavity.

Rabies:

• A viral disease spread through the saliva of infected animals.
• Symptoms include seizures and a fear of water (hydrophobia).

Ringworm:

• A skin disease that causes round, itchy patches on the skin.
• Spreads through contact with an infected person or animal or through the air.

Scarlet Fever:

• Caused by a bacterial infection.
• Symptoms include fever, sore throat, and a red rash.

Slipped Disc:

• A painful condition where a cartilage disc in the spine moves out of place and presses on a nerve.

Small Pox:

• A contagious viral disease common in children.
• Causes a rash of small blisters that leave permanent scars on the skin.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) launched a campaign in the 1960s to eradicate smallpox, and it was successful. Smallpox Eradication: In the 1960s and 1970s, a global effort was made to eliminate smallpox through widespread vaccination. By 1980, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared smallpox to be the first disease to be completely eradicated from the world.

Thrombosis: Thrombosis occurs when a blood clot forms in a blood vessel or the heart, potentially leading to the death of the patient.

Ulcer: An ulcer is an open sore that develops on the skin or the lining of a body cavity. Peptic ulcers specifically refer to ulcers that form in the food pipe and are often associated with indigestion and mental stress. They are common among individuals working in industrial societies.

Common Drugs:

• Anesthetics: Anesthetics are drugs that block sensory nerves, causing a patient to become fully unconscious and unable to feel pain. Local anesthetics numb a specific area temporarily and are used during surgical operations. Examples of anesthetics include chloroform, ether, and sodium pentothal.

• Analgesics: Analgesics are drugs used to prevent or relieve pain. Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) and analgesic tablets are common examples of analgesics.

• Antibiotics: Antibiotics are drugs used to prevent or treat infections caused by bacteria. They work by killing or inhibiting the growth of bacteria. Examples of antibiotics include penicillin, amoxicillin, and erythromycin. Antibiotics: These drugs are used to kill or stop the growth of bacteria in the body. Some common antibiotics include penicillin and terramycin.

Antihistamines: These drugs are used to relieve symptoms of allergies, such as sneezing, runny nose, and itchy eyes.

Antipyretics: These drugs are used to lower body temperature when someone has a fever.

Hormones: These drugs are used to replace hormones that the body is not producing enough of. For example, people with diabetes may take insulin, and people with low blood pressure may take adrenalin.

Narcotics: These drugs are used to relieve pain. They can be addictive, so they are only used when other pain relievers don’t work. Some common narcotics include opium, codeine, heroin, and morphine.

Sedatives: These drugs are used to help people sleep. They can also be used to calm people down who are anxious or agitated. Some common sedatives include barbiturates and bromides.

Tranquilizers: These drugs are used to calm the nervous system and relieve anxiety. They can also be used to help people sleep. Some common tranquilizers include benzodiazepines and antipsychotics.

Vaccines: These drugs are used to help the body develop immunity to a disease. They are given as shots or injections. What is a computer?

A computer is a machine that can read and write, calculate and compare, and store and process large amounts of data quickly, accurately, and reliably.

How does a computer work?

Computers work by following a set of instructions, called a program. These instructions are stored in the computer’s memory, and the computer follows them one by one.

What are the two main types of computers?

There are two main types of computers: analog and digital. Analog computers use continuous signals to represent data, while digital computers use discrete signals. Digital computers are more common today because they are more accurate and reliable.

What are the main components of a computer?

The main components of a computer are the processor, memory, storage, input devices, and output devices.

• The processor is the brain of the computer. It controls all of the other components and performs calculations.
• Memory is used to store data and instructions.
• Storage is used to store data that is not currently being used by the computer.
• Input devices are used to enter data into the computer.
• Output devices are used to display or print data from the computer.

How do I use a computer?

To use a computer, you need to first turn it on. Then, you can use the mouse and keyboard to enter data and instructions. You can also use the computer to access the Internet, play games, and create documents. How a Computer Works

A computer is an electronic device that can be programmed to carry out a set of instructions. The basic components of a computer are:

• Memory: This is where the computer stores data and programs.
• Mass storage device: This is where the computer stores data permanently.
• Input device: This is how the user enters data and instructions into the computer.
• Output device: This is how the computer displays the results of its calculations.
• Central processing unit (CPU): This is the brain of the computer. It controls all of the other components and carries out the instructions that are given to it.

How a Computer Processes Data

When you enter data into a computer, it is stored in memory. The CPU then reads the data from memory and performs the calculations that are necessary to produce the desired results. The results are then stored back in memory.

How a Computer Outputs Data

When you want to see the results of your calculations, you can use an output device to display them. The most common output devices are monitors and printers.

How a Computer Works Automatically

Computers use electronic components to perform their tasks. These components include transistors, resistors, diodes, and circuits. These components work together to automatically carry out the instructions that are given to the computer. The component that actually carries out instructions is called the execution unit.

In addition to these main components, many other parts help these components work together efficiently. For example, every computer needs a bus, which is like a highway that carries data from one part of the computer to another.

Computers can be divided into different types based on their size and power. Here are some common types:

1. Personal Computer (PC): A small computer designed for one person to use. It has a microprocessor, a keyboard for typing, a monitor for seeing things, and a storage device for saving information.
2. Workstation: A more powerful computer than a PC, also meant for one person to use. It has a faster microprocessor and a better monitor.
3. Minicomputer: A computer that can be used by many people at the same time. It can support from 10 to hundreds of users.
4. Mainframe: A very powerful computer that can support hundreds or even thousands of users at the same time. Integrated Circuit (IC):

• A tiny electronic device made of semiconductor material.
• Invented in the 1950s by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce.

Five Generations of Computers:

• Computer history is often divided into five generations based on major technological advancements.
• Each generation brought smaller, cheaper, more powerful, and more reliable computers.
• Our journey starts in 1940 with vacuum tubes and goes to the present day with artificial intelligence.

First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes

• Early computers used vacuum tubes for processing and storing data.

• They were large, expensive, and not very reliable. First Generation Computers (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes and Magnetic Drums

• First-generation computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. They were huge, taking up entire rooms.

• They were costly to run, consuming a lot of electricity and producing a lot of heat, which could cause malfunctions.

• These computers used machine language, the most basic programming language that computers can understand, to perform tasks. They could only solve one problem at a time.

• Data was entered using punched cards or paper tape, and results were printed on paper.

• Examples of first-generation computers include the UNIVAC and ENIAC. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer, delivered to the US Census Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation Computers (1956-1963): Transistors

• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers. Transistors were invented in 1947 but were not widely used in computers until the late 1950s.

• Transistors were much smaller, more reliable, and more energy-efficient than vacuum tubes. They allowed computers to become smaller, faster, and more powerful.

• Second-generation computers used assembly language, a more advanced programming language that was easier to understand than machine language. This allowed programmers to write more complex programs.

• Input and output devices became more sophisticated, including magnetic tape, disk drives, and printers.

• Examples of second-generation computers include the IBM 1401 and the DEC PDP-1. Third Generation (1964-1971): Integrated Circuits

• The transistor was a big improvement over the vacuum tube, making computers smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient, and more reliable.

• However, transistors still generated a lot of heat, which could damage the computer.

• Second-generation computers still used punched cards for input and printouts for output.

• They also used symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to write instructions in words instead of binary code.

• High-level programming languages, such as COBOL and FORTRAN, were also being developed at this time.

• These computers stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from magnetic drums to magnetic core technology.

• The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry. Third Generation of Computers (1964-1971): Integrated Circuits

• Computers became smaller and more powerful with the development of integrated circuits.

• Instead of using punched cards and printouts, people used keyboards and monitors to interact with computers.

• Computers could now run multiple programs at the same time, thanks to operating systems.

• Computers became more affordable and accessible to the general public.

Fourth Generation of Computers (1971-Present): Microprocessors

• Microprocessors made computers even smaller and more powerful.

• Thousands of integrated circuits could now fit on a single silicon chip.

• The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, was the first microprocessor.

• Microprocessors made it possible to develop personal computers, which became widely available in the 1980s. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence

• Computers today are based on artificial intelligence (AI). AI is still being developed, but some applications, like voice recognition, are already in use.

• Parallel processing and superconductors are helping to make AI a reality.

• Quantum computing is a new technology that could make AI even more powerful. Computers of the Future

In the future, computers will be very different from the ones we use today. They will be much smaller, more powerful, and able to do things that we can’t even imagine.

Fifth-Generation Computing

One of the most important goals of computer scientists is to develop fifth-generation computers. These computers will be able to understand natural language, learn from their mistakes, and organize themselves.

Computer Hardware

Computer hardware refers to the physical parts of a computer, such as the disks, disk drives, display screens, keyboards, printers, boards, and chips.

Computer Software

Computer software refers to the instructions or data that tell the computer what to do. Software is anything that can be stored electronically. Software and Hardware

• Software and hardware are two essential components of a computer.
• Software is the set of instructions that tells the computer what to do, while hardware is the physical components of the computer that carry out those instructions.
• Software is often divided into two categories:
• Systems software includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the computer to function.
• Applications software includes programs that do real work for users, such as word processors, spreadsheets, and database management systems.

The Difference Between Software and Hardware

• The distinction between software and hardware can sometimes be confusing because they are so closely linked.

• When you purchase a program, you are buying software.

• However, to use the software, you need to have the hardware, such as a computer, on which to run it. ## Application Software

• An application is a program or group of programs designed for the end user.

• Application software includes things like database programs, word processors, web browsers, and spreadsheets.

• Applications software cannot run without the operating system and system utilities.

System Software

• System software refers to the operating system and all utility programs that manage computer resources at a low level.
• Systems software includes compilers, loaders, linkers, and debuggers.

Software Package

• A software package is a collection of software programs that are sold together.
• Software packages can include both application software and system software. Installing Software

Installing software on a computer is like adding new tools to your toolbox. It’s a way of giving your computer new abilities or updating existing ones. On a Mac, a software package is like a special folder that contains all the information the computer needs to install the software. It includes the software itself and any files needed during the installation process. In Windows, it’s sometimes called an installation package or update package.

Software Packages

A software package is a collection of multiple software programs that work together or perform similar functions. These programs are bundled and sold together as a single package. Computers: Memory and Storage

Computers have a limited amount of internal memory, which is used to store important information. Less important information is stored in external storage devices, such as hard drives and USB drives.

Accuracy

Computers are very accurate. Most errors in computing are caused by humans, not by the machines themselves.

Versatility

Computers can perform almost any task that can be broken down into a series of logical steps. This makes them very versatile machines.

Automation

Once a program is loaded into a computer’s memory, the computer can execute the instructions in the program automatically. This allows computers to perform tasks without human intervention. Diligence: Computers are machines that don’t get tired or lose focus like humans do. They can perform millions of calculations with the same accuracy and speed as the first one.

Computer Architecture:

A typical computer system has three main parts:

1. Input devices: These devices allow people to communicate with the computer. Data that needs to be processed is entered through these devices, such as keyboards, optical character readers, mark readers, and magnetic ink character readers.
2. Output devices: These devices allow the computer to communicate with people. Processed results are retrieved from the system through these devices, such as video display units, printers, and plotters.
3. CPU (Central Processing Unit): The CPU is the brain of the computer. It controls the whole system by coordinating and organizing all the operations of the computer. It follows the instructions given to it by the user. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the brain of the computer. It controls all the other parts of the computer and makes sure they work together properly. The CPU does this by fetching instructions from the primary storage, interpreting them, and then issuing commands to the hardware units that are necessary to carry out the instructions.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The ALU is responsible for performing all the arithmetic and logical operations of the computer. Arithmetic operations are used to compare numbers and include ’less than’, ’equal to’, and ‘greater than’. The ALU can handle text as well as numbers. Some computers are equipped with an arithmetic co-processor, which is a second microprocessor dedicated to performing arithmetic functions only. The advantage of a co-processor is the increased speed of performing calculations.

Memory Unit

The memory unit is used to store data and programs. The whole memory is partitioned into two parts. One part consists of a large number of labeled boxes - one box per data item. The other part consists of a large number of labeled boxes - one box per instruction. The CPU can access any box in memory by using its label. Primary Storage Unit:

• The primary storage unit is the computer’s memory where information is stored temporarily.
• There are two types of memories: ROM and RAM.

ROM (Read-Only Memory):

• ROM contains all the information and instructions needed to make the computer work when it’s turned on.
• This information is put in during manufacturing and stays on the chip permanently.
• ROM can only be read from, not written to.
• It is non-volatile memory, meaning it doesn’t lose its data when the power is turned off.

Types of ROM:

• PROM (Programmable ROM): This type of ROM can be programmed by the user to perform specific functions.
• EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): This type of ROM can be erased and reprogrammed using ultraviolet light.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM): This type of ROM can be erased and reprogrammed using electrical signals.

RAM (Random Access Memory):

• RAM is used to store data and instructions that are being currently processed by the computer.
• RAM is volatile memory, meaning it loses its data when the power is turned off.
• RAM is faster than ROM, but it is also more expensive. Types of Memory

1. ROM (Read-Only Memory):

• These chips can be programmed once and cannot be changed.

2. EEROM (Electrically Erasable ROM):

• Information on these chips can be erased using electrical signals.

3. RAM (Random Access Memory):

• It is volatile memory used to store temporary information.
• RAM can be both written into and read from.

Secondary Storage Devices:

• These devices are used to store data permanently.
• Examples include hard disks, magnetic tapes, floppies, and CD-ROMs.

Input/Output Devices

These devices are essential for communication between the computer and the outside world. They act as an interface between humans and machines.

Input Devices

Keyboard:

• Used to input data directly into the computer.

• Consists of electrical contacts and switches that send signals to the computer when keys are pressed. Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

• OMR can read marks or characters made with a pen or pencil on forms or cards.

• It works by passing the forms or cards under a light source and detecting the pressure of the marks by measuring the infrared light levels.

• OMR is easy to use and does not require any special skills.

• It can be used to collect data at the point where the information first becomes available, such as on a factory floor or building site.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

• MICR uses magnetized ink to create characters that can be read by a machine.

• The magnetized ink induces a current when it is scanned, and the current is proportional to the area of the ink being scanned.

• The patterns of the varying currents can then be compared to known characters and used to read the data. MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition) System:

• MICR uses special fonts designed for magnetic ink recognition.

• Characters must be precisely formed and printed with magnetic ink, which can be expensive.

• MICR readers can identify cheques, but someone still needs to verify information like the amount, recipient, and signature.

OCR (Optical Character Reader):

• OCR examines each character as a collection of tiny dots.
• The scanned pattern is matched against stored patterns in the computer, and the closest match is considered the character read.

Output Units:

• Printers: Used for printing hard copies.
• Plotters: Used for drawing lines. Plotters: These are devices that move a pen under computer control to draw continuous lines and curves. They are used to produce outputs that require high-precision line drawing, such as maps, graphs, mathematical curves, and engineering drawings.

Graphic VDUs: These are video display units that can display output in pictorial form by selecting a suitable combination of axes, scales, and colors. Examples of graphic VDUs include CRT monitors and LCD monitors.

Some Commonly Used Terms:

• Program: A set of instructions given to the computer in a specific sequence to solve a particular problem. It contains actions the computer must perform on data to produce the desired results. Programs are written in computer languages.

• Liveware: The users working on the computer system.

• Firmware: Software embedded into hardware, such as the basic input-output system (BIOS) stored in ROM.

• Compiler: A computer program that translates high-level language code into machine code that the computer can understand. Interpreter: A program that reads and executes each line of a high-level language program one at a time.

Assembler: A program that converts assembly language programs into machine language programs.

Multiprocessing: A type of processing in which multiple processors work together to execute a single program.

Multiprogramming: A type of processing in which multiple programs are loaded into memory at the same time and share the processor’s time.

Distributed Data Processing: A type of processing in which data is processed at multiple locations and shared over a network. Bit: The smallest piece of information a computer can understand. It can only be either a 1 or a 0.

Nibble: A group of four bits.

Byte: A group of eight bits.

Kilobyte (KB): 1024 bytes.

Megabyte (MB): 1024 kilobytes.

Gigabyte (GB): 1024 megabytes.

Word: A group of two or more bytes.

Database: A collection of related data that is organized in a way that makes it easy to find and use.

Time Sharing: A way for multiple users to use the same computer at the same time. Each user gets a small amount of time on the computer, and the operating system switches between users so quickly that it seems like they are all using the computer at the same time. Microprocessor: A small computer chip that can perform arithmetic and logical operations.

Modem: A device that converts computer signals into signals that can be sent over a communication channel, and vice versa.

Low Level Languages:

Machine Language: The language that a computer can understand directly. It is made up of binary codes, which are combinations of zeros and ones.

Assembly Language: A language that is easier for humans to read and write than machine language, but still uses binary codes. Before, there was another language called assembly language that made programming much easier.

• In this language, instructions are written in short codes like ADD, SUB, MPY, DIV, etc.

• Writing programs in assembly language is more convenient for the programmer, but there’s a problem: computers can only understand programs in binary code.

• One way to fix this problem is to use an assembly program. This program translates the program written by the programmer in assembly language into a program in machine language that the computer can understand.

High Level Languages

• These languages are more like the languages we use every day (for example, English or Spanish) than the language of a computer.

• Since computers don’t understand these languages directly, we need special computer programs called compilers and interpreters. These programs translate the high-level language programs into machine language that the computer can understand. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

• Programming languages are like special codes that allow people to tell computers what to do. They make it easier for non-professional programmers, like accountants and scientists, to use computers. Some examples of programming languages include COBOL, FORTRAN, C, C++, ALGOL, and LISP.

OPERATING SYSTEMS

• An operating system is like a traffic controller for your computer. It manages all the different parts of your computer and makes sure they work together smoothly. It also provides an environment where you can run programs and use your computer efficiently. Some examples of operating systems include DOS, UNIX, XENIX, and WINDOWS.

USES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

• Operating systems are essential for using a computer. They provide the means to properly use the hardware, software, and data on your computer. Just like a government, the operating system doesn’t do anything useful on its own, but it makes sure everything else works together smoothly. Functions of an Operating System

• Resource Allocator: A computer system has many resources, such as hardware and software, that may be needed to solve a problem. These resources include CPU time, memory space, file storage space, and input/output devices. The operating system acts as the manager of these resources and gives them to specific programs and users as needed. The operating system must decide which requests are most important so that the computer system can run efficiently and fairly.

• Control Program: The operating system controls how user programs run to stop errors and improper use of the computer. It does this by controlling how programs work in multiprogramming, multiprocessing, and time-sharing environments.

Networking

• Networking is when terminals are connected to a server, and each terminal has its own processor.

Advantages of Networking

1. Sharing of Data: Data can be shared between different terminals.
2. Transfer of Files: Files can be transferred between different terminals without the need for physical media, such as floppy disks or USB drives. Floppies

Floppies are a type of storage device that was popular in the past. They are made of a thin, flexible plastic disk that is coated with a magnetic material. Data is stored on the disk by magnetizing small areas of the coating.

Advantages of floppies:

• Distinct advantage in medicine, engineering, etc. Floppies are still used in some medical and engineering applications because they are reliable and can be easily transported.
• Data security. Floppies are a relatively secure way to store data because they are not easily hacked.
• Less memory usage. Floppies use less memory than other storage devices, such as hard drives.
• Common hardware, software resources, for example, printers, memory. Floppies can be used with a variety of hardware and software, including printers and memory.
• Less expensive. Floppies are less expensive than other storage devices.

Types of networks:

There are three main types of networks:

• LAN (Local Area Network) A LAN is a network that connects computers and other devices in a limited area, such as a building or a campus.
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) A MAN is a network that connects computers and other devices in a larger area, such as a city or a town.
• WAN (Wide Area Network) A WAN is a network that connects computers and other devices over a large distance, such as a country or the world.

LAN components:

A LAN consists of the following three components:

• Medium: The medium is the physical path over which data travels. It can be a wired medium, such as a copper cable or a fiber optic cable, or a wireless medium, such as radio waves.
• Network Interface Unit (NIU) The NIU is a device that connects a computer to the LAN medium.
• Network Software: The network software is a set of programs that allows computers to communicate with each other over the LAN. Computer Networks

Computer networks connect different computers so that they can share information and resources. A part of the software that makes this possible is located in the network interface unit.

LAN Configurations

There are three main types of LAN configurations:

• Star Configuration: In this setup, all the computers are connected to a central device called a hub. This creates a star-like shape when drawn out.
• Bus Configuration: In this setup, all the computers are connected to a single cable. There is no central device.
• Ring Configuration: In this setup, the computers are connected in a series, forming a complete ring. Data flows from one computer to the next until it reaches its destination.

The Internet

The Internet is a vast network of computer networks. It is estimated that there are over 100 million Internet users worldwide, and that number is expected to grow to half of the world’s population by 2015. The Internet is accessible in over 150 countries. - There are over a million computers called web servers all over the world.

• An average web page has about 500 words, and there are between 50 and 80 million web pages.
• The average person who uses the internet is 35.2 years old and mostly uses it from home.
• No one company, organization, or government owns or pays for the internet.
• It doesn’t have a CEO or charge money for its services.
• A group of volunteers called the Internet Society (ISOC) runs the internet.
• The ISOC has a smaller group called the Internet Architecture Board (IAB) that decides on things like standards, network resources, and network addresses.
• Another volunteer group called the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) takes care of the day-to-day operations of the internet.
• Basically, the internet is made up of people, computers, and software.
• If you have the right equipment, you can use your computer to talk to someone anywhere in the world. ## How Did it Originate?

The Internet started as a small network of computers in the 1960s. It was created by the US Department of Defense so that scientists could share information. By the 1980s, more and more computers were connected to the Internet, and it began to be used for commercial purposes.

Here are some of the major milestones in the development of the Internet:

• In 1969, ARPAnet, a network of four computers, was created by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the US Department of Defense.

• By 1971, ARPAnet linked almost 2 dozen sites, including MIT and Harvard.

• By 1974, there were over 200 sites connected to ARPAnet.

• During the 1980s, more and more computers using different operating systems were connected to the Internet.

• In 1983, the military portion of ARPAnet was moved to a separate network called MILnet, and ARPAnet was officially opened to non-military use. In the late 1980s:

• The National Science Foundation (NSF) created its own computer network called NSFnet.

• Only a small group of people, like computer scientists and university professors, could use NSFnet.

In 1991:

• A US senator named Al Gore wanted to make NSFnet available to more schools and colleges.
• A new law was passed that changed the name of NSFnet to NREN (National Research and Educational Network).
• Businesses were now allowed to buy parts of NREN for their own use.
• This law helped to make the Internet what it is today.

In 1992:

• The World Wide Web was created.

In 1993:

• A group called the National Center for Supercomputing Applications released a program called Mosaic.
• Mosaic was the first web browser that could show pictures and text together.

In 1994:

• A company called Netscape Communications released a web browser called Netscape Navigator.

In 1995:

• Microsoft released its own web browser called Internet Explorer. ## Internet Explorer

• By mid-1997, Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator were competing to be the most popular web browser.

How to Access the Internet

• To access the Internet, you need a computer with a modem connected to a phone line.

• You also need a computer with a 68040 or higher CPU (for Macintosh) or an 80486 or higher CPU (for PC).

• You will also need:

• At least 4 megabytes of RAM (8 is recommended)

• A 250-megabyte hard drive

• A 14.4-bps modem (28.8 or faster is even better)

• An Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides access to the Internet. Some ISPs also provide content and email.

• National, local, and regional companies provide Internet access. ISPs usually charge a monthly subscription fee.

Internet Resources

• What you can do on the Internet depends on which resource you access. E-mail:

• E-mail is a way to send messages over the internet.

• To send an e-mail, you need to know the recipient’s e-mail address.

E-mail address:

• An e-mail address is made up of three parts:
• Username: This is the name of the person or organization that owns the e-mail address.
• Service: This is the name of the company that provides the e-mail service.
• Domain: This is the name of the country or organization that the e-mail address belongs to.

Domains:

• Domains are identified in the Domain Name Service (DNS).
• The InterNIC (Internet Network Information Center) manages the task of registering domain names.

Common domains:

Domain	What it is
com	A commercial organization, business, or company
edu	An educational institution
gov	A nonmilitary government entity
int	An international organization
mil	A military organization

Extension	Meaning
.com	Commercial organization
.net	Network administration
.org	Other organization
.res	Research institute

Country Code Top-Level Domains (ccTLDs)

In general, the last part of a domain name shows the country where the site is located. For example:

• .in for India
• .jp for Japan
• .uk for the United Kingdom

The World Wide Web

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a system that allows users to access information on the Internet. It was created in the early 1990s at the European Center for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Switzerland.

The WWW is made up of text, graphics, audio, animation, and video. Websites can be accessed using a web browser, which is a software program that allows users to view and interact with web pages.

How the World Wide Web Works

The WWW works using three main components:

• Servers: Computers that store and deliver web pages.
• Clients: Computers that access web pages.
• Networks: The connections that allow servers and clients to communicate. Ver:
• Ver is a computer program that shares data with other computers on the same or different networks. It acts like a “server” that provides information to other computers, called “clients.”

Network:

• A network is a group of connected computers that can communicate with each other.

Communication Methods:

• Computers in a network can communicate through various means, such as copper wires, coaxial cables, fiber-optic cables, or satellite transmissions.

Browser:

• A browser is a software program that allows you to access information on the internet. When you visit a website, you use your browser to retrieve files from that site.

Accessing a File:

• To open and access a file on the internet, follow these steps:
  1. In your browser, type the address (URL) of the website you want to visit.
  2. Your browser sends a request to your internet service provider’s server.
  3. The server forwards the request to the server at the specified URL.
  4. The requested file is sent back to your internet service provider’s server, which then sends it to your browser. Finally, the browser displays the file on your screen.

Types of Internet Connections:

• As technology advances, we have various options for connecting to the internet, including:
  • Dial-up: Uses a telephone line to connect to the internet.
  • DSL: Provides faster internet speeds than dial-up using a telephone line.
  • Cable: Offers high-speed internet access through cable television lines.
  • Fiber-optic: Delivers extremely fast internet speeds using fiber-optic cables.
  • Satellite: Allows internet access in remote areas through satellite connections. The Internet has come a long way in the past ten years. In the early days, we were amazed by websites that could center text, bold it, and use different colors. Today, we expect websites to have Flash animations, online gaming, streaming HD video, and more.

The need for speed has also changed the way we connect to the Internet. In the past, we were limited to dial-up connections, which were slow and unreliable. Today, we have a variety of options, including DSL, cable, and fiber optic, which offer much faster speeds.

The connection speeds listed below are just a snapshot of the average speeds available at the time of publication. These speeds can vary depending on your location and your Internet service provider (ISP).

Analog

Dial-up Internet Access: Dial-up is a slow but affordable way to connect to the Internet. It uses a modem to connect your computer to a phone line. Dial-up Connection:

• The computer calls a phone number (given by your internet service provider) and connects to the network.
• Dial-up uses regular telephone lines, so the connection quality can be inconsistent, and data transfer speeds are limited.
• Typical dial-up speeds range from 2400 bits per second (bps) to 56 kilobits per second (kbps).
• Dial-up has been largely replaced by faster broadband connections like cable and DSL.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN):

• ISDN is a global communication standard for sending voice, video, and data over digital telephone lines or regular telephone wires.
• ISDN speeds typically range from 64 kbps to 128 kbps.

Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN):

• B-ISDN is similar to ISDN, but it transmits data over fiber optic telephone lines instead of regular telephone lines. Phone Wires

• SONET is the main physical network that carries B-ISDN signals. Broadband ISDN has not been widely used.

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

• DSL is often called an “always on” connection because it uses the existing 2-wire copper telephone line connected to your home. This means you can use DSL and your landline phone at the same time, unlike a dial-up connection.
• The two main types of DSL for home users are ADSL and SDSL. All DSL technologies are collectively referred to as xDSL. xDSL connection speeds range from 128 kbps to 9 mbps.

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)

• ADSL is the most common type of DSL in North America.

• ADSL stands for asymmetric digital subscriber line. It supports data rates of 1.5 to 9 mbps when receiving data (downstream rate) and 16 to 640 kbps when sending data (upstream rate). SDSL (Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line)

• SDSL is a technology that allows faster data transfer over existing copper telephone lines.

• It supports data rates up to 3 megabits per second (mbps).

• SDSL works by sending digital signals in the high-frequency range of telephone wires, so it can’t be used at the same time as voice calls on the same line.

• To use SDSL, you need a special SDSL modem.

• SDSL is called “symmetric” because it provides the same data rates for both uploading and downloading.

VDSL (Very High DSL)

• VDSL is a DSL technology that offers high data rates over short distances.
• The shorter the distance, the faster the connection speed.

Cable-Broadband Internet Connection

• Cable Internet uses cable TV lines to provide broadband Internet access.

• It works by using TV channel space to transmit data. Cable Internet Connections

• Cable Internet uses the same coaxial cables as cable TV.

• Since these cables have a lot more bandwidth than telephone lines, cable Internet can be much faster.

• However, cable providers often limit the speed of their connections to manage the amount of traffic on their networks.

• Cable Internet speeds can range from 512 kilobits per second (kbps) to 20 megabits per second (mbps).

Wireless Internet Connections

• Wireless Internet uses radio waves to connect to the Internet instead of cables.
• This means you can access the Internet from anywhere within range of a wireless network.
• However, wireless Internet can be more expensive than other types of connections, and it may not be available in all areas. T-1 Lines: A Leased Line Option

T-1 lines are a popular choice for businesses that need a dedicated phone connection to the Internet. They offer data rates of 1.544 megabits per second (mbps).

A T-1 line is actually made up of 24 individual channels, each of which can support 64 kilobits per second (kbps) of data. This means that you can use a T-1 line to carry both voice and data traffic.

Most telephone companies allow you to buy just one or some of these individual channels. This is called fractional T-1 access.

Bonded T-1 Lines

A bonded T-1 is created by combining two or more T-1 lines together. This increases the amount of bandwidth available. For example, a bonded T-1 made up of two T-1 lines would provide approximately 3 mbps of bandwidth.

Bonded T-1 lines are often used by businesses that need to transfer large amounts of data, such as video or audio files. Bonded T-1s:

• Two bonded T-1s give you a total bandwidth of 3 megabits per second (mbps).
• Each individual T-1 can only use a maximum of 1.5 mbps at a time.
• To bond T-1s, they must run into the same router at the end, which means they must go to the same Internet Service Provider (ISP).
• Typical bonded T-1 speed is around 3 mbps.

T-3 Lines:

• T-3 lines are dedicated phone connections that support data rates of about 43 to 45 mbps.
• A T-3 line is made up of 672 individual channels, each of which supports 64 kilobits per second (kbps).
• T-3 lines are mostly used by ISPs to connect to the Internet backbone and for the backbone itself.
• Typical T-3 speeds range from 43 to 45 mbps.

OC3 (Optical Carrier, level 3):

• OC3 is a term used to describe a specific type of optical fiber connection.

• OC3 connections can support data rates of up to 155 mbps.

• OC3 connections are often used by businesses and organizations that need high-speed Internet access. Speed of Fiber Optic Networks Conforming to the SONET Standard

• OC3: This is a type of fiber optic network that is often used as the backbone for large networks that carry a lot of voice, data, video, and other types of traffic. It has a speed of 155.52 megabits per second (mbps), which is about the same speed as 100 T1 lines.

Internet over Satellite (IoS)

• IoS allows you to access the Internet using a satellite that orbits the Earth.
• The satellite is placed at a fixed point above the Earth’s surface.
• Because the signals have to travel a long distance from the Earth to the satellite and back, IoS is a bit slower than high-speed Internet connections that use copper or fiber optic cables.
• Typical IoS connection speeds are around 492 to 512 kilobits per second (kbps).

Recent Developments

Pen Drive

• A pen drive is a small device that you can attach to your keychain. It can be used to easily transfer files between computers that have USB ports. Thumb Drive

A thumb drive is a small, portable device that can store data. It is about the size of a human thumb and plugs into a computer’s USB port. Thumb drives are rewritable, which means you can save data to them and then erase it and save new data. They do not need a power supply to hold their memory, unlike RAM.

Thumb drives are very convenient because you can easily carry them around with you and plug them into any computer to access your data. They are also very durable and can withstand being dropped or bumped.

Flash Drive

A flash drive is a type of thumb drive that uses flash memory to store data. Flash memory is a type of non-volatile memory, which means that it can retain data even when the power is turned off. Flash drives are very small and lightweight, and they can store a large amount of data.

Flash drives are very popular because they are so convenient and portable. They are also very durable and can withstand being dropped or bumped. Blog

• A blog is like a personal online diary that anyone can read.
• People often write about their daily lives, thoughts, and interests on blogs.
• To write a blog, you can use a website or a special program called a “blogging platform.”

Viruses

• A virus is a harmful computer program that can spread from one computer to another without the user’s knowledge.
• Viruses can make copies of themselves and infect other files on your computer.
• All computer viruses are created by people.
• A simple virus that can make copies of itself over and over again is easy to make.
• Even a simple virus can be dangerous because it can quickly use up all the memory on your computer and stop it from working.
• A more dangerous type of virus can spread across networks and bypass security systems.

Wireless Access

• Wireless means “without wires.”

• In networking, wireless is used to describe devices that connect to a network without using cables. Wireless Networking

• Wireless networking is a type of computer network that uses radio waves or microwaves to connect devices instead of physical wires.

• This means that devices can communicate with each other without being directly connected by a cable.

Bluetooth

• Bluetooth is a technology that allows devices such as mobile phones, computers, and personal digital assistants (PDAs) to connect to each other wirelessly over short distances.
• Bluetooth uses a low-cost transceiver chip to transmit and receive data in the 2.45 GHz frequency band.
• In addition to data, Bluetooth can also transmit voice calls.
• Each Bluetooth device has a unique 48-bit address.
• The maximum range of a Bluetooth connection is about 10 meters (33 feet). Range:
• The device can send and receive data within a distance of 10 meters.

Data Exchange Rate:

• The device can exchange data at a speed of 1 megabit per second. In the second generation of the technology, the data exchange rate can reach up to 2 megabits per second.

Laptops/Notebooks:

• A laptop computer, also known as a notebook computer, is a portable personal computer that is smaller than a briefcase. It can be easily carried around and used in different locations, such as on airplanes, in libraries, or at meetings.
• Laptops usually weigh less than 5 pounds and are about 3 inches thick.
• Some well-known manufacturers of laptops include IBM, Apple, Compaq, Dell, and Toshiba.

Servers:

• A server is a computer program that provides services to other computer programs on the same or different computers.
• The computer that runs a server program is also called a server.
• In a client/server model, a server is a program that waits for and responds to requests from client programs on the same or different computers.

Mail System:

• Mail: Networking

• Networking is a way for computers to communicate with each other.

• Computers can send messages to each other using phone lines, microwaves, satellites, or other special equipment.

• The same message can be sent to many different computers at the same time.

• Voice mail is a computer system that lets people leave spoken messages for each other.

• Voice mail messages are stored in a special mailbox and can be listened to later.

Multimedia

• Multimedia is a way of using computers to present text, pictures, videos, and sounds all together.

• Multimedia was once very expensive and uncommon, but now it is very common because computers are more powerful and cheaper.

• Almost all computers can play videos. New Technologies

• RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification): RFID is a way to identify things using radio waves. RFID tags can be attached to objects, animals, or people. They store information that can be read by RFID readers.

• Retina Scan: A retina scan is a way to identify people by scanning the unique patterns on their retinas. Retinal scans are very accurate because the retina is stable from birth to death. Retinal Scan:

• Our eyes have unique blood vessel patterns.

• A retinal scan uses a special light and a coupler to read these patterns.

• This creates very accurate biometric data.

WiMAX:

• WiMAX stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access.
• It’s a technology that provides wireless data over long distances.
• It can be used for point-to-point links or mobile cellular access.
• WiMAX is an alternative to cable and DSL for last-mile wireless broadband access.

Websites:

• A website is a collection of web pages, images, videos, and other digital assets.

• Websites are hosted on a particular domain or subdomain. Subdomain on the World Wide Web

• A web page is like a document that is usually written in a special language called HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language). You can almost always access it using HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol), which is a way of sending information from the website’s server to your web browser so you can see it.

• All the websites that anyone can access make up what we call the ‘World Wide Web’.

• The pages of a website can usually be reached from a main address called the Homepages, and they are usually stored on the same computer.

• The addresses of the pages are organized in a way that shows which pages are more important, but the links between them control how you see the overall structure and how people move around the different parts of the website. The Dark Night by S. M. Ali

• Agony and the Ecstasy, The by Irving Stone: A biography of Michelangelo.

• Airport by Arthur Hailey: A novel about an airport.

• Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazal: A history of the Mughal Empire.

• Alchemist, The by Ben Jonson: A play about a man who searches for the secret of turning lead into gold.

• Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll: A children’s novel about a girl who falls down a rabbit hole and finds herself in a strange world.

• All’s Well that Ends Well by William Shakespeare: A play about a woman who disguises herself as a man to win the love of a man.

• All the President’s Men by Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward: A book about the Watergate scandal.

• All the Prime Minister’s Men by Janardhan Thakur: A book about the life of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.

• All Things Bright and Beautiful by James Herriot: A book about a veterinarian’s life in the Yorkshire Dales.

• Ambassador’s Journal by J. K. Galbraith: A book about the author’s experiences as the United States Ambassador to India.

• Ambassador’s Report by Chester Bowles: A book about the author’s experiences as the United States Ambassador to India.

• An American Tragedy by Theodore Dreiser: A novel about a man who murders his pregnant girlfriend.

• An Eye to China by David Selbourne: A book about the author’s travels in China.

• An Idealist View of Life by Dr S. Radhakrishnan: A book about the author’s philosophical views.

• Anand Math by Bankimchandra Chatterjee: A novel about the Indian independence movement.

• Androcles and the Lion by George Bernard Shaw: A play about a Christian who is thrown to the lions in a Roman arena.

• Animal Farm by George Orwell: A novel about a group of animals who rebel against their human farmer.

• Antony and Cleopatra by William Shakespeare: A play about the love affair between Antony and Cleopatra.

• Ape and Essence by A. Huxley: A novel about a group of scientists who create a new race of humans.

• Apple Cart by George Bernard Shaw: A play about a king who is forced to give up his throne.

• Arabian Nights by Sir Richard Burton: A collection of stories from the Middle East.

• Area of Darkness by V. S. Naipaul: A novel about an Indian man who travels to England. Books mentioned in the content:

• Arthashastra by Kautilya: A book about politics, economics, and military strategy written by an ancient Indian scholar.

• Arms and the Man by George Bernard Shaw: A play about war and love written by an Irish playwright.

• Around the World in Eighty Days by Jules Verne: A novel about a man who travels around the world in 80 days written by a French author.

• Arrival and Departure by Arthur Koestler: A book about the author’s experiences as a political prisoner in Spain during the Spanish Civil War written by a Hungarian-British author.

• As You Like it by William Shakespeare: A play about love and friendship written by an English playwright.

• Ascent to Everest by Sir John Hunt: A book about the first successful ascent of Mount Everest written by the leader of the expedition.

• Asian Drama by Gunnar Myrdal: A book about the economic problems of Asia written by a Swedish economist.

• Atoms of Hope by Mohan Sundar Rajan: A book about the potential of nuclear energy written by an Indian scientist.

• Autobiography of an Unknown Indian by Nirad C. Choudhary: A book about the author’s life and experiences in India written by an Indian author.

• Across Borders, Fifty-years of India’s Foreign Policy by J. N. Dixit: A book about India’s foreign policy written by a former Indian diplomat.

• Adhe Adhure by Mohan Rakesh: A Hindi play written by an Indian playwright.

• Agni Veena by Kazi Nazrul Islam: A Bengali poetry book written by a Bangladeshi poet.

• Ajatshatru by Jai Shankar Prasad: A Hindi play written by an Indian playwright.

• Akbarnama by Abul Fazal: A biography of the Mughal emperor Akbar written by his court historian.

• Amar Kosh by Amar Singh: A Sanskrit dictionary written by an Indian lexicographer.

• An Autobiography by Jawaharlal Nehru: A book about the author’s life and experiences in India written by the first Prime Minister of India.

• An idealist View of Life by Dr S. Radhakrishnan: A book about the philosophy of idealism written by an Indian philosopher.

• Anatomy of a Flawed inheritance by J. N. Dixit: A book about the problems of India’s political system written by a former Indian diplomat.

• Anguish of Deprived by Lakshmidhar Mishra: A book about the problems of poverty in India written by an Indian economist.

• Answer to History by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi: A book about the author’s life and experiences as the Shah of Iran written by the last Shah of Iran.

• Arion and the Dolphin by Vikram Seth: A long poem written by an Indian poet.

• Ashtadhyayi by Panini: A Sanskrit grammar written by an ancient Indian grammarian.

• Asia and Western Dominance by K. M. Panikkar: A book about the history of Asia and its relationship with the West written by an Indian historian.

• Assassination of a Prime Minister by S. Anandra: A book about the assassination of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi written by an Indian journalist. Books:

• Assignment Colombo by J. N. Dixit

• Atoms of Hope by Mohan Sundara Rajan

Books starting with B:

• Baburnama by Babur (Translated into English by John Falkland)

• Back to Methuselah by George Bernard Shaw

• Bang-e-Dara by Mohd Iqbal

• Bend in the Ganges, A by Manohar Malgaonkar

• Bend in the river, A by V. S. Naipaul

• Ben Hur by Lewis Wallace

• Best and the Brightest, The by David Halberstam

• Between the Lines by Kuldip Nayar

• Bharat Bharati by Maithili Sharan Gupt

• Bisarjan by Rabindranath Tagore

• Birth and Death of the Sun by George Bernard Shaw

• Bitter Sweet by Noel Coward

• Blind Beauty, The by Boris Pasternak

• Born Free by Joy Adamson

• Brave New World by Aldous Huxley

• Bread, Beauty and Revolution by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas

• Bride for the Sahib and Other Stories, The by Khushwant Singh

• Bride’s Book of Beauty, The by Mulk Raj Anand

• Broken Wing by Sarojini Naidu

• Brush with Life, A by Satish Gujral

• Bunch of Old Letters, A by Jawaharlal Nehru

• Backward Place by Ruth Prawer J Books and their authors:

• Bandicoot Run by Manohar Malgonkar

• Beginning of the Beginning by Acharya Rajneesh

• Bewildered India-Identity, Pluralism, Discord by Rasheedud-din Khan

• Beyond Boundaries: A Memoir by Swaraj Paul

• Beyond Modernisation, Beyond Self by Sisir Kumar Ghose

• Bhagwat Gita by Veda Vyas

• Bharal Aur Europe by Nirmal Verma

• Bharat Bharati by Maithili Sharan Gupta

• Bharaitya Parampara Ke Mool Swar by Govind Chandra Pande

• Blind Men of Hindoostan-Indo-Pak Nuclear War by Gen Krishnaswamy Sundarji

• Bliss was it in that Dawn by Minoo Masani

• Borders and Boundaries: Women in India’s Partition by Ritu Menon and Kamla Bhasin

• Bostaan by Sheikh Saadi

• Bread, Beauty and Revolution by Khwaja Ahmed Abbas

• Breaking the Silence by Anees Jung

• Breakthrough by Gen Moshe Dayan

• Brishbikkha by Bankim Chandra Chatterji

• Britain’s True History by Prem Bhatia

• Bubble by Mulk Raj Anand

• Buddha Charitam by Ashvaghosha

• By God’s Decree by Kapil Dev

• Caesar and Cleopatra by George Books by Various Authors

• Candida by George Bernard Shaw

• Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer

• Chitra by Rabindranath Tagore

• Comedy of Errors by William Shakespeare

• Coolie by Mulk Raj Anand

• Conceptual Encyclopaedia of Guru Granth Sahib by S. S. Kohli

• Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky

• Crisis in India by Ronald Segal

• Culture in the Vanity Bag by Nirad C. Choudhary

• Canvass of Life by Sheila Gujral

• Chandalika by Rabindranath Tagore

• Chemmeen by Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai

• Chidambara by Sumitranandan Pant

• Chikaveera Rajendra by Masti Venkatesh lyengar

• Chinese Betrayal by B. N. Mullick

• Choma’s Drum by K Shivaram Karanath

• Chithirappaavai by P. V. Akilandam

• Confessions of a Lover by Mulk Raj Anand

• Confrontation with Pakistan by Gen B. M Kaul

• Conquest of Self by Mahatma Gandhi

• Continent of Circle by Nirad C Chaudhuri

• Court Dancer by Rabindranath Tagore

• Crescent Moon by Rabindranath Tagore

• Crescent Over Kashmir by Anil Maheshwari

• Crisis into Chaos by E. M. S. Namboodiripad

• Crossing the Sacred Line-Women’s by Abhilasha Kumari, Sabina: This book explores the struggles and experiences of women in India, particularly in relation to social and cultural norms.

• Search for Political Power by Abhilasha and Sabina Kidwai: This book delves into the pursuit of political power and the challenges faced by individuals in the political arena.

• Crown and the Loincloth by Chaman Nahal: This book tells the story of the rise and fall of the Mughal Empire in India, focusing on the conflict between the Mughal rulers and the British colonial power.

• Cuckold by Kiran Nagar Kar: This book explores the theme of infidelity and its impact on relationships and individuals.

• Curtain Raisers by K. Natwar Singh: This book provides an insider’s perspective on Indian politics and diplomacy, offering insights into key events and personalities. Books and Authors:

• Juan by Lord Byron: A book of poetry written by the famous English poet, Lord Byron.

• Dashkumar Charitam by Dandi: A classic Sanskrit novel written by Dandi, featuring various tales of adventure and intrigue.

• Daughter of the East by Benazir Bhutto: A memoir written by Benazir Bhutto, the former Prime Minister of Pakistan, about her life and experiences.

• Day in Shadow by Nayantara Sehgal: A novel by Nayantara Sehgal that explores the lives of a group of people living in India during a time of political turmoil.

• Days of My Years by H. P. Nanda: An autobiography by H. P. Nanda, a prominent Indian businessman, sharing his life experiences and achievements.

• Death-The Supreme Friend by Kakasaheb Kalelkar: A philosophical exploration of death and its significance in life, written by Kakasaheb Kalelkar, a renowned Indian thinker and social reformer.

• Decline and Fall of Indira Gandhi by D. R. Mankekar and Kamala Mankekar: A biographical account of the life and political career of Indira Gandhi, the former Prime Minister of India, written by D. R. Mankekar and Kamala Mankekar.

• Democracy Redeemed by V. K. Narsimhan: A book discussing the challenges and prospects of democracy in India, written by V. K. Narsimhan, a political scientist and commentator.

• Dharmashastra by Manu: An ancient Indian legal text that outlines the social, moral, and religious duties and responsibilities of individuals in society.

• Distant Drums by Manohar Malgonkar: A historical novel set during the Portuguese colonial era in India, written by Manohar Malgonkar.

• Don’t Laugh-We are Police by Bishan Lal Vohra: A humorous account of the experiences of a police officer in India, written by Bishan Lal Vohra.

• Dream in Hawaii by Bhabani Bhattacharya: A novel by Bhabani Bhattacharya that explores the lives of Indian immigrants in Hawaii and their struggles to adapt to a new culture.

• Durgesh Nandini by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee: A classic Bengali novel written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, featuring a strong female protagonist and exploring themes of love, sacrifice, and social injustice.

• Dynamics of Social Change by Chandra Shekhar: A sociological study of social change and its impact on Indian society, written by Chandra Shekhar, a renowned Indian sociologist. Books with simpler language:

• East West by Salman Rushdie: A novel that tells the story of two families, one from India and one from England, who are brought together by a tragic event.

• Economic Planning of India by Ashok Mehta: A book that discusses the economic planning of India, including the challenges and opportunities that the country faces.

• Economics of the Third World by S. K. Ray: A book that provides an overview of the economies of developing countries, including the challenges and opportunities that they face.

• Eight Lives by Rajmohan Gandhi: A book that tells the stories of eight people who played important roles in the history of India, including Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Indira Gandhi.

• End of an Era by C. S. Pandit: A book that discusses the end of the British Raj in India and the challenges that the country faced after independence.

• English August by Upamanyu Chatterjee: A novel that tells the story of a young man who moves to Delhi from a small town and experiences the challenges of living in a big city.

• Essays On Gita by Aurobindo Ghosh: A book that provides an interpretation of the Bhagavad Gita, a sacred Hindu text.

• Eternal India by Indira Gandhi: A book that discusses the history and culture of India, as well as the challenges that the country faces.

• Eternity by Anwar Shaikh: A book that discusses the concept of eternity and its implications for human life. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

Books starting with the letter G:

• The Gardener by Rabindranath Tagore: A novel about a gardener who finds beauty and meaning in his work.
• Geet Govinda by Jaya Dev: A collection of devotional songs in praise of Lord Krishna.
• Gitanjali by Rabindranath Tagore: A collection of poems that won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913.
• Gita Rahasya by Bal Gangadhar Tilak: A commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, a sacred Hindu text.
• Glimpses of World History by Jawaharlal Nehru: A book about world history written by the first Prime Minister of India.
• Godan by Munshi Prem Chand: A novel about a poor farmer who struggles to keep his land.
• Golden Threshold by Sarojini Naidu: A collection of poems by an Indian poet and freedom fighter.
• Going After Cacciato by Tim O’Brien: A novel about a soldier’s experiences during the Vietnam War.
• Golden Gate, The by Vikram Seth: A novel about a group of friends living in San Francisco.
• Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell: A classic novel about the American Civil War.
• Good Earth by Pearl S. Buck: A novel about a Chinese farmer and his family.
• Gora by Rabindranath Tagore: A novel about a young man who struggles with his identity and beliefs.
• Grammar of Politics by Harold Lasswell: A book about the study of politics and political behavior. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

Books starting with the letter “G”

• Great Expectations by Charles Dickens
• Great Illusion by Norman Angell
• Guide, The by R. K. Narayan
• Gul-e-Naghma by Raghupati Sahai Firaq
• Gulistan Bostan by Sheikh Saadi
• Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift
• Ganadevata by Tara Shankar Bandopadhyaya
• Ghasiram Kotwal by Vijay Tendulkar
• Gitanjali by Rabindra Nath Tagore
• Glimpses of Indian Ocean by Z. A. Quasim
• Glimpses of World History by Jawaharlal Nehru
• Goa by Asif Currimbhoy
• Godrej-A Hundred Years by B. K. Karanjia
• Golden Threshold by Sarojini Naidu
• Great Depression of 1990 by Ravi Batra
• Gulistan Boston by Sheikh Saadi
• Gulzari Lal Nanda: A Peep in the Service of the People by Promilla Kalhan
• Gurusagaram by O. V. Vijayan

Books starting with the letter “H”

• Hamlet by William Shakespeare

• Harsha Charita by Bana Bhatt

• Heat and Dust by Ruth P. Jhabwala

• Henry Esmond by W. M. Thackeray

• Hero of Our Time by Richard Hough

• Heroes and Hero Worship by Thomas Carlyle

• Himalayan Blunder by Brig. J. P. Dalvi

• Hindu Civilisation by Books in J. M. Barrier’s collection:

• History of the Congress Party by Dr. Shankar Ghose: This book tells the story of the Indian National Congress, a political party that played a major role in India’s independence movement.

• Hindu View of Life by Dr. Radhakrishnan: This book explores the religious and philosophical beliefs of Hinduism, one of the major religions of India.

• House Divided by Pearl S. Buck: This novel tells the story of a Chinese family during the Chinese Civil War.

• Human Factor by Graham Greene: This novel tells the story of a British spy who is sent to work in Africa.

• Hungry Stones by Rabindranath Tagore: This collection of short stories explores the lives of people in rural India.

• Harvest by Majula Padmanabhan: This novel tells the story of a young woman who returns to her family’s farm in India after living in the city.

• Heavy Weather by P. G. Wodehouse: This novel is a humorous story about a group of people who are staying at a hotel in England.

• Heir Apparent by Dr. Karan Singh: This book tells the story of the Indian royal family and their role in Indian politics.

• Higher than Hope by Fatima Meer: This book tells the story of the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa.

• History of Hindu Chemistry by Sir P. C. Ray: This book tells the story of the development of chemistry in India.

• Hitopadesh by R. K. Narayan: This collection of fables is based on ancient Indian stories.

• Hindi Sahitya Aur Samvedna Ka Vikas by R. S. Chaturvedi: This book explores the development of Hindi literature and its emotional impact on readers.

• Hind Swaraj by M. K. Gandhi: This book outlines Gandhi’s philosophy of nonviolent resistance, which he used to lead India to independence from British rule.

• Hindu Civilisation by J. M. Barrie: This book explores the history and culture of Hinduism.

• Hinduism by Nirad C. Chaudhary: This book explores the religious and philosophical beliefs of Hinduism.

• Himalayan Love Story, A by Namita Gokhale: This novel tells the story of a young woman who falls in love with a man from a different culture.

• I Am Not An Island by K. A. Abbas: This novel tells the story of a young man who is struggling to find his place in the world.

• I Follow the Mahatma by K. M. Munshi: This book tells the story of the author’s relationship with Mahatma Gandhi.

• Idiot, The by Fyodor Dostoevsky: This novel tells the story of a young man who is struggling with mental illness.

• If I am Assassinated by Z. A. Bhutto: This book is a collection of speeches and writings by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the former Prime Minister of Pakistan.

• Illiad by Homer: This epic poem tells the story of the Trojan War.

• Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde: This play is a humorous story about a group of people who are trying to find love.

• India Divided by Rajendra Prasad: This book tells the story of the partition of India in 1947.

• India from Curzon to Nehru and After by Durga Dass: This book tells the story of India’s history from the time of British rule to the present day.

• India We Left, The by Humphrey Trevelyan: This book tells the story of the British Raj in India.

• India Wins Freedom by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad: This book tells the story of India’s independence movement. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad:

• “Indian Home Rule” by M. K. Gandhi: This book discusses the idea of self-governance for India.

• “Indian Philosophy” by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan: This book explores the philosophical ideas and beliefs of India.

• “Indian Muslims” by Prof. Mohammed Mujeeb: This book focuses on the history and culture of Indian Muslims.

• “Indo-Pakistan Conflict, The” by Russel Brines: This book examines the conflict between India and Pakistan.

• “India-China War” by Neville Maxwell: This book discusses the war between India and China.

• “Inside Asia” by John Gunther: This book provides an overview of the countries and cultures of Asia.

• “Inside Europe” by John Gunther: This book provides an overview of the countries and cultures of Europe.

• “Invisible Man” by H. G. Wells: This book tells the story of a man who becomes invisible and the challenges he faces.

• “Iron in the Soul” by Jean Paul Sartre: This book explores the themes of freedom, responsibility, and existentialism.

• “Ivanhoe” by Walter Scott: This book is a historical novel set in medieval England.

• “I Dare” by Parmesh Dangwal: This book is a collection of short stories about the author’s experiences.

• “Ifollow the Mahatma” by K. M. Munshi: This book is a biography of Mahatma Gandhi.

• “I Muse; Therefore I am” by V. N. Narayanan: This book is a collection of essays on various topics.

• “Idols” by Sunil Gavaskar: This book is about the life and career of the Indian cricketer Sunil Gavaskar.

• “In the Light of the Black Sun” by Rohit Manchanda: This book is a collection of poems.

• “In the Shadow of Pines” by Mandeep Rai: This book is a novel set in the Himalayas.

• “India 2020: A Vision for the New Millennium” by Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam and Dr. Y. S. Rajan: This book presents a vision for India’s future.

• “India-A Wounded Civilisation” by V. S. Naipaul: This book discusses the history and culture of India.

• “India-From Midnight to the Millennium” by Shashi Tharoor: This book provides an overview of India’s history from independence to the present.

• “India-Independence Festival (1947-1997)” by Raghu Rai: This book is a collection of photographs from India’s independence celebrations.

• “India in Transition” by Prof Jagdish Bhagwati: This book discusses the economic and political changes in India.

• “India is for Sale” by Chitra Subramaniam: This book examines the issue of corruption in India.

• “India of Our Dreams” by M. V. Kamath: This book presents a vision for India’s future. Today by Rajni Palme Dutt

• This book discusses various topics related to India, including its culture, the state of the arts, and other important issues.

India’s Culture the State the Arts and Beyond by B. P. Singh

• This book explores India’s rich cultural heritage, the role of the state in promoting the arts, and the challenges facing the arts in contemporary India.

India’s Economic Crisis by Bimal Jalan

• This book analyzes the economic crisis that India faced in the late 1990s and early 2000s, and proposes solutions to address the challenges.

Essay’s for Manmohan Singh by I. J. Ahluwalia and M. D. Little

• This book is a collection of essays written in honor of former Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, discussing his contributions to India’s economy and politics.

Indian Arms Bazaar by Maj-Gen, Pratap Narain

• This book examines the Indian arms industry and its impact on the country’s security and economy.

India, the Critical Years by Kuldip Nayar

• This book provides an analysis of India’s political and economic development during the critical years of the 1970s and 1980s.

Indira Gandhi’s Emergence and Style by Nayantara Sehgal

• This book explores the rise to power of former Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and her leadership style.

Indira’s India by S. Nihal Singh

• This book provides an insider’s view of Indira Gandhi’s time as Prime Minister of India, offering insights into her policies and decision-making process.

Inside the CBI by Joginder Singh

• This book provides a firsthand account of the inner workings of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), India’s premier investigative agency.

Insider by P. V. Narsimha Rao

• This book is a memoir by former Indian Prime Minister P. V. Narsimha Rao, offering insights into his political career and the challenges he faced during his tenure.

Intelligence Services by Dr Bhashyam Kasturi

• This book examines the role of intelligence services in India and their impact on national security.

It is Always Possible by Kiran Bedi

• This book is an autobiography of Kiran Bedi, a former Indian Police Service officer and social activist, sharing her experiences and insights on leadership and social change. A

• Junglee Girl by Ginu Kamani: A story about a girl who lives in the jungle and has many adventures.

• Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling: A collection of stories about animals who live in the jungle.

K

• Kadambari by Bana Bhatt: A classic Indian novel about love and adventure.

• Kagaz Te Kanwas by Amrita Pritam: A collection of poems about love, life, and nature.

• Kamsutra by Vatsyayan: An ancient Indian text about sexual pleasure.

• Kamayani by Jai Shanker Prasad: A long poem about the love story of Kama and Madana.

• Kapal Kundala by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee: A novel about a young woman who is kidnapped and forced to marry a man she does not love.

• Kaya Kalp by Munshi Prem Chand: A novel about a man who is given a magical potion that makes him young again.

• Khak-i-Dil by Jan Nissar Akhtar: A collection of poems about love, loss, and longing.

• Kidnapped by Robert Louis Stevenson: A novel about a young boy who is kidnapped and taken to sea.

• Killer Angles by Michael Shaara: A novel about the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War.

• King of Dark Chamber by Rabindranath Tagore: A play about a king who is afraid of the dark.

• King Lear by William Shakespeare: A tragedy about a king who divides his kingdom among his three daughters.

• Kora Kagaz by Amrita Pritam: A novel about a young woman who is trying to find her place in the world.

• Kumar Sambhava by Kalidas: A long poem about the birth of the god Kumara.

• Kamadhenu by Kubernath Ray: A novel about a cow that is said to grant wishes.

• Kali Aandhi by Kamleshwar: A novel about the 1975 Emergency in India.

• Kanthapura by Raja Rao: A novel about a village in India during the Indian independence movement.

• Kanyadaan by Vijay Tendulkar: A play about a young woman who is forced to marry a man she does not love.

• Kapal Kundala by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee: A novel about a young woman who is kidnapped and forced to marry a man she does not love.

• Kashmir-A Tale of Shame by Hari Jaisingh: A book about the human rights abuses in Kashmir.

• Kashmir-Behind the Vale by M. J. Akbar: A book about the history and politics of Kashmir.

• Kashmir Diary: Psychology of Militancy by Gen Arjun Ray: A book about the psychology of militancy in Kashmir.

• Kashmir-The Wounded Valley by Ajit Bhattacharjee: A book about the environmental degradation in Kashmir.

• Kashmir in the Crossfire by Victoria Shaffield: A book about the human rights abuses in Kashmir.

• Kashmir A Tragedy of Errors by Tavleen Singh: A book about the history and politics of Kashmir.

• Katghare Main by Ram Sharan Joshi: A novel about a man who is imprisoned for a crime he did not commit. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

• Kayakalp by Munshi Prem Chand: A story about a man who discovers a magical herb that can reverse aging.

• Kayar by Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai: A novel about the lives of fishermen in Kerala, India.

• Keepers of the Keys by Milan Kundera: A story about a group of people who live in a totalitarian society and are trying to find freedom.

• Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi: An epic poem about the battle between Arjuna and Shiva.

• Kitni Navon Main Kitni Bar by S. H. Vatsyayan: A collection of poems about love and loss.

• Koraner Nari by Taslima Nasreen: A novel about the lives of women in Bangladesh.

• Kulliyatt by Ghalib: A collection of poems by the famous Urdu poet Ghalib.

Additional books:

• Lady Chatterley’s Lover by D. H. Lawrence: A novel about a woman who has an affair with her husband’s gamekeeper.
• Life Divine by Aurobindo Ghosh: A philosophical work about the nature of reality and the human soul.
• Living Room by Graham Greene: A play about a group of people who are trying to escape from a war-torn city.
• Letters from a Father to his Daughter by Jawaharlal Nehru: A collection of letters from Jawaharlal Nehru to his daughter Indira Gandhi.
• Light That Failed by Rudyard Kipling: A novel about a painter who goes blind.
• Lipika by Rabindranath Tagore: A collection of poems by the famous Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore.
• Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov: A novel about a man who becomes obsessed with a young girl.
• Lost Child by Mulk Raj Anand: A novel about a boy who is lost in the city of Bombay.
• Love Story by Eric Segal: A novel about a young couple who fall in love.
• Lajja by Taslima Nasreen: A novel about the lives of women in Bangladesh.
• Lal Bahadur Shastri by C. P. Srivastava: A biography of the former Prime Minister of India, Lal Bahadur Shastri.
• Last Phase by Pyare Lal: A biography of the last days of Mahatma Gandhi.
• Law, Lawyers and Judges by H. R. Bhardwaj: A book about the Indian legal system.
• Laws Versus Justice by V. R. Krishna Iyer: A book about the relationship between law and justice.
• Legacy of a Divided Nation by Prof Mushirul Hasan: A book about the history of the partition of India.
• Life Divine by Aurobindo Ghosh: A philosophical work about the nature of reality and the human soul.
• Life is Elsewhere by Milan Kundera: A novel about a group of people who are trying to find meaning in their lives.
• Lost Child by Mulk Raj Anand: A novel about a boy who is lost in the city of Bombay.
• Love and Longing in Bombay by Vikram Chandra: A novel about the lives of people in Bombay.
• Love in A Blue Time by Hanif K: A novel about a young man who is trying to find love in the modern world. Here’s the rewritten content in simpler language:

Books by Khushwant Singh:

• Love, Truth, and A Little Malice: A collection of essays and articles by Khushwant Singh.

Books by William Shakespeare:

• Macbeth: A play about a Scottish nobleman who becomes king through murder and deceit.

Books by Thomas Mann:

• Magic Mountain: A novel set in a tuberculosis sanatorium in the Swiss Alps.

Books by Maharishi Ved Vyas:

• Mahabharata: An ancient Indian epic poem about the struggle between two families for control of a kingdom.

Books by George Bernard Shaw:

• Major Barbara: A play about a young woman who joins the Salvation Army.
• Man and Superman: A play about the relationship between men and women.
• Man of Destiny: A play about Napoleon Bonaparte.

Books by Lewis Carroll:

• Man the Unknown: A philosophical novel about the nature of human consciousness.

Books by Robert Bolt:

• A Man for All Seasons: A play about Sir Thomas More, who refused to accept King Henry VIII’s break with the Catholic Church.

Books by Bertrand Russell:

• Marriage and Morals: A book about the ethics of marriage and sexual relationships.

Books by Thomas Hardy:

• The Mayor of Casterbridge: A novel about a man who rises from poverty to become the mayor of a town.

Books by Gopinath Mohanty:

• Moti Mahal: A novel about a young man who leaves his village to find work in the city.

Books by Kalidas:

• Meghdoot: A poem about a cloud messenger who carries a message from a lover to his beloved.

Books by Winston Churchill:

• Memories of World War II: A book about Churchill’s experiences during World War II.

Books by Thomas Powers:

• Men Who Kept the Secret: A book about the Manhattan Project, which developed the atomic bomb.

Books by Manohar Malgonkar:

• The Men Who Killed Gandhi: A book about the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi.

Books by Salman Rushdie:

• Midnight’s Children: A novel about the history of India after independence.

Books by John Ruskin:

• Modern Painters: A book about art and aesthetics.

Books by Maxim Gorky:

• Mother: A novel about a woman who sacrifices everything for her son.

Books by Katherine Mayo:

• Mother India: A book about the social problems of India.

Books by Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre:

• Mountbatten and Independent India: A book about the role of Lord Mountbatten in India’s independence. Here is the simplified version of the provided content:

Books:

• Mountbatten and Partition of India by Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre: This book tells the story of Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of India, and his role in the partition of India.

• Mrs Warren’s Profession by George Bernard Shaw: This play tells the story of a woman who runs a brothel and her daughter, who is trying to escape her mother’s profession.

• Much Ado About Nothing by William Shakespeare: This play is a comedy about love, deception, and mistaken identities.

• Mudra Rakshas by Vishakadutta: This play is a political thriller about a king who is trying to save his kingdom from a powerful enemy.

• Murder in the Cathedral by T. S. Eliot: This play tells the story of the murder of Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1170.

• Muslim Dilemma in India by M. R. A. Baig: This book discusses the challenges faced by Muslims in India.

• My Early Life by Mahatma Gandhi: This book is an autobiography of Mahatma Gandhi, the leader of the Indian independence movement.

• My Experiments with Truth by Mahatma Gandhi: This book is another autobiography of Mahatma Gandhi, in which he discusses his experiments with truth and nonviolence.

• My India by S. Nihal Singh: This book is a collection of essays about India by S. Nihal Singh, a journalist and author.

• My Life, Law and Other Things by M. C. Setalvad: This book is an autobiography of M. C. Setalvad, a lawyer and politician who served as the first Attorney General of India.

• My Music, My Life by Ravi Shankar: This book is an autobiography of Ravi Shankar, a sitar player and composer.

• My Truth by Indira Gandhi: This book is an autobiography of Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India from 1966 to 1977 and from 1980 to 1984.

• Malati Madhav by Bhavabhuti: This play is a love story set in ancient India.

• Magnificent Maharaja by K. Natwar Singh: This book tells the story of the Maharajas of India, their lives, and their contributions to Indian culture.

• Mahatma Gandhi by Girija Kumar Mathur: This book is a biography of Mahatma Gandhi.

• Malavikagnimitra by Kalidas: This play is a love story set in ancient India.

• Manviya Sanskriti Ke Rachnatmak Aayam by Prof Raghuvansh: This book discusses the creative aspects of human culture.

• Many Worlds by K. P. S. Menon: This book is a collection of essays about different cultures and civilizations.

• Memoris of a Bystander-Life in Diplomacy by Iqbal Akhund: This book is a memoir of Iqbal Akhund, a Pakistani diplomat.

• Meri Rehen Meri Manzil by Krishna Puri: This book is an autobiography of Krishna Puri, a politician and social activist.

• Million Mutinies Now by V. S. Naipaul: This book is a collection of essays about India by V. S. Naipaul, a Trinidadian-British writer.

• Missed Opportunities-Indo-Pak War 1965 by Maj-Gen, Lakshman Singh: This book discusses the missed opportunities for peace between India and Pakistan during the 1965 war.

• Mistaken identity by Naya: This book is a novel about a case of mistaken identity. Here is the rewritten content in simpler language:

Books starting with the letter “N”

• Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy by Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal: This book explores the history, culture, and political economy of South Asia in the modern era.

• Modernity Morality And The Mahatma by Madhuri Santhanam Sondhi: This book examines the relationship between modernity, morality, and the life of Mahatma Gandhi.

• Mondays on Dark Night of Moon by Kirin Narayan: This book is a collection of short stories that explore the lives of women in a South Indian village.

• Mookhajjiva Kanasugalu by K. Shivram Karanth: This book is a collection of short stories written in the Kannada language.

• Moor’s Last Sigh by Salman Rushdie: This book is a magical realism novel that tells the story of a Moorish family in India.

• Mrinalini by Bankim Chandra Charrerjee: This book is a Bengali novel that tells the story of a young woman who is caught up in a love triangle.

• Mritunjaya by Shivaji Sawant: This book is a Marathi novel that tells the story of a young man who is trying to find his place in the world.

• Mrs Gandhi’s Second Reign by Arun Shourie: This book is a biography of Indira Gandhi, the former Prime Minister of India.

• Mughal Maharajas And The Mahatma by K. R. N. Swami: This book explores the relationship between the Mughal emperors and Mahatma Gandhi.

• Muslim Law and the Constitution by A. M. Bhattacharjea: This book examines the relationship between Muslim law and the Indian constitution.

• My Days by R. K. Narayan: This book is a collection of essays and short stories by the Indian writer R. K. Narayan.

• My Life and Times by V. V. Giri: This book is an autobiography of V. V. Giri, the former President of India.

• My Own Boswell by M. Hidayatullah: This book is an autobiography of M. Hidayatullah, the former Chief Justice of India.

• My India by S. Nihal Singh: This book is a collection of essays on India by the Indian journalist S. Nihal Singh.

• My Presidential Years by Ramaswamy Venkataraman: This book is an autobiography of Ramaswamy Venkataraman, the former President of India.

• My South Block Years by J. N. Dixit: This book is an autobiography of J. N. Dixit, the former Foreign Secretary of India.

• My Struggles by E. K. Nayanar: This book is an autobiography of E. K. Nayanar, the former Chief Minister of Kerala.

• My Prison Diary by J. P. Narayan: This book is a diary written by J. P. Narayan, the Indian independence activist, during his time in prison.

• Naganandan by HarshaVardhan: This book is a Sanskrit play written by HarshaVardhan, the Indian emperor.

• Naked Face, The by Sydney Sheldon: This book is a suspense novel by the American writer Sydney Sheldon.

• Naked Came the Stranger by Penelope Ashe: This book is a romance novel by the American writer Penelope Ashe.

• Naked Triangle by Balwant Gargi: This book is a Hindi novel written by Balwant Gargi, the Indian writer.

• Natya Shastra by Bharat Muni: This book is an ancient Indian treatise on dramaturgy and performance. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

Books by M. J. Akbar:

• Nehru: A biography of India’s first Prime Minister.

Books by Harbans Singh:

• Nehru Family and Sikhs: Explores the relationship between the Nehru family and the Sikh community in India.

Books by Samar Guha:

• Netaji Dead or Alive: Investigates the mysterious disappearance of Subhas Chandra Bose, a prominent Indian freedom fighter.

Books by John Masefield:

• Nine Days Wonder: A historical novel set during the English Civil War.

Books by George Orwell:

• Nineteen Eighty-Four: A dystopian novel that depicts a totalitarian society.

Books by Mahatma Gandhi:

• Non-Violence in Peace and War: Gandhi’s philosophy of non-violence as a means of achieving social and political change.

Books by Humayun Azad:

• Naari: Explores the lives and experiences of women in Bangladesh.

Books by D. R. Bendre:

• Naku Thanthi: A collection of poems that reflect on personal and social issues.

Books by Ali Sardar Jafri:

• Nai Duniya Ko Salam and Pathor Ki Dewar: Poetry collections that address themes of social justice and human rights.

Books by N. Balamani Amma:

• Naivedyam (The Offering): A collection of poems that explore themes of love, nature, and spirituality.

Books by Atal Behari Vajpayee:

• New Dimensions of India’s Foreign Policy: Discusses India’s foreign policy and its role in the international arena.

Books by B. K. Nehru:

• Nice Guys Finish Second: A memoir by a former Indian diplomat and politician.

Books by Uma Shankar Joshi:

• Nisheeth: A novel that explores the inner conflicts and struggles of a young man.

Books by Bhartrihari:

• Niti-Sataka: A collection of Sanskrit verses that offer moral and ethical teachings.

Books by Taslima Nasreen:

• Nirbashita Narir Kabita: A collection of poems that address the experiences of exiled women.

Books by G. G. Mirchandani and P. K. S.:

• Nuclear India: Examines India’s nuclear program and its implications for regional and global security.

Books by Ismail Serageldin:

• Nurturing Development: Explores the role of education and human capital in promoting economic development.

Books by P. N. Chopra:

• Nation Flawed-Lesson from Indian History, $A$: Analyzes the flaws in Indian history and draws lessons for the present.

Additional Books:

• Odakkuzhal by G. Shankara Kurup: A collection of poems that explore themes of love, nature, and spirituality.

• Odyssey by Homer: An epic poem that tells the story of Odysseus’s ten-year journey home after the Trojan War.

• Of Human Bondage by W. Somerset Maugham: A novel that explores the struggles and personal growth of a young man.

• Oh, Calcutta by Kenneth Tynan: A controversial play that explores themes of sexuality and social taboos.

• Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens: A novel that tells the story of an orphan boy who falls into a life of crime and poverty.

• Old Man and the Sea, The by Ernest Hemingway: A novella that tells the story of an old fisherman’s struggle to catch a giant marlin. Books with the letter “P”

• Painter of Signs by R. K. Narayan

• A Pair of Blue Eyes by Thomas Hardy

• Pakistan Crisis by David Loshak

• Pakistan Cut to Size by D. R. Mankeikar

• Panchagram by Tarashankar Bandyopadhyay

• Panchali Sapatham by Subramania Bharati

• Panchatantra by Vishnu Sharma

• A Passage to England by Nirad C. Choudhary

• Paradise Lost by John Milton

• Paradise Regained by John Milton

• A Passage to India by E. M. Forster

• Past and Present by Thomas Carlyle

• The Patriot Books and Authors:

• He by Pearl S. Buck

• Pickwick Papers by Charles Dickens

• Pinjar by Amrita Pritam

• Post Office by Rabindranath Tagore

• Prem Pachisi by Munshi Prem Chand

• Premonitions by P. N. Haksar

• Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen

• Principia by Isaac Newton

• Prison Diary by Jayaprakash Narayan

• Promises to Keep by Chester Bowles

• Padmavati by Malik Mohammed Jayasi

• Pakistan in the 20th Century by Lawrence Ziring

• Pakistan Papers by Mani Shankar Aiyer

• Panchagram by Tarashankar Bandopadhyaya

• Panchtantra by Vishnu Sharma

• Past Forward by G. R. Narayanan

• Pather Panchali by Bibhuti Bhushan Bandyopadhyaya

• Plans for Departure by Nayantara Sehgal

• Portrait of India by Ved Mehta

• Prathama Pratishruti by Ashapurna Devi

• Premonitions by P. N. Haksar

• Price of Partition by Rafiq Zakaria

• Prison and Chocolate Cake by Nayantara Sehgal

• Prisoner’s Scrapbook by L. K. Advani

• Prithviraj Raso by Chand Bardai

• Profiles and Letters by K. Natwar Singh

• Punjab, The Knights of Falsehood by K P. S. Gill

• Peep into the Past, by Vasant Navrekar

• Possible India, by Partha Chatterjee

• Psychoanalysis of the Prophets, by Abdulla Kamal

Q

• Quest for Conscience by Madhu Dandavate

R

• Raghuvamsa by Kalidas
• Rainbow, The by Pearl S. Buck
• Ram Charita Manas by Tulsidas
• Ramayana by Maharishi Valmiki
• Rangbhoomi by Munshi Prem Chand
• Rape of Bangladesh by Anthony Mascarenhas
• Ratnavali by Harsha Vardhan
• Red Star Over China by Edgar Snow
• Reminiscences of the Nehru Age by M. O. Mathai
• Republic, The by Plato
• Resurrection by Leo Tolstoy
• Return of the Native, The by Thomas Hardy
• Revenue Stamp, The by Amrita Pritam
• Ritu Samhara by Kalidas
• Road to Folly by Leslie Ford
• Robe, The by L. C. Douglas
• Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
• Rubaiyat by Omar Khayyam
• Radharani by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
• Raghuvamsa by Kalidas
• Rajtarangini by Kalhana
• Ram Charit Manas by Tulsidas
• Ramayana by Maharishi Valmiki (in Sanskrit) Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

Books by Indian Authors:

• Ramayana Dharshanam by K. V. Puttappa: A study of the Ramayana, one of the most important Hindu epics.
• Rang-e-Shairi by Raghupati Sahai ‘Firaq’ Gorakhpuri: A collection of Urdu poetry by one of the most renowned Urdu poets.
• Ravi Paar (Across the Ravi) by Gulzar: A collection of poems by one of India’s most celebrated poets.
• Rediscovering Gandhi by Yogesh Chadha: A book that explores the life and teachings of Mahatma Gandhi.
• Return of the Aryans by Bhagwan S. Gidwani: A book that examines the history of the Aryan people and their impact on Indian culture.
• Returning to the Source by Acharya Rajneesh: A book that explores the concept of spirituality and self-realization.
• Rich Like Us by Nayantara Sehgal: A novel that tells the story of a wealthy Indian family and their struggles.
• Ritu Ka Pehla Phool by Vijendra: A collection of poems that explore the beauty of nature and the human experience.
• River Sutra by Gita Mehta: A novel that tells the story of a woman’s journey of self-discovery along the Ganges River.
• Road to Freedom by K. K. Khullar: A novel that tells the story of India’s struggle for independence from British rule.
• Rukh Te Rishi by Harbhajan Singh: A collection of poems that explore the relationship between humans and nature.
• Revolutionary Life, $A$ by Laxmi Sehgal: A memoir by a prominent Indian freedom fighter and doctor.

Other Notable Books:

• Sadar-i-Riyasat by Karan Singh: A book that discusses the role of the President of India.

• Saket by Maithili Sharan Gupt: A Hindi epic poem that tells the story of the love between Usha and Aniruddha.

• Satyartha Prakash by Swami Dayanand: A book that presents the teachings of the Arya Samaj, a Hindu reform movement.

• Savitri by Sri Aurobindo Ghosh: A long poem that explores the themes of love, death, and immortality.

• Scholar Extraordinary by Nirad C. Choudhary: A biography of the Indian scholar and writer Nirad C. Choudhary.

• Search for Home, $A$ by Sashti Brata: A novel that tells the story of a woman’s search for a sense of belonging.

• Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen: A classic novel that tells the story of two sisters and their experiences in love and marriage.

• Seven Lamps of Architecture by John Ruskin: A book that discusses the principles of architecture and the importance of beauty in design.

• Satanic Verses, The by Salman Rushdie: A controversial novel that explores the themes of religion, identity, and migration.

• Seven Summers by Mulk Raj Anand: A novel that tells the story of a young boy’s experiences during the Partition of India.

• Shahnama by Firdausi: A Persian epic poem that tells the history of Iran from the creation of the world to the Arab conquest.

• Shakuntala by Kalidas: A Sanskrit play that tells the story of the love between Shakuntala and King Dushyanta.

• Shall We Tell the President by Jeffrey Archer: A novel that tells the story of a group of friends who plan to assassinate the President of the United States.

• Shape of Things to Come by H. G. Wells: A science fiction novel that explores the possible future of humanity. Here is the list of books with simplified language:

• Me by H. G. Wells

• Shame by Salman Rushdie

• She Stoops to Conquer by Oliver Goldsmith

• Shivaji, The Great Patriot by Lala Lajpat Rai

• Sohrab and Rustum by Mathew Arnold

• Song of India, The by Sarojini Naidu

• Sons and Lovers by D. H. Lawrence

• $Saz-i-Watan$ by Munshi Prem Chand

• St. Joan George by Bernard Shaw

• Story of My Life by Moshe Dayan

• Sunny Days by Sunil Gavaskar

• Sardar Patel and Indian Muslims by Rafiq Zakaria

• Sakharam Binder by Vijay Tendulkar

• Savitri by Aurobindo Ghosh

• Sceptred Flute by Sarojini Naidu

• Scholar Extraordinary by Nirad C. Chaudhuri

• Scope of Happiness by Vijayalakshmi Pandit

• Search for Home by Sasthi Brata

• Sense of Time by S. H. Vatsyayan

• Secular Agenda, $A$ by Arun Shourie

• Suitable Boy, $A$ by Vikram Seth

Additional Books:

• Tale of Two Cities, $A$ by Charles Dickens
• Tales from Shakespeare by Charles Lamb
• Tempest, The by William Shakespeare
• Tess of the D’Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy
• Three Musketeers by Alexander Dumas
• Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

The Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll: A magical story about a girl named Alice who steps through a mirror and finds herself in a strange and wonderful world.

Time Machine by H. G. Wells: A scientist invents a machine that allows him to travel through time, and he uses it to explore the future and the past.

To Each His Stranger by S. H. Vatsyayan: A collection of short stories about people who are strangers to each other but who are connected in some way.

To Live or Not to Live by Nirad C. Choudhary: A novel about a man who is trying to decide whether or not to commit suicide.

Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson: A pirate adventure story about a young boy who goes in search of buried treasure.

Triumph by John Kenneth Galbraith: A book about the rise of the United States to become a global superpower.

Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare: A comedy about a group of people who are shipwrecked on an island and fall in love with each other.

Twenty Years After by Alexander Dumas: A sequel to The Three Musketeers, this novel tells the story of the musketeers’ adventures twenty years later.

Two Leaves and a Bud by Mulk Raj Anand: A novel about the life of a young boy in India during the time of the British Raj.

Tamas by Bhisham Sahni: A novel about the partition of India and the violence that followed.

Tarkash by Javed Akhtar: A collection of poems by one of India’s most famous poets.

Tehriq-e-Mujahideen by Dr. Sadiq Hussain: A book about the history of the Tehriq-e-Mujahideen, a militant group in Pakistan.

The Assassination by K. Mohandas: A novel about the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi.

The Betrayal of East Pakistan by A. A. K. Lt Gen: A book about the events leading up to the secession of East Pakistan from Pakistan.

The Calcutta Chromosome by Amitav Ghosh: A novel about a group of scientists who are investigating a mysterious disease in Calcutta.

The Career and Legend of Vasco de Gama by Sanjay Subramanyam: A biography of the Portuguese explorer Vasco de Gama.

The Chinese Betrayal by B. N. Mullick: A book about the Chinese invasion of India in 1962.

The Congress Splits by R. P. Rao: A book about the splits within the Indian National Congress party.

The Defeat or Distant Drumbeats by Bhaskar Roy: A novel about the Indian Army’s defeat in the 1962 war with China.

Ulysses by James Joyce: A modernist novel that tells the story of a single day in the life of Leopold Bloom, a Dubliner.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin by H. B. Stowe: A novel about the life of a slave in the United States before the Civil War.

Unhappy India by Lala Lajpat Rai: A book about the problems facing India during the time of the British Raj.

Universe Around Us by James Jeans: A book about the universe and its wonders.

Unto This Last by John Ruskin: A book about the importance of social justice.

Utopia by Thomas Moore: A book about a perfect society.

Uttar Ramcharita by Bhavbhuti: A Sanskrit play about the life of Rama after the death of his wife Sita.

Until Darkn V

• Valley of Dolls by Jacqueline Susann: A story about the lives of three women in the entertainment industry.
• Vanity Fair by William Thackeray: A satirical novel about the upper class in 19th-century England.
• Vendor of Sweets, The by R. K. Narayan: A story about a sweet shop owner in a small town in India.
• View from the UN by U. Thant: A collection of speeches and writings by the former Secretary-General of the United Nations.
• Village, The by Mulk Raj Anand: A novel about the lives of villagers in India.
• Vinay Patrika by Tulsidas: A religious text in Hindi.
• View from Delhi, $A$ by Chester Bowles: A book about the author’s experiences as the United States Ambassador to India.
• Virginians, The by William Thackeray: A historical novel set in 18th-century America.
• Vish Vriksha by Bankimchandra Chatterjee: A Bengali novel about a man’s search for spiritual enlightenment.
• Voice of Conscience by V. V. Giri: A collection of speeches and writings by the former President of India.
• Veni Samhara by Narayana Bhatt: A Sanskrit play about the defeat of the demon king Ravana.
• Village by the Sea by Anita Desai: A novel about a woman’s life in a small coastal village in India.
• Vinay Patrika by Tulsidas: A religious text in Hindi.
• Virangana by Maithili Sharan Gupta: A Hindi poem about a brave woman.
• Voice of Freedom by Nayantara Sehgal: A novel about the Indian independence movement.

W

• Wake up India by Annie Besant: A book about the need for Indian independence.
• Walls of Glass, The by K. A. Abbas: A novel about the lives of journalists in India.
• War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy: A historical novel about the Napoleonic Wars.
• War of Indian Independence by Vir Savarkar: A book about the Indian independence movement.
• War of the Worlds, The by H. G. Wells: A science fiction novel about an alien invasion of Earth.
• Waste Land, The by T. S. Eliot: A long poem about the spiritual emptiness of modern society.
• Way of All Flesh by Samuel Butler: A satirical novel about a man’s life in Victorian England.
• Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith: A book about economics.
• We Indians by Khuswant Singh: A book about Indian culture and society. Here’s the simplified version of the content:

Books:

• That Was India: by A. L. Basham
• Wreck: by Rabindranath Tagore
• Waiting for the Mahatma: by R. K. Narayan
• War and No Peace Over Kashmir: by Maroof Raza
• We, the People: by N. A. Palkhivala
• Widening Divide: by Rafiq Zakaria
• Wings of Fire: an Autobiography by Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam and A. Tiwari
• Witness to History: by Prem Bhatia
• Without Fear or Favour: by Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
• Women and Men in My Life: by Khushwant Singh
• Worshipping False Gods: by Arun Shourie

Additional Books:

• Yama: by Mahadevi Verma
• Yashodhara: by Maithili Sharan Gupt
• Year of the Vulture: by Amita Malik
• Yajnaseni: by Pratibha Roy
• Yayati: by V. S. Khandekar
• Years of Pilgrimage: by Dr. Raja Ramanna
• Yesterday and Today: by K. P. S. Menon

Awards and Honours:

Nobel Prize:

• Year of Institution: 1901
• Founder: Alfred Bernhard Nobel
• Date awarded: 10th December (death anniversary of the founder) The Nobel Prize is a prestigious award given to people who have made significant contributions in various fields. It was established in 1900 based on the will of Alfred Bernhard Nobel, a Swedish scientist and engineer.

There are six categories of Nobel Prizes:

1. Physics: for outstanding achievements in physics.
2. Chemistry: for important discoveries in chemistry.
3. Physiology or Medicine: for groundbreaking research in physiology or medicine.
4. Literature: for exceptional literary works.
5. Peace: for promoting peace and understanding among nations.
6. Economics (established in 1967): for significant contributions to economic science.

The Nobel Prizes are presented annually on December 10th, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel’s death. The awards are presented by the King of Sweden in a ceremony held in Stockholm, Sweden.

Originally, the Nobel Prizes were only awarded in five categories. The Prize in Economic Sciences was added in 1967 by the Swedish central bank, Sveriges Riksbank, to celebrate its 300th anniversary. It is officially known as the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.

The Nobel Prizes are considered among the highest honors that can be bestowed upon individuals for their intellectual achievements and contributions to society. Pulitzer Prize

• Year Instituted: 1917
• Awarded for: Accomplishments in journalism, literature, and music in the United States.

Magsaysay Award

• Year Instituted: 1957
• Awarded for: Outstanding contributions to public service, community leadership, journalism, literature, creative arts, and international understanding.

Templeton Award

• Year Instituted: 1972
• Awarded for: Progress in religion.

Booker Prize

• Year Instituted: 1968
• Awarded for: Highest literary award in the United Kingdom.

Right Livelihood Award

• Year Instituted: 1980
• Awarded for: Honoring those who find practical and exemplary solutions to the most urgent challenges facing society. Philatelic expert: A person who collects and studies stamps.

Alternative Nobel Prize: An award given to people who have found practical and helpful ways to solve real-world problems.

Jawaharlal Nehru Award: An award given by the Indian government to people who have done outstanding work to promote international understanding and friendship.

Oscar Awards: An award given by the American Academy of Motion Pictures, Arts, and Sciences to people who have made significant contributions to the film industry.

Jesse Owens Award: An award given by the International Amateur Athletic Federation to athletes who have made significant and lasting contributions to society.

Bharat Ratna: The highest civilian award in India, given to people who have made exceptional contributions to the country. Bharat Ratna Award:

• The Bharat Ratna is the highest civilian award in India.
• It is given to people who have done exceptional work in art, literature, science, or public service.
• The President of India gives the award on January 26 every year.
• The first people to receive the Bharat Ratna were C. Rajagopalachari, S. Radhakrishnan, and C. V. Raman.
• The Janata Government stopped giving the awards in 1977, but the Congress Government started them again in 1980.
• Mother Teresa was the first person to receive the Bharat Ratna after it was started again.

Padma Awards:

• The Padma Awards are also given by the President of India.
• They are given to people who have done excellent work in different fields, such as art, literature, science, sports, and social service.
• There are three levels of Padma Awards: Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri.
• The Padma Vibhushan is the highest level of Padma Award.
• The Padma Awards were started in 1954. After the Bharat Ratna, the Padma awards are the next highest honours. They were stopped in 1977 along with the Bharat Ratna but were brought back in 1980. There are three Padma awards:

1. Padma Vibhushan: This is the second-highest national award. It is given to people who have done exceptional and outstanding work in any field, including government employees.
2. Padma Bhushan: This is the third-highest national award. It is given to people who have done distinguished work in any field.
3. Padma Shri: This is the fourth-highest award. It is given to people who have done distinguished work in any field.

Gallantry Awards

Param Vir Chakra: This is the highest decoration for bravery. It is given to people who have shown the most outstanding bravery or have sacrificed themselves in the face of the enemy on land, at sea, or in the air. The medal is made of bronze.

Mahavir Chakra: This is the second-highest gallantry award. It is given to people who have shown outstanding bravery in the face of the enemy on land, at sea, or in the air. The medal is made of standard silver.

Vir Chakra: This is the third-highest gallantry award. It is given to people who have shown bravery in the face of the enemy on land, at sea, or in the air. The medal is made of standard silver. The Param Vir Chakra is a medal given to soldiers who show great bravery in front of the enemy, whether on land, at sea, or in the air. It is made of silver.

Here are some of the people who have won the Param Vir Chakra:

• Major Somnath Sharma: He was awarded the medal after he died in the Kashmir Operations in 1947-48.

• 2nd Lt R. R. Rane: He was awarded the medal in April 1948 for his actions in the Kashmir Operations in 1947-48.

• Company Havildar Major Piru Singh: He was awarded the medal after he died in the Kashmir Operations in 1947-48.

• L/N. K. Karam Singh: He was awarded the medal in October 1948 for his actions in the Kashmir Operations in 1947-48.

• Naik Jadunath Singh: He was awarded the medal after he died in the Kashmir Operations in 1947-48.

• Captain Gurbachan Singh Salaria: He was awarded the medal after he died in the Congo in December 1961.

• Major Dhan Singh Thappa: He was awarded the medal in October 1962 for his actions in Ladakh.

• Subedar Joginder Singh: He was awarded the medal after he died in NEFA in October 1962.

• Major Shaitan Singh: He was awarded the medal after he died in Ladakh in November 1962.

• Abdul Hamid: He was awarded the medal after he died in the Operations against Pakistan in September 1965. List of Gallantry Award Recipients:

• Lt Col A. B. Tarapore, 17 Poona Horse: Awarded posthumously in September 1965 for his actions during an operation against Pakistan.

• FIg Officer Nirmal Jit Singh Sekhon, No. 8 Squadron: Awarded posthumously in December 1971 for his bravery during the Indo-Pak Conflict.

• Major Hoshiar Singh, 3 Grenadiers: Honored in December 1971 for his valor in the Indo-Pak conflict.

• 2nd Lt Arun Khetarpal, 17 Poona Horse: Awarded posthumously in December 1971 for his exceptional courage in the Indo-Pak Conflict.

• L/N. K. Albert Ekka, 14 Brigade of Guards: Received a posthumous award in December 1971 for his bravery in the Indo-Pak Conflict.

• Naib Subedar Bana Singh, 8 JAK Light Infantry: Recognized for his bravery in June 1987 during operations in the Siachen Glacier.

• Major Ramaswamy Parameswaran, 8 Mahar Regiment: Awarded posthumously in November 1997 for his heroic actions during IPKF Operations in Sri Lanka.

• Captian Vikram Batra, 13 JAK Rifles: Honored posthumously in June 1999 for his bravery in OP Vijay in Kargil.

• Lt Manoj Kumar Pandey, 1/11 GR: Awarded posthumously in June 1999 for his exceptional courage in OP Vijay in Kargil.

• Rifleman Sanjay Kumar, 13 JAK Rifles: Recognized for his bravery in June 1999 during OP Vijay in Kargil.

• Gdr Yogender Singh Yadav, 18 GDRS: Honored for his bravery in June 1999 during OP Vijay in Kargil.

Civilian Gallantry Awards:

1. Ashok Chakra:

• This award is given to people who show the most bravery or do something very courageous or selfless, but not in a fight against an enemy.

Kirti Chakra:

• This award is given to people who show great bravery, but not in a fight against an enemy.

Shaurya Chakra:

• This award is given to people who show bravery, but not in a fight against an enemy.

Other National Awards:

Dada Saheb Phalke Award:

• This award is given to people who have made outstanding contributions to the film industry. The first person to receive this award was Devika Rani in 1969.

Bharatiya Jnanpith Award:

• This is the most prestigious literary award in India. It is given to outstanding authors who write creative literature in any of the Indian languages recognized by the Constitution of India.

Arjuna Award:

• This award is given to outstanding sportspersons in various disciplines.

Dronacharya Award:

• This award is named after Dronacharya, the legendary guru from the epic story of the ‘Mahabharata’. It is given to outstanding coaches who have made significant contributions to the development of sports in India. Who taught archery to the Kauravas and Pandavas?

This information is not provided in the given text, so I cannot answer this question.

Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award

This award is given to sports coaches for outstanding work on a consistent basis in the last three consecutive years.

The highest honour given to a sports person across sporting disciplines

This award is given to the best sportsperson in India, regardless of the sport they play. The Olympics started in 1924. Women have been competing in the Olympics since 1912. India first took part in the Olympics in 1920 when four athletes and two wrestlers went to the sixth Olympic games in Antwerp, Belgium.

The Olympic Flag is white silk with five intertwined rings as the Olympics symbol. From right to left, the rings are blue (Europe), yellow (Asia), black (Africa), red (America), and green (Australia).

In 1897, Father Didon wrote the games motto ‘Citius, Altius, Fortius’ in Latin, which means ‘Swifter, Higher and Stronger’. However, it was only used as the Olympic motto in the 1920 games.

Here is a table showing where and when the first five Olympics were held:

Olympiad	Year	Venue	Country
I	1896	Athens	Greece
II	1900	Paris	France
III	1904	St Louis	US
IV	1908	London	Great Britain
V	1912	Stockholm	Sweden

Summer Olympics	Year	City	Country
6	1916	Berlin	Germany
7	1920	Antwerp	Belgium
8	1924	Paris	France
9	1928	Amsterdam	Netherlands
10	1932	Los Angeles	United States
11	1936	Berlin	Germany
12	1940	Tokyo (Helsinki)	Japan (Finland)
13	1944	London	Great Britain
14	1948	London	Great Britain
15	1952	Helsinki	Finland
16	1956	Melbourne	Australia
17	1960	Rome	Italy
18	1964	Tokyo	Japan
19	1968	Mexico City	Mexico
20	1972	Munich	West Germany
21	1976	Montreal	Canada
22	1980	Moscow	Soviet Union
23	1984	Los Angeles	United States
24	1988	Seoul	South Korea
25	1992	Barcelona	Spain
26	1996	Atlanta	United States
27	2000	Sydney	Australia
28	2004	Athens	Greece
29	2008	Beijing	China
30	2012	London	United Kingdom
31	2016	Rio de Janeiro	Brazil

*The 1940 and 1944 Summer Olympics were not held due to World War II. During World War II, the Olympic Games were not held. In 1940, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) took the Games away from Tokyo and gave them to Helsinki instead.

ASIAN GAMES

These games were started by India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, in 1951. They happen every four years, in between the Olympic Games.

The first Asian Games were held in New Delhi, India, at the National Stadium. They were opened by India’s first President, Rajendra Prasad. About 489 athletes from 11 countries took part in the Games.

The Asian Games Federation adopted the motto “Ever Onward,” which was given by Jawaharlal Nehru. The emblem of the Asian Games is a bright, rising sun with interlocking rings. The Maharaja of Patiala gave the “Torch and Flag” to the first Asian Games in New Delhi.

Table 15.2 Asiads-Where and When

| Year | Venue City | Participation
Country | No. of
Athletes | No. of
Nations | No. of
Sports | Ranking
(First Three) | | :- | Year | Location | Country | Total Medals | Gold | Silver | Top 3 Countries | |—|—|—|—|—|—|—| | 1951 | New Delhi | India | 489 | 11 | 6 | 1. Japan
2. India
3. Iran | | 1954 | Manila | Philippines | 967 | 18 | 8 | 1. Japan
2. Philippines
3. South Korea | | 1958 | Tokyo | Japan | 1422 | 20 | 13 | 1. Japan
2. Philippines
3. South Korea | | 1962 | Jakarta | Indonesia | 1545 | 17 | 13 | 1. Japan
2. Indonesia
3. India | | 1966 | Bangkok | Thailand | 1945 | 18 | 14 | 1. Japan
2. South Korea
3. Thailand | | 1970 | Bangkok | Thailand | 1752 | 18 | 13 | 1. Japan
2. South Korea
3. Thailand | | 1974 | Tehran | Iran | 2357 | 25 | 16 | 1. Japan
2. Iran
3. China | | 1978 | Bangkok | Thailand | 2879 | 25 | 19 | 1. Japan
2. China
3. South Korea | | 1982 | New Delhi | India | 3411 | 33 | 21 | 1. China
2. Japan
3. South Korea | | 1986 | Seoul | South Korea | 3345 | 27 | 25 | 1. China
2. South Korea
3. Japan | | 1990 | Beijing | China | 4684 | 37 | 27 | 1. China
2. Asian Games

Year	Venue City	Host Country	Number of Athletes	Number of Nations	Number of Sports	Top Three Countries
1994	Hiroshima	Japan	5,300	42	34	China, South Korea, Japan
1998	Bangkok	Thailand	8,100	41	36	China, South Korea, Japan
2002	Busan	South Korea	9,919	42	38	China, South Korea, Japan
2006	Doha	Qatar	10,500	45	39	China, South Korea, Japan
2010	Guangzhou	China	14,000	45	42	China, South Korea, Japan
2014	Icheon	South Korea (Scheduled)

Commonwealth Games

The first Commonwealth Games were held in 1930 in Hamilton, Canada. They are held every four years, just like the Olympics. All countries that were once British colonies participate in these sports events. The Commonwealth Games are the second largest sports event after the Olympics. The Commonwealth Games:

• The Commonwealth Games are a sports competition held every four years between countries that are part of the Commonwealth of Nations.

• The first Commonwealth Games were held in 1930 in Hamilton, Canada.

• The next Commonwealth Games will be held in New Delhi, India in 2010. WORLD CUP CRICKET

• 1975: West Indies won against Australia in Lord’s, England.

• 1979: West Indies won against England in Lord’s, England.

• 1983: India won against West Indies in Lord’s, England.

• 1987: Australia won against England in Calcutta, India.

• 1992: Pakistan won against England in Melbourne, Australia.

• 1996: Sri Lanka won against Australia in Lahore, Pakistan.

• 1999: Australia won against Pakistan in Lord’s, England.

• 2003: Australia won against India in Johannesburg, South Africa.

• 2007: Australia won against Sri Lanka in Bridgetown, West Indies.

• 2011: India won against Sri Lanka in Mumbai, India.

• 2015: Scheduled to happen in Melbourne, Australia.

• 2019: Scheduled to happen in Lord’s, England.

T-20 CRICKET WORLD CUP

• 2008: India won against Pakistan in Johannesburg, South Africa.

• 2009: Pakistan won against Sri Lanka in England.

• 2010: England won against Australia in West Indies.

• 2012: West Indies won against Sri Lanka in Sri Lanka.

• 2014: Sri Lanka won against India in Bangladesh.

• 2016: West Indies won against England in India. a) Cricket Matches:

• India defeated Pakistan in a cricket match.

• Pakistan won against Sri Lanka in a cricket match.

• England emerged victorious over Australia in a cricket match.

• West Indies defeated Sri Lanka in a cricket match.

• Sri Lanka won against India in a cricket match.

b) Indian Premier League (IPL) Schedule:

• The first IPL was held in Mumbai in 2008.
• The second IPL took place in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 2009.
• The third IPL was held in Mumbai in 2010.
• The fourth IPL was held in Chennai in 2011.
• The fifth IPL was also held in Chennai in 2012.
• The sixth IPL was held in Kolkata in 2013.
• The seventh IPL was held in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and India, with the finals taking place in Bangalore in 2014.

c) IPL Winners:

• Rajasthan Royals defeated Chennai Super Kings in the first IPL.
• Deccan Chargers defeated Royal Challengers in the second IPL.
• Chennai Super Kings defeated Mumbai Indians in the third IPL.
• Chennai Super Kings defeated Royal Challengers Bangalore in the fourth IPL.
• Kolkata Knight Riders defeated Chennai Super Kings in the fifth IPL.
• Mumbai Indians defeated Chennai Super Kings in the sixth IPL.
• Kolkata Knight Riders (KKR) defeated Kings XI Punjab (KXI) in the seventh IPL.

d) World Cup Hockey Winners:

• In 1971, Pakistan defeated Spain in Barcelona to win the World Cup Hockey.
• In 1973, Holland defeated India in Amsterdam to win the World Cup Hockey.
• In 1975, India defeated Pakistan in Kuala Lampur to win the World Cup Hockey.
• In 1978, Pakistan defeated Holland in Buenos Aires to win the World Cup Hockey.
• In 1982, Pakistan defeated Germany in Mumbai to win the World Cup Hockey.
• In 1986, Australia defeated England in London to win the World Cup Hockey.
• In 1990, Holland defeated Pakistan in Lahore to win the World Cup Hockey. World Cup Soccer (Football) Tournament

1. In 1930, Uruguay won against Argentina in Uruguay.
2. In 1934, Italy won against Czechoslovakia in Italy.
3. In 1938, Italy won against Hungary in Brazil.
4. In 1950, Uruguay won against Brazil in Brazil.
5. In 1954, West Germany won against Hungary in Switzerland.
6. In 1958, Brazil won against Sweden in Sweden.
7. In 1962, Brazil won against Czechoslovakia in Chile.
8. In 1966, England won against West Germany in England.
9. In 1970, Brazil won against Italy in Mexico.
10. In 1974, West Germany won against Holland in West Germany.
11. In 1978, Argentina won against Holland in Argentina.
12. In 1982, Italy won against West Germany in Spain.
13. In 1986, Argentina won against West Germany in Mexico.
14. In 1990, West Germany won against Argentina in Italy.
15. In 1994, Brazil won against Italy in the United States.
16. In 1998, Holland won against Spain in Utrecht.
17. In 2002, Germany won against Australia in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
18. In 2006, Germany won against Australia in Monchengladbach, Germany.
19. In 2010, Australia won against Germany in India.
20. In 2014, the tournament was scheduled to take place in The Hague, Netherlands. FIFA World Cup

• The FIFA World Cup is a soccer tournament held every four years.
• It is organized by FIFA, the international governing body for soccer.
• The tournament is named after Jules Rimet, who was the president of FIFA from 1921 to 1953.
• The World Cup was not held in 1942 and 1946 because of World War II.

SAF (South Asian Federation) Games

• The SAF Games are a multi-sport event held every two years.
• They are organized by the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
• The first SAF Games were held in 1984 in Kathmandu, Nepal.
• The seven participating countries are India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and Maldives.
• The motto of the SAF Games is “Peace, Prosperity, and Progress.”
• The 1986 SAF Games were not held because it was a year of the Commonwealth and Asian Games. SAARC Sports Competitions

Year	Edition	Venue	Participating Countries
1985	II	Dhaka, Bangladesh	India, Pakistan, Bangladesh
1987	III	Calcutta, India	India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
1989	IV	Islamabad, Pakistan	India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
1991	V	Colombo, Sri Lanka	India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan
1993	VI	Dhaka, Bangladesh	India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
1995	VII	Chennai, India	India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan
1999	VIII	Kathmandu, Nepal	India, Nepal, Sri Lanka
2004	IX	Islamabad, Pakistan	India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
2006	X	Colombo, Sri Lanka	India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
2010	XI	Dhaka, Bangladesh	Event scheduled to take place in November
			2009 took place in January 2010 (India/
2013	XII	New Delhi (India)	Postponed from Bhutan but dates yet to be
			confirmed
2014	XIII	Kathmandu (Nepal)	Scheduled
2016	XIV	Hambantota (Sri Lanka)	Scheduled

Important Trophies and Cups

| Name | Associated Sport | |—|—| Sports and Their Associated Trophies

Trophy Name	Sport
American Cup	Yacht Racing
Ashes	Cricket (Australia vs. England)
Canada Cup	Golf (World Championship)
Colombo Cup	Football (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar)
Corbillion Cup	World Table Tennis (Women)
Davis Cup	Tennis
Derby	Horse Racing
Holker	Bridge
Jules Rimet Trophy	World Football (Soccer)
Merdeka	Football (Asian Cup)
Ryder Cup	Golf
Reliance Cup	Cricket
Swaythling Cup	World Table Tennis (Men)
Todd Memorial Trophy	Basketball
Thomas Cup	World Badminton (Men)
Tunku Abdul Rahman Cup	Asian Badminton
U. Thant Cup	Lawn Tennis
Uber Cup	World Badminton (Women)
Yonex Cup	Badminton
Walker Cup	Golf
William Cup	Basketball
Wimbledon Trophy	Tennis
World Cup	Cricket (Prudential/Reliance Cup)

National Trophies

Trophy Name	Sport
Aga Khan Cup	Hockey
Barna-Bellack Cup	Sports and Trophies

Sport	Trophy
Table Tennis (Men)	Beighton Cup
Hockey	Ezar Cup
Polo	Dhyan Chand Trophy
Football (National Junior)	Dr. B. C. Roy Trophy
Cricket	Duleep Trophy
Football	Durand Cup
Hockey (All India Women)	Guru Nanak Championship
Cricket	Irani Cup
Hockey (Women)	Lady Ratan Tata Trophy
Hockey	Maharaja Ranjit Singh Gold Cup
Hockey	Murugappa Gold Cup
Hockey	Nehru Trophy
Football	Nizam Gold Cup
Hockey (National Championship)	Rangaswami Cup
Cricket (National Championship)	Ranji Trophy
Football	Rovers Cup
Football	Sanjay Gold Cup
Football	Santosh Trophy
Cricket	Sheesh Mahal Trophy
Football	Subroto Mukherjee Cup
Football	Todd Memorial Trophy
Football	Vittal Trophy
Cricket	Vizzy Trophy
Hockey	Yadavindra Cup

Special Names of Playgrounds

Sport	Name of Playing Area
Badminton	Court

• Golf: Link, Green
• Baseball: Diamond
• Lawn Tennis: Court
• Boxing: Ring
• Skating: Rink
• Cricket: Pitch (the space between the wickets)
• Wrestling: Ring, Arena

National Sports of different countries:

• Australia: Tennis and Cricket
• Canada: Lacrosse
• China: Table Tennis (Ping Pong)
• England: Cricket, Football
• India: Hockey, Kabaddi
• Japan: Judo, Sumo
• Malaysia: Badminton
• Scotland: Rugby, Football
• Spain: Bull Fighting
• US: Baseball

Sports Stadiums in India:

• Netaji Indoor Stadium: Kolkata

• Wankhede Stadium: Mumbai

• Nehru (Chepauk) Stadium: Chennai

• National Stadium: New Delhi

• Vallabhbhai Patel Stadium: Ahmedabad

• Keenan Stadium: Jamshedpur

• Brabourne Stadium: Mumbai

• Yadvindra Stadium: Patiala

• Ranji Stadiums in India:

• Eden Gardens: Kolkata

• Barabati Stadium: Cuttack

• Green Park Stadium: Kanpur

• Sawai Mansingh Stadium: Jaipur

• Shivaji Stadium: New Delhi

• Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium: New Delhi

• Yuva Bharati Stadium (Salt Lake Stadium): Kolkata

Largest Stadium in India:

• Yuva Bharati Stadium is the largest stadium in India and can hold up to 1,20,000 people. It is spread over an area of 30.75 hectares and is also the largest stadium in the world.

Sports and Associated Terms:

• Badminton: drop, deuce, smash, double touch, clash service, love, service line

• Base Ball: bunting, home, pitcher, put out, strike

• Basketball: block, dribble, held ball, pivot, basket

• Billiards: cue, cannon, baulk, pot scratch, long jenny, short jenny, frame, spider, short and long rest, in-off

• Boxing: rounds, knock-outs, countdown, flyweight, feather Boxing

• Weight classes:

  • Heavyweight
  • Middleweight
  • Lightweight

• Punches:

  • Jab
  • Uppercut
  • Hook
  • Punch

Chess

• Basic terms:
  • Bridge
  • Little slam
  • Gambit
  • Stalemate
  • Move
  • Resign
  • Checkmate
• Pieces:
  • King
  • Queen
  • Rook
  • Bishop
  • Knight
  • Pawn
• Strategies:
  • Double check
  • Sicilian Defence
  • Caro Kann Defence

Cricket

• Basic terms:
  • Innings
  • Runs
  • Wickets
  • Overs
  • Hat-trick
  • Maiden
  • Follow-on
  • Declare
• Ways of dismissal:
  • Bowled
  • Caught
  • Run-out
  • Leg- before wicket (LBW)
  • Stumped
• Scoring:
  • Boundary
  • Six
  • Four
  • Single
• Positions:
  • Batsman
  • Bowler
  • Wicket-keeper
  • Non-striker
• Fielding positions:
  • Slips
  • Gully
  • Forward short-leg
  • Silly mid-on
  • Mid-on
  • Point
  • Cover
  • Mid-off
  • Long off
  • Mid-wicket
  • Short-leg
  • Long leg
  • Fine-leg
• Deliveries:
  • Yorker
  • Bouncer
  • Beamer
  • Googly
  • Full toss
• Shots:
  • Drive
  • Cut
  • Pull
  • Hook
  • Flick

Football (Soccer)

• Basic terms:
  • Kick off
  • Goal
  • Corner-kick
  • Free-kick
  • Throw-in
  • Penalty
  • Offside
  • Red card
  • Yellow card
  • Foul
  • Hat trick
• Playing:
  • Dribble
  • Pass
  • Forward
  • Defender
  • Half
  • Goalkeeper
  • Tie-breaker
  • Trapping
  • Heading ## Miscellaneous Topics

Table 16.1: Firsts in the World

Number	Field	Name	Year
1	First person to reach the South Pole	Roald Amundsen (Norway)	1911
2	First person to reach the North Pole	Robert E. Peary (USA)	1909
3	First woman to reach the North Pole	Karoline Mikkelsen (Norway)	1935
4	First woman to reach the South Pole	Fran Phipps (Canada)	1971
5	First person to go to Space	Yuri Gagarin (former USSR)	1961
6	First person to set foot on the Moon	Neil Alden Armstrong (US)	1969
7	First person to walk in Space	Alexei Leonov (former USSR)	1965
8	First woman Cosmonaut in Space	Valentina Tereshkova (former USSR)	1963
9	First person to climb Mount Everest	Tenzing Norgay (Nepal)	1953
10	First woman to climb Mount Everest	Junko Tabei (Japan)	1975
11	First President of the United States	George Washington	1789
12	First foreign invader of India	Alexander the Great (Greece)	326 BC
13	First woman to cross the Strait of Gibraltar	Arti Pradhan (India)	1969

14. A deaf and dumb handicapped man named Taranath Shenoy from India crossed the Strait of Gibraltar.

15. Dr. Sun Yat-Sen was the President of the Chinese Republic.

16. Mao Tse Tung was the Chairman of the People’s Republic of China from 1949 to 1976.

17. Ferdinand Magellan from Portugal was the first person to circumnavigate the world in 1519-1521.

18. Sir Robert Walpole from Britain was the first Prime Minister of a country, serving from 1721 to 1742.

19. Srimavo Bhandarnaike was the first female Prime Minister of a country, serving in Sri Lanka from 1970 to 1977.

20. Margaret Thatcher was the first female Prime Minister of England.

21. Sir Ranulph Fiennes and Burton completed the first polar circumnavigation, traveling around both the North and South Poles, from 1979 to 1982.

22. Fahien was a Chinese traveler who visited India between 405 and 411.

23. Rev. Barbara C. Harris from the USA became the first female Bishop in 1988.

24. Maria Estela Peron from Argentina was the first female President of a country.

25. Erling Kagge from Norway was the first person to ski to both the North and South Poles and climb Mount Everest in 1994. Table 16.2: Indian Nobel Laureates

Year	Field	Details
1915	Literature	Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) was a famous Indian writer and educator. He won the Nobel Prize for his book of poems called “Gitanjali.” He also founded a school called “Shantiniketan,” which later became a university.
1930	Physics	C. V. Raman (1888-1970) was the first Indian scientist to win the Nobel Prize. He won it for his work on the scattering of light, which is called the “Raman effect.”
Physics
C. V. Raman (1888-1970)

• An Indian physicist who discovered the scattering of light known as the ‘Raman Effect’.
• This effect describes how the frequency of light changes when it passes through a transparent material.
• He was the first Indian and Asian to win the Nobel Prize in Physics.

1968 Medicine Hargobind Khorana (born 1922)

• An Indian-born American citizen who won the Nobel Prize for the first time in the laboratory synthesis of a yeast gene.

1979 Peace Mother Teresa (1910-1998)

• Born in Albania (Yugoslavia), she came to India in 1929 at the age of 19 and became an Indian citizen.
• She founded the ‘Missionaries of Charity’ and won the Nobel Prize for her missionary work.
• She also received many other awards, including the Bharat Ratna (1980), Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding (1969), Ramon Magsaysay Award (1962), and Templeton Foundation Award (1973).
• She dedicated her life to serving people who were suffering.

1983 Physics Subramanyan Chandrasekhar (1910-1995)

• An Indian-American astrophysicist who won the Nobel Prize for his theoretical studies of the physical processes important to the structure and evolution of stars. 1995

• Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was born in Lahore, which is now in Pakistan.

• He later became an American citizen.

• He won the Nobel Prize for his work on ‘Chandrasekhar’s Limit’.

• This limit determines the minimum mass a dying star needs to survive.

1998

• Amartya Sen was born in 1933.
• He won the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1998.
• He was the first Asian to win this award.
• He found a mathematical solution to the ‘Impossibility Theorem’.
• This theorem says that it’s impossible to combine individual choices into a choice that works for everyone in society.
• Professor Sen showed that societies could find ways to avoid this problem.

2009

• Venkatraman Ramakrishnan was born in 1952.
• He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2009.
• He studied the structure and function of ribosomes. Christianity

• Founder: Jesus Christ (5 BC to AD 30), born in Judea, also known as Jesus of Nazareth.
• Founded: Around 2000 years ago.
• Followed: All over the world.
• Sacred Text: Holy Bible, which has two parts: the ‘Old Testament’ (before Christ) and the ‘New Testament’ (during and after Christ).
• Sacred Places: Jerusalem, where Christ lived and preached.
• Place of Worship: Church.
• Important Sects: Catholics and Protestants.

Hinduism

• Founder: Ancient Sages.
• Founded: Around 1500 BC.
• Followed: Mainly in India and Nepal, but also found in Bhutan, Fiji, Guyana, Indonesia, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Surinam, Trinidad and Tobago.
• Sacred Texts: ‘The Vedas’, ’the Upanishads’, ’the Bhagavad Gita’, and the epics of the ‘Mahabharata’ and the ‘Ramayana’.
• Place of Worship: Temple.

Islam

• Founder: Prophet Mohammed (AD 570-632), born in Mecca (Saudi Arabia).
• Founded: AD 622.
• Followed: All over the world, especially in the Middle East, North Africa, and Southeast Asia.
• Sacred Text: Quran.
• Sacred Places: Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem.
• Place of Worship: Mosque.
• Important Sects: Sunni and Shia. 6. Judaism (Religion of the Hebrews)

Founder: Moses, born in Egypt around 1300 BC

Followed in: Worldwide, with large communities in Israel and the United States

Sacred Texts: The Talmud, which includes the five books of the Bible, and commentaries on the Torah known as the Talmud and Midrash

Sacred Places: Jerusalem

Place of Worship: Synagogue

7. Shintoism

Founder: Developed from Japanese culture and traditions, particularly ancestor worship

Followed in: Japan

Sacred Texts: No specific text

Sacred Place: Central Shrine of Ise Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

ACC: Amateur Athletics Federation of India

AD: Anno Domini (After Christ)

ADB: Asian Development Bank

ADC: Aide-de-Camp

ADF: African Development Fund

ADMK: Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

ADR: American Depository Receipt

AEC: Atomic Energy Commission

AF: Audio Frequency

AFC: Asian Football Confederation

AFP: Agence France-Presse

AFPRO: Action for Food Programme

AGM: Annual General Meeting

AH: Anno Hegirae

AGP: Asom Gana Parishad

AGSOC: Asian Games Special Organizing Committee

AI: Air India

AIADMK: All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

AICC: All India Congress Committee

AICS: All India Council of Sports

AICTE: All India Council of Technical Education

AID: Agency for International Development Agency for International Development: An organization that helps other countries with money and resources.

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome): A disease that weakens the body’s ability to fight infections.

AIFACS (All India Fine Arts and Crafts Society): A group that promotes Indian art and crafts.

AIML (All India Muslim League): A political party that represented Indian Muslims before India’s independence.

AINEC (All India Newspaper Editors Conference): A group of newspaper editors in India.

AIIMS (All India Institute of Medical Sciences): A famous hospital and medical research center in India.

AILTA (All India Lawn Tennis Association): A group that organizes tennis tournaments in India.

AIMO (All India Manufacturers Organization): A group that represents Indian manufacturers.

AIR (All India Radio): India’s national public radio broadcaster.

AIREC (All India Railway Employees Confederation): A union for railway workers in India.

AIRF (All India Railwaymen’s Federation): Another union for railway workers in India.

AISSF (All India Sikh Students Federation): A group that represents Sikh students in India.

AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress): A major trade union in India.

AIWC (All India Women’s Conference): A group that advocates for women’s rights in India.

AJT (Advanced Jet Trainer): A type of military aircraft used for training pilots.

AM (Ante Meridian): Before noon.

AMC (Army Medical Corps, Asset Management Company, Annual Maintenance Contract): Different meanings depending on the context.

AMIE (Associate Member of Institution of Engineers): A professional qualification for engineers in India.

ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, US): A military alliance between these three countries.

AOC (Air Officer Commanding): A senior officer in the Indian Air Force.

AP (Associate Press): A news agency.

APC (Armoured Personnel Carrier): A military vehicle that carries soldiers and protects them from gunfire.

APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Corporation): A group of countries in the Asia-Pacific region that work together on economic issues.

APL (Above Poverty Line): A term used to describe people who earn more than the poverty line.

APPLE (Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment): A European space program that launched satellites.

APM (Admin): A term used in various contexts, such as administration or project management. Registered Pricing Mechanism

The Registered Pricing Mechanism is a system used to set prices for certain goods and services. It is administered by the government and involves the registration of prices with the government. This system is used to ensure that prices are fair and reasonable for both consumers and producers.

ARC Administrative Reforms Commission

The ARC Administrative Reforms Commission is a government body that is responsible for reviewing and recommending reforms to the administrative system of the country. It was established in 1966 and has since played a key role in shaping the administrative structure of the country.

ARDC Agricultural Refinance and Development Corporation

The ARDC Agricultural Refinance and Development Corporation is a financial institution that provides loans and other financial assistance to farmers and agricultural businesses. It was established in 1963 and has since played a vital role in supporting the agricultural sector of the country.

ARF Asean Regional Forum

The ARF Asean Regional Forum is a regional security forum that brings together countries from the Asia-Pacific region. It was established in 1994 and serves as a platform for dialogue and cooperation on security issues.

ASAT Anti-Satellite

ASAT Anti-Satellite is a weapon system that is designed to destroy satellites in orbit. It is a controversial technology that raises concerns about the militarization of space.

ASC Army Service Corps

The ASC Army Service Corps is a branch of the military that is responsible for providing logistical support to the army. It was established in 1939 and has since played a vital role in supporting the army’s operations.

ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations

ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations is a regional organization that brings together countries from Southeast Asia. It was established in 1967 and serves as a platform for cooperation on a wide range of issues, including economic, political, and security matters.

ASI Archaeological Survey of India

The ASI Archaeological Survey of India is a government agency that is responsible for the protection and preservation of historical monuments and sites in the country. It was established in 1861 and has since played a vital role in preserving the country’s cultural heritage.

ASLV Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle

The ASLV Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle is a satellite launch vehicle that is used to launch satellites into orbit. It was developed by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and has been used to launch a number of satellites, including the INSAT series of communication satellites.

ASPAC Asian and Pacific Council

The ASPAC Asian and Pacific Council was a regional organization that brought together countries from the Asia-Pacific region. It was established in 1966 and served as a platform for dialogue and cooperation on economic and social issues. The ASPAC was dissolved in 1973.

ASSOCHAM Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry

The ASSOCHAM Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry is a business organization that represents the interests of the private sector in the country. It was established in 1920 and has since played a key role in shaping the country’s economic policies.

ATM Automated Teller Machine

An ATM Automated Teller Machine is a machine that allows customers to withdraw cash, make deposits, and perform other banking transactions without the need to visit a bank branch. ATMs have become increasingly popular in recent years and are now widely available in most countries. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre: A research center that studies atomic energy.

Business to Business: A type of business transaction where one business sells to another business.

Before Christ: A way of marking time that counts years before the birth of Jesus Christ.

Business to Customer: A type of business transaction where a business sells to a consumer.

British Broadcasting Corporation: A public broadcasting company in the United Kingdom.

Board of Control for Cricket in India: The governing body for cricket in India.

Bacillus Calmette Guerin (Tuberculosis Vaccine): A vaccine that protects against tuberculosis.

Bharat Electronics Limited: A company that makes electronic equipment in India.

Belgium, The Netherland and Luxembourg: A group of three countries in Europe.

Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd.: A company that makes electrical equipment in India.

The Board of Industrial and Financial Reconstruction: A government agency that helps businesses in India with financial problems.

Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand Economic Co-oporation: A group of countries in Asia that work together on economic issues.

Bureau of Indian Standards: A government agency that sets standards for products and services in India.

Binary Digit: A digit in the binary number system, which uses only the numbers 0 and 1.

Bharatiya Janata Party: A political party in India.

Bharatiya Kranti Dal: A political party in India.

Bharatiya Kisan Union: A farmers’ union in India.

Bharatiya Lok Dal: A political party in India.

British Overseas Airways Corporation (now British Airways): A former British airline that is now called British Airways.

Build, Own, Lease and Transfer: A type of business arrangement where a company builds something, owns it, leases it to someone else, and then transfers ownership to that person.

Build, Own, Operate and Transfer: A type of business arrangement where a company builds something, owns it, operates it, and then transfers ownership to someone else.

Build, Own, Share and Transfer: A type of business arrangement where a company builds something, owns it, shares it with someone else, and then transfers ownership to that person.

Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited: A company that sells petroleum products in India.

Bureau of Public Enterprises: A government agency that oversees public sector enterprises in India.

Below Poverty Line: A measure of poverty that is used in India.

Business Process Outsourcing: A type of business arrangement where a company hires another company to do some of its work. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

Abbreviation	Full Form
BSS	Bharat Sewa Samaj
BSP	Bahujan Samaj Party
BT	Bacillus Thuringiensis
C

| CABE | Central Advisory Board for Education | | CAD | Computer Aided Design | | CAG | Comptroller and Auditor-General | | CAM | Computer Aided Manufacturing | | CAPES | Computer Aided Paperless Examination System | | CAR | Capital Adequacy Ratio | | CARE | Cooperative for American Relief Everywhere | | CAS | Conditional Access System | | CASE | Commission on Alternative Sources of Energy | | CASTAP | Conference on Application of Science and Technology in Asia and the Pacific | | CBDT | Central Board of Direct Taxes | | CBFC | Central Board of Film Certification | | CBI | Central Bureau of Investigation | | CBM | Confidence Building Measures | | CBR | Central Board of Revenue, Crude Birth Rate | | CBSE | Central Board of Secondary Education | | CBT | Children’s Book Trust | | C2C | Customer to Consumer | | CCI | Cricket Club of India | | Abbreviation | Full Form | |—|—| | CD | Compact Disc/Certificate of Deposit/Corpa Diplomatique | | C-DOT | Centre for Development of Telematics | | CDMA | Code Division Multiple Access | | CDR | Crude Death Rate | | CDRI | Central Drug Research Institute | | CDS | Compulsory Deposit Scheme | | CDSL | Central Depository Services (India) Ltd. | | CENTO | Central Treaty Organization | | CEC | Chief Election Commissioner | | CEO | Chief Executive Officer | | CFD | Congress for Democracy | | CFC | Chlorofluoro Carbons | | CFO | Chief Financial Officer | | CFSI | Children’s Film Society of India | | CFTRI | Central Food Technological Research Institute | | CGHS | Central Government Health Scheme | | CHEC | Commonwealth Human Economic Council | | CHOGM | Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting | | CHOGRM | Commonwealth Heads of Government Regional Meeting | | CII | Confederation of Indian Industry | | CIA | Central Intelligence Agency (USA) | | CIS | Commonwealth of Independent States | Here is the provided content rewritten in simpler language:

Acronym	Full Form	Simple Explanation
CISF	Central Industrial Security Force	A force responsible for providing security to industrial establishments and government buildings.
C-in-C	Commander-in-Chief	The highest-ranking officer in the military or armed forces.
CID	Criminal Investigation Department	A department within the police force that investigates crimes.
CIET	Central Institute of Educational Technology	An institute that focuses on developing and promoting educational technology.
CIF	Cost, Insurance and Freight	A term used in international trade that includes the cost of goods, insurance, and freight charges.
CIL	Coal India Limited	A government-owned company that is the largest coal producer in India.
CITES	Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species	An international agreement that aims to control the trade of endangered species of animals and plants.
CITU	Centre of Indian Trade Unions	A trade union organization that represents the interests of workers in India.
CIWTC	Central Inland Water Transport Corporation	A government-owned corporation that operates inland water transport services in India.
CLRC	Central Land Reforms Committee	A committee formed to review and recommend reforms in land ownership and distribution in India.
CMD	Chairman and Managing Director	The top executive of a company who holds both the positions of chairman and managing director.
CMIE	Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy	A private research organization that provides economic analysis and data on the Indian economy.
CMO	Chief Medical Officer	A senior doctor who is responsible for the overall medical care in a hospital or organization.
CMN	Common Market Nations	A group of countries that have agreed to reduce or eliminate trade barriers among themselves.
CNG	Compressed Natural Gas	A fossil fuel that is made by compressing natural gas under high pressure.
CNN	Cable News Network	A 24-hour news and information television channel.
COAI	Cellular Operators Association of India	An industry association that represents the interests of cellular operators in India.
COAS	Chief of Army Staff	The highest-ranking officer in the Indian Army.
COBOL	Common Business Oriented Language	A programming language that is widely used for business applications.
COD	Cash on Delivery	A payment method where the customer pays for the goods at the time of delivery.
COFEPOSA	Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Act	An act that aims to prevent the illegal import and export of goods and foreign exchange.
COMEX	Commonwealth Expedition	An expedition organized by the Commonwealth countries to promote cooperation and understanding among member nations.
CORDET	Cooperative Rural Development Training	A program that aims to provide training and support to rural cooperatives in India.

Abbreviation	Full Form
CPC	Civil Procedure Code
CPF	Contributory Provident Fund
CPI	Communist Party of India
CPO	Central Para Military Organization
CPI(M) / CPM	Communist Party of India (Marxist)
CRIS	Central Railway Information Systems
CRISIL	Credit Rating Information Services of India Ltd.
CRM	Customer Relationship Management
CrPC	Criminal Procedure Code
CRPF	Central Reserve Police Force
CRR	Cash Reserve Ratio
CRRI	Central Road Research Institute
CRY	Child Relief and You
CSE	Centre for Science and Environment
CSI	Computer Society of India
CSIO	Central Scientific Instruments Organization
CSIR	Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
CSO	Central Statistical Organization
CSIRO	Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
CTBT	Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
CVC	Chief Vigilance Commissioner
CVR	Cockpit Voice Recorder

D

DA - Dearness Allowance

DAE - Department of Atomic Energy

DANICS - Delhi-Andaman Nicobar Island Civil Services

DC - Direct Current, Deputy Commissioner

DCC - District Congress Committee

DDT - Dichloro-Diphenyl Trichloro-Ethane

DMRC - Delhi Metro Rail Corporation

DOT - Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloro-ethane (Insecticide)

DGC - Director-General of Civil Aviation

DGTD - Director-General of Technical Development

DGS and D - Directorate-General of Supply and Disposals

DLF - Development Loans Fund

D. Litt - Doctor of Literature

DLO - Dead Letter Office

DMK - Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

DMKF - Dalit Mazdoor Kisan Party

DPI - Director of Public Instruction

DPT - Diphtheria, Pertussis, and Tetanus (Vaccine)

DNA - Deoxy Ribonucleic Acid

DO - Demi Official

DOD - Department of Ocean Development

DRDL - Defence Research and Development Laboratory

DRDO - Defence Research and Development Organization

DRI - Differential Rate of Interest

DSIDC - Defence Scientific Information and Documentation Centre

DTH - Direct to Home Service DV

• DV stands for “Deo Volente,” which means “God willing” in Latin.

DVDR

• DVDR stands for “Digital Versatile Disc Recordable.” It is a type of optical disc that can be used to store data.

E

• EARC: Economic Administrative Reforms Commission
• ECA: Economic Commission for Asia
• ECAFE: Economic Commission for Asia and Far East
• ECG: Electrocardiogram
• ECGC: Export Credit and Guarantee Cooperation
• ECHR: European Commission on Human Rights
• ECM: European Common Market
• ECOSOC: Economic and Social Council (of UN)
• ECS: Electronic Clearance Services
• EEC: European Economic Community
• EEG: Electro Encephalogram
• EFTA: European Free Trade Association
• EG: Exampli Gratia (For e.g.)
• ELSS: Equity Linked Saying Scheme
• E-MAIL: Electronic Mailing
• EMF: Electro-Motive Force
• ENLF: Eelam National Liberation Front
• EOU: Export Oriented Unit
• EPABX: Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchange
• EPS: Earning Per Share
• EPZ: Export Processing Zone
• ESCAP: Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific ESI: Employees State Insurance.

ESMA: Essential Services Maintenance Act.

ESP: Extra Sensory Perception.

ESPN: Entertainment and Sports Programming Network.

FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization (of UN).

FBI: Federal Bureau of Investigation.

FBTR: Fast Breeder Test Reactor.

FCD: Fully Convertible Debenture.

FCI: Food Corporation of India/Fertilizer Corporation of India.

FDI: Foreign Direct Investment.

FEMA: Foreign Exchange Management Act.

FERA: Foreign Exchange Regulation Act.

FF: Film Finance Corporation.

FFI: Foreign Financial Institutions.

FI: Financial Institution.

FII: Foreign Institutional Investor.

FIA: Federation International de Automobile.

FICCI: Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry.

FIFA: International Football Federation.

FIPB: Foreign Investment Promotion Board.

FIR: First Information Report.

FLAG: Fibre Optic Link Around the Globe.

FM: Frequency Modulation.

FMCG: First Moving Consumer Goods.

FMCT: Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty. FOB: Freight on Board

FOR: Freight on Rail

FRCP: Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians

FRCS: Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons

FRS: Fellow of the Royal Society

FTZ: Free Trade Zone

G:

G-7: Group of Seven Nations (US, UK, Germany, France, Italy, Japan, and Canada)

G-8: Group of Eight Nations (G-7 Countries plus Russia)

G-15: Group of Fifteen Nations

GAIL: Gas Authority of India Limited

GARP: Global Atmospheric Research Project

GATS: General Agreement on Trade and Services

GATT: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

GBS: George Bernard Shaw

GCC: Gulf Cooperation Council

GDR: Global Depository Receipt

GDP: Gross Domestic Product

GEC: General Electric Company

GHQ: General Headquarters

GIC: General Insurance Corporation

GLOBE: Global Learning and Observation to Benefit the Environment

GmbH: Gesellsheft Mit Beshrankter Haftung Liability company (German Limited Companies)

GMO: Genetically Modified Organisms

GMT: Greenwich Mean Time

GNLF: Gorkhaland National Liberation Front

GNP: Gross National Product Gross National Product

GOC: General Officer Commanding

GOI: Government of India

GPF: General Provident Fund/Gandhi Peace Foundation

GPO: General Post Office

GSLV: Geo-Synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

GSTP: Global System of Trade Practices

H

HAL: Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd.

HBV: Hepatitis-B Virus

HDFC: Housing Development and Finance Corporation

HE: His/Her Excellency

HEC: Heavy Engineering Company

HEH: His/Her Highness

HLC: Humanitarian Law Commission (Red Cross Body)

HLL: Hindustan Lever Limited

HMI: Himalayan Mountaineering Institute

HMT: Hindustan Machine Tools

HMV: His Master’s Voice

HP: Harmonic Progression, Horse Power

HSD: High Speed Diesel

HSL: Hindustan Steel Ltd.

HUDCO: Housing and Urban Development Corporation

HZL: Hindustan Zinc Limited

I

IAA: International Airport Authority

IAAS: Indian Audit and Accounts Service

IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency

IAC: Indian Airlines Corporation

IAFC: Indian Agricultural Finance Corporation

IAMC: Indian Army Medical Corps Cal Corps

IARI - Indian Agricultural Research Institute

IASRI - Indian Agricultural Statistical Research Institute

IATA - International Air Transport Association

IBEC - International Bank for Economic Cooperation

IBM - International Business Machines

IBRD - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

ICAO - International Civil Aviation Organization

ICAR - Indian Council of Agricultural Research

ICBM - Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile

ICC - International Cricket Council/International Crime Court/International Control Commission

ICE - Infotech Communications and Entertainment

ICHR - Indian Council of Historical Research

ICICI - Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India

ICJ - International Court of Justice

ICCR - Indian Council of Cultural Relations

ICRA - Investment and Credit Rating Agency of India

ICRC - International Committee of Red Cross

ICRIER - Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations

ICSI - Institute of Company Secretaries of India

ICSSR - Indian Council of Social Science Research ICSW: Indian Council of Social Welfare

ICWA: Indian Council of World Affairs

ICWAI: Institute of Cost and Works Accountants of India

IDA: International Development Agency

IDC: Industrial Development Corporation

IDBI: Industrial Development Bank of India

IDPL: Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd.

IDRC: International Development Research Centre

IDSA: Institute of Defence Studies and Analysis

IETE: Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers

IFAD: International Fund for Agricultural Development

IFCI: Industrial Finance Corporation of India

IFFI: International Film Festival of India

IGIA: Indira Gandhi International Airport

IGNOU: Indira Gandhi National Open University

IHF: Indian Hockey Federation

IIFT: Indian Institute of Foreign Trade

IIP: Index of Industrial Production

ILO: International Labour Organization

IMA: Indian Military Academy

IMF: International Monetary Fund

INS: Indian Naval Ship

INSAT: Indian National Satellite System Acronyms and their meanings:

• INSAT: Indian National Satellite
• INTELSAT: International Telecommunication Satellite
• INTERPOL: International Police
• INTUC: Indian National Trade Union Congress
• IOA: Indian Olympic Association
• IOC: International Olympic Committee
• IOCOM: Indian Ocean Commonwealth
• IOJ: International Organization of Journalists
• IOU: I Owe You
• IPC: Indian Penal Code
• IPO: Initial Public Offering
• IPU: International Parliamentary Union
• IQ: Intelligence Quotient
• IRA: Irish Republic Army
• IRBM: Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile
• IRDA: Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority
• IRDP: Integrated Rural Development Programme
• IREDA: Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency
• IRSS: Indian Remote Sensing Satellite
• ISAF: International Security Assistance Force (Afghanistan)
• ISBA: International Sea-Bed Authority
• ISBN: International Standard Book Number
• ISI: Inter Services Intelligence (Pakistan)
• ISO: International Organization for Standardization Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

L

• Standards Organization: An organization that sets standards for products, services, or processes.
• ISP: A company that provides internet access to its customers.
• ISRO: The Indian government agency responsible for space research and development.
• IST: The standard time zone for India.
• ITBP: A paramilitary force responsible for guarding the India-China border.
• ITDC: A government-owned corporation that promotes tourism in India.
• ITF: The international governing body for tennis.
• ITO: An office of the Indian government responsible for collecting income tax.
• ITU: The United Nations agency responsible for coordinating telecommunications worldwide.
• IIUTF: An international organization that represents the trade fair industry.
• IVF: A medical procedure in which eggs are fertilized outside the body.
• IYC: The youth wing of the Indian National Congress political party.

J

• JCO: A non-commissioned officer in the Indian military.
• JP: A political party founded by Jayaprakash Narayan.
• JPC: A committee formed by the Indian Parliament to investigate a specific issue.
• JRY: A government program that provides employment opportunities to rural residents.
• JLP: A political party formed by members of the Janata Party.
• JPP: A political party formed by members of the Janata Party.
• JKLF: A militant group fighting for the independence of Kashmir.
• JVM: The student wing of the Janata Party.

K

• KAL: Korean Airlines, the national airline of South Korea.
• KANU: Kenya African National Union, a political party in Kenya.
• KBE: Knight of the British Empire, a British honorific title.
• KG: Kindergarten, a school for young children.
• KRIBHCO: Krishak Bharti Corporation Ltd., a fertilizer company in India.
• KVIC: Khadi and Village Industries Commission, a government agency that promotes traditional Indian industries. L

LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

LDC: Lower Division Clerk.

LES: Lunar Escape System.

LlC: Life Insurance Corporation.

LSD: Lysergic Diethylamide.

LTTE: Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.

LASIK: Laser in Situ Kerato Mileusis.

LCA: Light Combat Aircraft.

LIBOR: London Interbank Offer Rate.

LLB: Legum Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Law).

LNG: Liquified Natural Gas.

LOAC: Line of Actual Control.

LOC: Line of Control.

LPG: Liquified Petroleum Gas.

LSE: London School of Economics.

M

MA: Master of Arts (Magisites Artium).

M&A: Merger and Acquisition.

MAD: Mutual Assured Destruction.

MBA: Master of Business Administration.

MBE: Member of the British Empire.

MBT: Main Battle Tank.

MCC: Marylebone Cricket Club.

MMAMC: Mining and Allied Machinery Corporation.

MBBS: Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery.

MCI: Medical Council of India.

MENA: Middle East News Agency.

MFN: Most Favoured Nation.

MI: Military I. N

NAAI: National Airport Authority of India.

NABARD: National Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development.

NAFED: National Agricultural Co-operation Marketing Federation.

NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement.

NAG: National Air Guard.

NAM: Non-Aligned Movement. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

**Acronym	Full Name	Description**
NASA	National Aeronautics and Space Administration	A US government agency responsible for space exploration and research.
NASDAQ	National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotation	A stock exchange in the United States.
NASSCOM	The National Association of Software and Service Companies	A trade association for the Indian IT industry.
NATO	North Atlantic Treaty Organization	A military alliance of countries from North America and Europe.
NAV	Net Asset Value	The value of a mutual fund or exchange-traded fund (ETF) divided by the number of shares outstanding.
NB	Nota Bene (Note well/Note below)	A Latin phrase used to draw attention to something important.
NBFC	Non-Banking Finance Company	A financial institution that provides banking services but is not a bank.
NBT	National Book Trust	A government organization in India that promotes reading and literacy.
NCA	National Commission of Agriculture	A government body in India that advises on agricultural policies.
NCAER	National Council of Applied Economic Research	A think tank in India that conducts research on economic issues.
NCD	Non-Convertible Debenture	A type of bond that cannot be converted into stock.
NCEPC	National Committee of Environmental Planning and Coordination	A government body in India that coordinates environmental planning.
NCERT	National Council of Educational Research and Training	A government organization in India that develops educational materials and curriculum.
NCM	National Commission for Minorities	A government body in India that protects the rights of minority communities.
NCR	National Capital Territory	A region in India that includes Delhi and surrounding areas.
NCST	National Committee of Science and Technology, National Conference on Science and Technology	A government body in India that promotes science and technology.
NDA	National Defence Academy/National Democratic Alliance	A military academy in India/A political alliance in India.
NDDB	National Dairy Development Board	A government organization in India that promotes dairy farming and development.
NDC	National Development Council	A government body in India that plans and coordinates economic development.
NEERI	National Environmental Engineering Research	A government organization in India that conducts research on environmental engineering. Institute

NEFA - North-East Frontier Agency

NEPA - National Environment Protection Act

NFDC - National Film Development Corporation

NGO - Non-Governmental Organization

NGRI - National Geographical Research Institute

NHAI - National Highway Authority of India

NHDP - National Highways Development Project

NHPC - National Hydro-electric Power Corporation

NHRC - National Human Rights Commission

NIC - National Integration Council

NID - National Institute of Design

NDC - National Development Corporation

NIEO - National Economic Order

NIIT - National Institute of Information Technology

NIO - National Institute of Oceanography

NITIE - National Institute for Training in Industrial Engineering

NMDC - National Mineral Development Corporation

NOC - No Objection Certificate

NPA - Non-Performing Assets

NPC - National Productivity Council

NPL - National Physical Laboratory

NPT - Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

NRC - Nuclear Regulatory Commission

NRE - Non-Resident External (Account)

NRI - Non-Resident Indian

NRSA - National Remote Sensing Agency: An organization that uses satellites and other technology to collect information about the Earth’s surface.

NSC National Service Corps: A government program that mobilizes young people to contribute to community development.

NSE National Stock Exchange: A stock exchange where stocks and shares are bought and sold.

NTPC National Thermal Power Corporation: A government-owned company that generates electricity using coal and gas.

OAPEC Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries: An organization of countries that export oil from the Arab region.

OAS Organization of American States: An organization of countries in the Americas that promotes cooperation and development.

OAU Organization of African Unity: An organization of countries in Africa that promotes unity and cooperation.

OIGS On Indian Government Service: A term used to refer to people who work for the Indian government.

ONGC Oil and Natural Gas Corporation: A government-owned company that explores for and produces oil and natural gas.

OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries: An organization of countries that export oil from around the world.

PAC Provincial Armed Constabulary, Public Accounts Committee, Political Affairs Committee: Different committees or organizations with specific functions related to law enforcement, financial accountability, or political matters.

PAN Permanent Account Number (Income Tax): A unique identification number assigned to individuals and entities for the purpose of income tax administration.

PBX Private Branch Exchange (Telephone): A telephone system that allows multiple users to share a single telephone line.

PDS Public Distribution System: A government program that provides subsidized food and other essential items to low-income families.

PEC Projects and Equipment Corporation of India: A government-owned company that provides engineering, procurement, and construction services.

PER Price Earning Ratio: A financial ratio used to evaluate the value of a company’s stock.

PET Polyethylene Tereph Thalate: A type of plastic commonly used in packaging and containers.

PIN Postal Index Number: A code used to identify a specific postal area or location.

PIO Person of Indian Origin: A person who has Indian ancestry but may not be a citizen of India.

PCC Pradesh Congress Committee: A state-level unit of the Indian National Congress, a political party.

PDA Preventive Detention Act: A law that allows the government to detain individuals without trial for security reasons.

PEN Poets, Editors and Novelists Association: An international organization that promotes literature and freedom of expression.

PERT Programme Evaluation and Review Technique: A project management tool used to plan and monitor the progress of a project.

PFA Press Foundation of Asia, Prevention of Food Adulteration: Different organizations with a focus on media and food safety, respectively.

PHC Primary Health Center: A healthcare facility that provides basic medical services to a community. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

PIB: Public Investment Board or Press Information Bureau

PII: Press Institute of India

PIL: Public Interest Litigation

PLOTE: People’s Liberation Organization of Tamil Eelam

PLO: Palestine Liberation Organization

PLR: Prime Lending Rate

PM: Post Meridien (afternoon) or Prime Minister

PNR: Passenger Name Recorder

POK: Pakistan Occupied Kashmir

POTA: Prevention of Terrorist Activities Act

POW: Prisoner of War

PPP: Pakistan People’s Party or Purchasing Power Parity

PREPAK: People’s Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (Imphal)

PRO: Public Relations Officer

PS: Post Script

PSC: Public Service Commission

PSLV: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

PSP: Praja Socialist Party

PTA: Parent-Teacher Association

PTI: Press Trust of India

PVC: Param Vir Chakra (highest military decoration in India)

PVSM: Param Vishisht Seva Medal (distinguished service medal in India)

PWD: Public Works Department

Q:

QED: Quod Erat Demonstrandum (Latin for “that which was to be demonstrated”)

QMG: Quarter Master General

QMT: Quantitat Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

QR Quarterly Report/Quantitative Restrictions: A report or set of rules that limits the amount of something that can be imported or exported.

RADAR Radio Detecting and Ranging: A system that uses radio waves to detect and locate objects, such as ships or aircraft.

RAM Random Access Memory: A type of computer memory that can be accessed in any order, rather than in a specific sequence.

RAW Research and Analysis Wing: India’s external intelligence agency.

RBI Reserve Bank of India: India’s central bank.

RCD Regional Cooperation for Development: An organization that promotes economic cooperation among countries in the Middle East and South Asia.

R&D/RND Research and Development: The process of creating new products or technologies.

RAF Rapid Action Force: A specialized unit of the Indian Armed Forces that is trained to respond quickly to emergencies.

RDX Research Developed Explosive: A powerful explosive that is used in military applications.

REC Rural Electrification Corporation/Regional Engineering College: A government-owned corporation that provides electricity to rural areas in India.

RITES Rail India Technical and Economic Services: A consultancy firm that provides services to the Indian Railways.

RLEGS Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Scheme: A government program that provides employment to landless people in rural areas.

RPM Revolutions Per Minute: A measure of how fast something is rotating.

RSM Rashtriya Sanjay Manch: A political party in India.

RSS Rashtriya Swayam Sewak Sangh: A right-wing Hindu nationalist organization in India.

RSVP Repondez Sil Vous Plait (Reply if you please): A French phrase that is used to request a response to an invitation.

RTC Round Table Conference: A meeting between representatives of different groups to discuss and resolve issues.

SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation: An organization that promotes economic and political cooperation among countries in South Asia.

SAFTA South Asian Free Trade Agreement: An agreement that eliminates tariffs and other trade barriers between countries in South Asia.

SAIL Steel Authority of India Ltd.: A government-owned steel company in India.

SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks: A series of negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union to limit the development and deployment of nuclear weapons.

SAPTA SAARC Preferential Trading Agreement: An agreement that provides preferential tariffs for certain goods traded between countries in South Asia.

SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome: A respiratory illness that is caused by a coronavirus.

SC Scheduled Caste, Supreme Court: The highest court in India.

SCI Shipping Corporation of India: A government-owned shipping company in India.

SCOPE Standing Conference of Public Enterprises: An organization that represents public sector enterprises in India. SCUBA: A breathing device that allows people to breathe underwater.

SDR: A special type of money used by countries to trade with each other.

SEBI: An organization that regulates the stock market in India.

SENSEX: A measure of how the stock market in India is performing.

SEZ: A special area in India where businesses can operate with fewer restrictions.

SITE: A project that used satellites to provide educational television programs to people in India.

SEATO: A military alliance between countries in Southeast Asia.

SERC: An organization that researches structural engineering.

SFF: A special military force in India.

SFI: A student organization in India.

SHCIL: A company that holds stocks for other companies.

SGPC: An organization that manages Sikh temples in India.

SIDBI: A bank that provides loans to small businesses in India.

SIDC: An organization that helps develop industries in different states of India.

SIPRI: An organization that researches peace and security issues.

SITA: A law that prohibits the trafficking of women and girls.

SOS: A signal used to call for help.

SLV: A rocket that launches satellites into space.

SLR: A type of rifle or a measure of how much money banks must keep in reserve.

SLFP: A political party in Sri Lanka.

SMS: A way to send short messages on a mobile phone.

SNIPES: An organization that promotes physical education and sports in India.

SPCA: An organization that protects animals. SPDC: State Peace and Development Council (Myanmar)

SSC: Staff Selection Commission

SSI: Small Scale Industries

STC: State Trading Corporation

STD: Subscriber Trunk Dialling

STAR-TV: Satellite Television Asian Region Ltd.

STARS: Satellite Tracking and Ranging Station

START: Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty

SUNFED: Special United Nations Fund for Economic Development

SVD: Samyukta Vidhayak Dal

SWAPO: South-West African People’s Organization

TA: Travelling Allowance, Territorial Army

TADA: Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act

TAX: Trunk Automatic Exchange

TDA: Trade Development Authority

TDP: Telugu Desam Party

TDS: Tax Deducted at Source

TELCO: Tata Engineering and Locomotive Company

TELEX: Teleprinter Exchange

TELO: Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization

TERLS: Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station

THI: Temperature Humidity Index

TIFR: Tata Institute of Fundamental Research

TISCO: Tata Iron and Steel Company

TMO: Telegraph Money Order

A money order is a safe and convenient way to send money to someone. It’s like a check, but it’s guaranteed by the post office or a bank. You can buy a money order at the post office or at some banks.

TMT Technology Media Telecom

TMT is a company that provides technology, media, and telecommunications services.

TRYSEM (National Scheme) Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment

TRYSEM is a government program that provides training to rural youth so that they can start their own businesses.

TNC Trans National Corporation

A TNC is a company that operates in more than one country.

TNT Tri-nitro toluene (highly explosive material)

TNT is a powerful explosive that is used in mining, construction, and demolition.

TQM Total Quality Management

TQM is a management philosophy that focuses on improving the quality of products and services.

TRAI Telecom Regulatory Authority of India

TRAI is a government agency that regulates the telecommunications industry in India.

TRIMS Trade Related Investment Measures

TRIMS are government regulations that affect foreign investment.

TRIPS Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights

TRIPS are international agreements that protect intellectual property rights, such as patents, copyrights, and trademarks.

TRP Television Rating Points

TRPs are a measure of how many people watch a particular television program.

TSP Total Suspended Particles

TSPs are small particles of solid matter that are suspended in the air.

TULF Tamil United Liberation Front

TULF is a political party in Sri Lanka that represents the Tamil minority.

TUC Trade Union Congress

The TUC is a British trade union federation.

TWA Trans World Airlines

TWA was an American airline that operated from 1930 to 2001.

U

UAE United Arab Emirates

The UAE is a country in the Middle East.

UANC United African National Council

The UANC is a political party in South Africa.

UAR United Arab Republic

The UAR was a political union between Egypt and Syria that existed from 1958 to 1961.

UCTA United Chamber of Trade Association

The UCTA is a trade association in the United Kingdom.

UDC Upper Division Clerk

A UDC is a government employee in India who is responsible for administrative tasks.

UDF United Democratic Front

The UDF is a political party in India.

UFO Unidentified Flying Object

A UFO is an object that is seen in the sky that cannot be identified.

ULFA United Liberation Front of Assam

ULFA is a separatist group in India that is fighting for an independent state for the Assamese people.

UNCIP United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan

UNCIP was a United Nations commission that was established in 1948 to help resolve the conflict between India and Pakistan over Kashmir.

UNCITRAL United Nations Conference on International Trade Law

UNCITRAL is a United Nations conference that was established in 1966 to promote the development of international trade law.

UNCLOS United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea

UNCLOS is a United Nations conference that was established in 1973 to develop a comprehensive treaty on the law of the sea. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

Acronym	Full Name	Description
e Sea
UNCNRSE	United Nations Conference for New and Renewable Sources of Energy	A conference focused on promoting the use of new and renewable energy sources.
UNCOD	United Nations Conference on Desertification	A conference focused on addressing the issue of desertification.
UNCST	United Nations Conference on Science and Technology	A conference focused on promoting scientific and technological cooperation.
UNCTAD	United Nations Conference on Trade and Development	A conference focused on promoting trade and development.
UNDOF	United Nations Disengagement Observer Force	A peacekeeping force deployed to observe the disengagement of Israeli and Syrian forces in the Golan Heights.
UNDC	United Nations Disarmament Commission	A commission established to promote disarmament and arms control.
UNDP	United Nations Development Programme	A program that provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries.
UNEF	United Nations Emergency Force	A peacekeeping force deployed to maintain peace and security in the Middle East.
UNEP	United Nations Environment Programme	A program that promotes environmental protection and sustainable development.
UNESCO	United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization	An organization that promotes education, science, and culture.
UNFPA	United Nations Fund for Population Activities	A fund that supports population activities, including family planning and reproductive health.
UNHCR	United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees	An agency that provides protection and assistance to refugees.
UNI	United News of India	A news agency based in India.
UNIC	United Nations Information Centre	A center that provides information about the United Nations.
UNICEF	United Nations International Children’s Education Fund	A fund that provides assistance to children, including education, health, and nutrition.
UNIDO	United Nations Industrial Development Organization	An organization that promotes industrial development in developing countries.
UNIFIL	United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon	A peacekeeping force deployed to maintain peace and security in Lebanon.
UNISPACE	United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space	A conference focused on promoting the peaceful use of outer space.

UNITAR: United Nations Institute for Training and Research.

UNITC: United Nations International Trade Centre.

UFO: Unidentified Flying Object.

UGC: University Grants Commission.

ULFA: United Liberation Front of Assam.

UNCSW: United Nations Commission on the Status of Women.

UPS: Uninterrupted Power Supply.

USP: Unique Selling Proposition.

UNLA: Uganda National Liberation Army.

UNMOGIP: United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan.

UNRRA: United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration.

UPI: United Press International.

UPSC: Union Public Service Commission.

USAID: United States Agency for International Development.

USIS: United States Information Service.

VAT: Value Added Tax.

VABAL: Value Based Advanced Licence.

VSAT: Very Small Aperture Terminal.

VSNL: Videsh Sanchar Nigam Ltd.

VPP: Value Payable Post.

VIP: Very Important Person.

VSSC: Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre.

VRDE: Vehicle Research and Development Establishment. Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

W

• WAPCOS: Water and Power Development Consultancy Services (I) Ltd.
• WASME: World Assembly of Small and Medium Enterprises
• WEF: World Economic Forum
• WLL: Wireless in Local Loop
• WMD: Weapons of Mass Destruction
• WPI: Wholesale Price Index
• WWW: World Wide Web
• WFC: World Food Council
• WFP: World Food Programme
• WFTU: World Federation of Trade Unions
• WHO: World Health Organization
• WMO: World Meteorological Organization
• WTO: World Trade Organization
• WWF: World Wildlife Fund

Y

• Y2K: Year 2000
• Y-O-Y: Year on Year
• YMCA: Young Men’s Christian Association
• YWCA: Young Women’s Christian Association
• YMIA: Young Men’s Indian Association

Table 16.3: Indian Political Parties

Political Party	Abbreviation
Aam Aadmi Party	AAP
Akhil Bharatiya Loktantrik Congress	ABLC
All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam	AIADMK
All India Forward Bloc	AIFB
All India Majlis-(e)-Ittehadul Muslimeen	AIMEIM Political Parties:

• Haryana Janhit Congress (BL): MJC
• Mizoram People’s Conference: HPC
• Zoram National Party: ZNP
• Pattali Makkal Katchi: PMK
• Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam: DMDK
• Revolutionary Socialist Party: RSP

Presidents of India:

S. No	Name	Tenure
1.	Dr Rajendra Prasad	26 Jan 1950 - 13 May 1962	First President; longest tenure
2.	Dr S. Radhakrishnan	13 May 1962 - 13 May 1967
3.	Dr Zakir Hussain	13 May 1967 - 3 May 1969	President with shortest tenure; first Muslim President of India and first to die in office
4.	Varahagiri Venkatagiri	3 May 1969 - 20 July 1969	First to become Acting President
5.	Justice M. Hidayatullah	20 July 1969 - 24 Aug 1969
6.	Varahagiri Venkatagiri	24 Aug 1969 - 24 Aug 1969	Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

S. No	Name	Tenure
1.	Dr. Rajendra Prasad	August 24, 1969 - August 24, 1974	Only person to become President of India twice
2.	Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed	August 24, 1974 - February 11, 1977	Died while in office
3.	B. D. Jatti	February 11, 1977 - July 15, 1977	Acting President
4.	Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy	July 25, 1977 - July 25, 1982	Youngest to become President (64 years old)
5.	Giani Zail Singh	July 25, 1982 - July 25, 1987	First Sikh President of India
6.	R. Venkataraman	July 25, 1987 - July 25, 1992	Oldest to become President (76 years old)
7.	Dr. S. D. Sharma	July 25, 1992 - July 25, 1997
8.	K. R. Narayanan	July 25, 1997 - July 25, 2002
9.	Dr. A. P. J. Kalam	July 25, 2002 - July 25, 2007
10.	Pratibha Devi Patil	July 25, 2007 - July 25, 2012	First woman President of India

S. No.	Name	Tenure
1.	Dr. S. Radhakrishnan	1952-1962
2.	Dr. Zakir Hussain	1962-1967
3.	Varahagiri Venkata Giri	1967-1969
4.	Gopal Swaroop Pathak	1969-1974
5.	B. D. Jatti	1974-1979
6.	Justice M. Hidayatullah	1979-1984
7.	R. Venkataraman	1984-1987
8.	Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma	1987-1992
9.	K. R. Narayanan	1992-1997
10.	Krishan Kant	1997-2002
11.	Bhairon Singh Shekhawat	2002-2007
12.	Mohammad Hamid Ansari	2007-Present

Table 16.6: Prime Ministers of India

S. No.	Name	Tenure
1.	Pt Jawaharlal Nehru	15 August 1947 - 27 May 1964

S. No	Name	Tenure
1.	Jawaharlal Nehru	7-27 May	First Prime Minister; also the longest tenure (17 years)
2.	Gulzari Lal Nanda	27 May 1964-9 June	First Acting Prime Minister
3.	Lal Bahadur Shastri	9 June 1964-11 Jan	First Prime Minister to die abroad during an official visit
4.	Gulzari Lal Nanda	11 Jan 1966-24 Jan	First to become Acting Prime Minister twice
5.	Indira Gandhi	24 Jan 1966-24 March	First lady Prime Minister; First to lose elections
6.	Morarji Desai	24 March 1977-28 June 1979	Oldest to become Prime Minister and the first to resign from office
7.	Charan Singh	28 July 1979-14 Jan 1980	The only Prime Minister who did not face the Parliament
8.	Indira Gandhi	14 Jan 1980-31 Oct 1984	Second term as Prime Minister; assassinated in office

• Prime Minister from October 31, 1984, to November 1989.
• Became Prime Minister at the age of 40, making him the youngest person to hold the office.

10. V. P. Singh (born 1931)

• Prime Minister from December 1989 to November 7, 1990.
• First Prime Minister to resign after losing a vote of no confidence.

11. Chandra Shekhar (born 1927)

• Prime Minister from November 10, 1990, to June 1992.

12. P. V. Narasimha Rao (born 1921)

• Prime Minister from June 20, 1992, to May 16, 1996.
• First Prime Minister from South India.

13. A. B. Vajpayee (born 1926)

• Prime Minister from May 16, 1996, to June 1, 1996.
• Shortest tenure as Prime Minister, lasting only 13 days.

14. H. D. Deve Gowda (born 1933)

• Prime Minister from June 1, 1996, to April 21, 1997.
• Leader of the United Front Parliamentary Group.

15. Inder Kumar Gujral (born 1933)

• Prime Minister from April 21, 1997, to March 18, 1998.

16. A. B. Vajpayee (born 1926)

• Prime Minister from March 19, 1998, to October 13, 1999.

17. A. B. Vajpayee (born 1926)

• Prime Minister from October 13, 1999, to May 22, 2004.
• Only person to serve three terms as Prime Minister. Prime Ministers of India

Name	Term	Notable Achievements
Dr. Manmohan Singh	2004-2009	First non-Hindu Prime Minister of India.
Dr. Manmohan Singh	2009-2014	Second term as Prime Minister.
Narendra Modi	2014-Present	Current Prime Minister of India.

Speakers of the Lok Sabha

Name	Term	Notable Achievements
G. V. Mavalankar	1952-1956	First Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar	1956-1962	Second Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
Sardar Hukam Singh	1962-1967	Third Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy	1967-1969	Fourth Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
Gurdayal Singh Dhillon	1969-1975	Fifth Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
Bali Ram Bhagat	1976-1977	Sixth Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy	1977 (March-July)	Seventh Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
K. S. Hegde	1977-1979	Eighth Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
Balram Jakhar	1980-1989	Ninth Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
Rabi Ray	1989-1991	Tenth Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
Shivraj Patil	1991-1996	Eleventh Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
P. A. Sangma	1996-1998 (March)	Twelfth Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
G. M. C. Balayogi	24 March 1998-2002	Thirteenth Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
Manohar Joshi	10 May 2002-2004	Fourteenth Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
Somnath Chatterjee	2 June 2004-2009	Fifteenth Speaker of the Lok Sabha.

Name	Term
Meira Kumar	May 30, 2009 - May 2014
Kamal Nath	Appointed on June 4, 2014 (Pro tem speaker)
Sumitra Mahajan	June 6, 2014 - present

Chief Justices of India

Name	Tenure
H. J. Kania	August 1947 - November 1951
M. Patanjali Sastri	November 1951 - January 1954
Mehar Chand Mahajan	January 1954 - December 1954
B. K. Mukherjee	December 1954 - January 1956
S. R. Das	February 1956 - September 1959
B. P. Sinha	October 1959 - January 1964
P. B. Gajendragadkar	February 1964 - March 1966
A. K. Sarkar	March 1966 - June 1966
K. Subba Rao	June 1966 - April 1967
K. N. Wanchoo	April 1967 - February 1968
M. Hidayatullah	February 1968 - December 1970
J. C. Shah	December 1970 - January 1971
S. M. Sikri	January 1971 - April 1973
A. N. Ray	April 1973 - January 1977
M. H. Beg	January 1977 - February 1978
Y. V. Chandrachud	February 1978 - July 1985
P. N. Bhagwati	July 1985 - December 1986

Name	Tenure
R. S. Pathak	December 1986 - June 1989
E. S. Venkataramiah	June 1989 - December 1989
Sabyasachi Mukherjee	December 1989 - September 1990
Ranganath Mishra	September 1990 - November 1991
K. N. Singh	November 1991 - December 1991
M. H. Kania	December 1991 - November 1992
I. M. Sharma	November 1992 - February 1993
M. N. Venkatachaliah	February 1993 - October 1994
Aziz Mushabbar Ahmadi	October 1994 - March 1997
J. S. Verma	March 1997 - January 1998
M. M. Punchi	January 1998 - October 1998
A. S. Anand	October 1998 - November 2001
S. P. Bharucha	November 2001 - May 2002
Bhupinder Nath Kirpal	May 2002 - November 2002
Mr G. B. Patnaik	November 2002 - December 2002
Mr V. N. Khare	December 2002 - May 2004
Mr S. Rajendra Babu	May 2004 - June 2004
R. C. Lahoti	June 2004 - 31 October 2005
Y. K. Sabharwal	2 Nov 2005 - 14 January 2007
K. G. Balakrishnan	15 January 2007 - 11 May 2010

Name	Tenure
Sukumar Sen	March 1950 - December 1958
K. V. K. Sundaram	December 1958 - September 1967
S. P. Sen Verma	October 1967 - September 1972
Dr. Nagendra Singh	October 1972 - February 1973
T. Swaminathan	February 1973 - June 1977
S. L. Shakdhar	June 1977 - June 1982
R. K. Trivedi	June 1982 - December 1985
R. V. S. Peri Sastri	January 1986 - November 1990
Smt. V. S. Rama Devi	November 1990 - December 1990
T. N. Seshan	December 1990 - December 1996
M. S. Gill	December 1996 - June 2001
J. M. Lyngdoh	June 2001 - February 2004
T. S. Krishnamurthy	February 2004 - May 2005
B. B. Tandon	May 2005 - June 2006
N. Gopalaswami	June 2006 - April 2009
Navin Chawla	April 2009 - July 2010
H. Kapadia	May 2010 - September 2012
Altamas Kabir	September 2012 - July 2013
P. Sathasivam	July 2013 - April 2014
Rajendra Mal Lodha	April 2014 - Present

Name	Tenure
Gen. Sir Roy Bucher	January 1, 1948 - January 14, 1949
Gen. K. M. Cariappa	January 15, 1949 - January 14, 1953
Gen. Maharaj Rajendra Singhji	January 15, 1953 - March 31, 1955

Chiefs of Army Staff

Name	Tenure
Gen. Maharaj Rajendra Singhji	April 1955 - May 1955
Gen. S. M. Srinagesh	May 1955 - May 1957
Gen. K. S. Thimayya	May 1957 - May 1961
Gen. P. N. Thapar	May 1961 - November 1962
Gen. J. N. Chaudhuri	November 1962 - June 1966
Gen P. K. Kumaramangalam	June 1966 - June 1969
Gen. S. H. F. J. Manekshaw	June 1969 - December 1972
Field Marshal S. H. F. J. Manekshaw	January 1972 - January 1973
Gen. G. G. Bewoor	January 1973 - May 1975
Gen. T. N. Raina	June 1975 - May 1978
Gen. O. P. Malhotra	June 1978 - May 1981

1. Gen. K. V. Krishna Rao: Served from June 1981 to July 1983.

2. Gen. A. S. Vaidya: Served from August 1983 to January 1986.

3. Gen. K. Sundarjee: Served from February 1986 to April 1988.

4. Gen. V. N. Sharma: Served from May 1988 to June 1990.

5. Gen. S. F. Rodrigues: Served from July 1990 to June 1993.

6. Gen. B. C. Joshi: Served from July 1993 to November 1994.

7. Gen. Shankar Roy Choudhury: Served from November 1994 to September 1997.

8. Gen. V. P. Malik: Served from October 1997 to September 2000.

9. Gen. S. Padmanashan: Served from October 2000 to December 2002.

10. Gen. N. C. Vij: Served from January 2003 to January 2005.

11. Gen. J. J. Singh: Served from February 2005 to September 2007.

12. Gen. Deepak Kapoor: Served from September 2007 to March 2010.

13. Gen. V. K. Singh: Served from March 2010 to May 2012.

14. Gen. Bikram Singh: Served from May 2012 to July 2014.

15. Gen. Dalbir Singh Suhag: Served from August 2014 to the present.

Note:

• Gen. (later, Field Marshal) K. M. Cariappa took over from the British Commander-in-Chief, Gen. Sir Roy Bucher, on 15 January 1949 and held the office until 14 January 1953.

• The armed forces had only one more Commander-in-Chief, Gen. M. Rajendra Singh.

• In April 1955, the position of Commander-in-Chief was replaced by the Chief of the Army Staff. Chiefs of Army Staff

• After the position of Commander-in-Chief was removed, General Rajendra Singh became the first Chief of Army Staff.

• General S. H. F. J. Manekshaw was the first Field Marshal in 1971.

Chiefs of Naval Staff

Name	Tenure
Rear Admiral J. T. S. Hall	August 15, 1947 - August 1948
Admiral Sir Edward Parry	August 1948 - October 1951
Admiral Sir Mark Pizey	October 1951 - July 1955
Vice-Admiral Sir Stephen Carlill	July 1955 - April 1958
Vice-Admiral R. D. Katari	April 1958 - June 1962
Vice-Admiral B. S. Soman	June 1962 - March 1966
Admiral A. K. Chatterjee	March 1966 - February 1970
Admiral S. M. Nanda	February 1970 - February 1973
Admiral S. N. Kohli	March 1973 - February 1976
Admiral J. L. Cursetji	March 1976 - February 1979
Admiral R. L. Pereira	March 1979 - February 1982
Admiral O. S. Dawson	March 1982 - November 1984
Admiral R. H. Tahiliani	December 1984 - November 1987
Admiral J. G. Nadkarni	December 1987 - November 1990

Name	Tenure
Admiral L. Ramdas	December 1990 - September 1993
Admiral V. S. Shekhawat	October 1993 - September 1996
Admiral Vishnu Bhagwat	October 1996 - December 1998
Admiral Sushil Kumar	December 1998 - December 2001
Admiral Madhvendra Singh	December 2001 - July 2004
Admiral Arun Prakash	August 2004 - October 2006
Admiral Sureesh Mehta	October 2006 - August 2009
Admiral Nirmal Verma	August 2009 - August 2012
Admiral Devendra Kumar Joshi	August 2012 - February 2014
Admiral Robin K. Dhowan	Acting Chief of Naval Staff (with rank of Vice-Admiral) from 26 February 2014 - 17 April 2014; From 17 April 2014 - till date as Chief of Naval Staff.

Chiefs of Air Staff

Name	Tenure
Air Marshal Sir Thomas Emhirst	15 August 1947 - February 1950
Air Marshal Sir R. L. Chapman	February 1950 - December 1951
Air Marshal Sir Gerald Gibbs	December 1951 - March 1954
Air Marshal S. M. List of Indian Air Force Chiefs:

1. Subroto Mukherjee: April 1954 - November 1960

2. Air Marshal A. M. Engineer: December 1960 - July 1964

3. Air Chief Marshal Arjan Singh: August 1964 - July 1969

4. Air Chief Marshal P. C. Lal: July 1969 - January 1973

5. Air Chief Marshal O. P. Mehra: January 1973 - January 1976

6. Air Chief Marshal H. Moolgaonkar: February 1976 - August 1978

7. Air Chief Marshal I. H. Latif: September 1978 - August 1981

8. Air Chief Marshal Dilbagh Singh: September 1981 - September 1984

9. Air Chief Marshal L. K. Katre: September 1984 - July 1985

10. Air Chief Marshal D. A. La Fontaine: July 1985 - July 1988

11. Air Chief Marshal S. K. Mehra: August 1988 - July 1991

12. Air Chief Marshal N. C. Suri: August 1991 - July 1993

13. Air Chief Marshal S. K. Kaul: August 1993 - December 1998

14. Air Chief Marshal Satish Kr. Sareen: January 1996 - December 1998

15. Air Chief Marshal A. Y. Tipnis: January 1999 - December 2001

16. Air Chief Marshal S. Krishnaswamy: December 2001 - December 2004

17. Air Chief Marshal S. P. Tyagi Indian Air Force Chiefs:

• December 2004 - March 2007: Air Chief Marshal Fali Homi Major
• March 2007 - May 2009: Air Chief Marshal Pradeep Vasant Naik
• June 2009 - July 2011: Air Chief Marshal NAK Browne
• July 2011 - December 2013: Air Chief Marshal Arun Raha
• December 2013 - Present: Air Chief Marshal Birender Singh Dhanoa

World’s Superlatives:

• Largest Airport: King Khaled International Airport in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (223 square kilometers)
• Largest Airport (roofed): King Abdul Aziz International Airport in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia (103 square kilometers)
• Highest Airport: Lhasa Airport in Tibet, China (4363 meters)
• Busiest Airport: Chicago O’Hare International Airport in Chicago, Illinois, USA
• Lowest Airport: Schipol International Airport in Amsterdam, Netherlands
• Longest Steel Arch Bridge: Chaotianmen Bridge in China, built in 2009 Longest Bridge:
• China has the longest bridge, which is 552 meters long.

Longest Floating Bridge:

• The ‘Evergreen Point’ bridge in Seattle, Washington, USA, is 3,839 meters long, with 2,310 meters floating.

Longest Bridge-by Suspension Spans:

• The Akashi-Kaikyo bridge in Japan is the longest bridge-by suspension spans, measuring 1,991 meters long.

Longest Bridge-by Cantilever Spans:

• The Pont de Quebec bridge in St. Lawrence, Canada, is the longest bridge-by cantilever spans, built in 1917 and measuring 548.6 meters long.

Tallest Bridge Towers:

• The Millau Bridge in France, built in 2004, has the tallest bridge towers, standing at 336 meters high.

Longest Railway Bridge:

• The Huey P. Long Bridge in Metairie, Louisiana, US, is the longest railway bridge, measuring 7009 meters long.

Highest Bridge:

• A Bailey bridge built by the Indian army in Khardungla, Ladakh, is the highest bridge, located at an altitude of 5600 meters and measuring 30 meters long.

Highest Road Bridge:

• The Royal Gorge Bridge in Colorado, USA, is the highest road bridge, standing at 321 meters above the Arkansas River. Longest Rail Line:
• The Trans-Siberian line is the longest rail line in the world. It runs from Moscow, Russia, to Nakhodka, Russia, and is 9,438 kilometers long.

Tallest Office Building:

• The Sears Towers in Chicago, Illinois, is the tallest office building in the world. It has 110 storeys and is 443 meters high.

Tallest Building:

• The Burj Khalifa in Dubai, UAE, is the tallest building in the world. It was built in 2010 and is 828 meters high.

Tallest Inhabited Building:

• The Burj Khalifa in Dubai, UAE, is also the tallest inhabited building in the world. It was built in 2010 and is 828 meters high.

Tallest Tower:

• The Tokyo Skytree in Metro Centre, Toronto, is the tallest tower in the world. It is 634 meters high and was scheduled to be completed in 2011.

Twin Towers:

• The Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, are the tallest twin towers in the world. They were built in 1997 and are 452 meters high with 96 storeys.

Largest Church:

• The Basilica of St. Peter in Vatican City is the largest church in the world. It was built between 1492 and 1612 and has a capacity of over 15,000 people. | Structure | Name | Location | | :—: | :—: | :—: | | Largest Mosque
  (in ruins) | Malawiya Mosque | Smarra, Iraq | | Largest Mosque
  (in use) | Al-Masjid al-Haram | City of Mecca | | Largest Temple | Angkor Vat | Cambodia | | Largest Railway
  Station | Grand Central Terminal
• Location: Park Avenue, New York City

Highest Railway

• Name: Condor Station
• Height: 4,786 meters (15,705 feet)
• Location: Bolivia

Longest Railway Platform

• Name: Kharagpur Railway Platform
• Length: 833 meters (2,733 feet)
• Location: Kharagpur, West Bengal, India

Longest Wall

• Name: The Great Wall of China
• Length: Approximately 21,196 kilometers (13,171 miles)
• Location: China

Tallest Building

• Name: Taipei 101
• Height: 509 meters (1,670 feet)
• Number of Stories: 101
• Location: Taipei, Taiwan

Largest Stadium

• Name: Strahov Stadium
• Capacity: Approximately 250,000 spectators
• Location: Prague, Czech Republic

Largest Seaport

• Name: Port of New York and New Jersey
• Location: New York City and New Jersey, United States

Largest Library

• Name: The Library of Congress
• Location: Capital Hill, Washington, D.C., United States

Oldest University

• Name: University of Karueein
• Founded: 859 AD
• Location: Morocco

Largest Open University

• Name: Indira Gandhi National Open University
• Location: New Delhi, India

Longest Road

• Name: Pan-American Highway
• Length: Approximately 27,387 kilometers (17,018 miles)
• Route: North-western Alaska to southern-most Chile

Highest Road

• Location: Between Kangti-suu and Khaleb Hsin-Chi-Fu, Tibet
• Length: 13 kilometers (8 miles)

Longest Vehicular Tunnel (rail)

• Name: Seikan Tunnel

• Length: 53.85 kilometers (33.46 miles)

• Location: Tsugaru Strait, Japan Important Information

• The St. Gotthard rail tunnel in Switzerland will be 57.07 kilometers long when it is finished in 2018.

Longest Vehicular Tunnel (non-rail)

• The Laerdal-Aurland Road Link in Norway is 24.51 kilometers long.

Longest Non-Vehicular Tunnel

• The Delaware Aqueduct in New York, USA, is 168.9 kilometers long and was built between 1937 and 1944.

Longest Ship Canal

• The White Sea-Baltic Canal in Russia is 235 kilometers long and was built in 1933. It has a minimum depth of 5 meters.

Important Notes

• The Suez Canal, built in 1969, connects the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. It is 162 kilometers long and has a minimum depth of 12.9 meters. It is the third longest ship canal in the world.
• The Rhine-Main-Danube Canal in Germany, built in 1992, is the second longest ship canal in the world. It is 171 kilometers long and has a minimum depth of 4.0 meters. Largest Dam in the World

The Jinping-I Dam in China is currently under construction and is expected to be completed by 2014. It will be the tallest dam in the world, standing at 305 meters high.

The Nurek Dam in Tajikistan was built in 1980 and is currently the tallest completed and functional dam in the world. It stands at 300 meters high. Largest Glaciated Area: The South Polar Regions cover an area of 1,38,30,000 square kilometers and are the largest glaciated area on Earth.

Largest Continent: Asia is the largest continent, with an area of 4,39,98,000 square kilometers.

Smallest Continent: Australia is the smallest continent, with an area of 76,18,493 square kilometers.

Deepest Depression: The Dead Sea, located between Jordan and Israel, is the deepest depression on Earth, with a maximum depth of 408 meters below sea level.

Important Notes:

• The world’s largest exposed depression is the ‘Prikaspiyskaya Nizmennost,’ which covers the hinterland of the northern third of the Caspian Sea. It is 28 meters below sea level.

• Western Antarctica and central Greenland are largely made up of crypto-depressions, which are depressions hidden under ice burdens. The Antarctic Bentley subglacial trench has a bedrock that is 2,538 meters below sea level, while in Greenland, the bedrock at some locations is 365 meters below sea level.

• Almost one-quarter of the area of the Netherlands lies below sea level. The Maldives:

• The Maldives is a group of islands in the Indian Ocean.

• No part of the Maldives is higher than 2.4 meters above sea level.

• This means that the Maldives is very low-lying and is at risk of flooding from rising sea levels.

Lesotho:

• Lesotho is a country in southern Africa.
• No place in Lesotho is lower than 1,381 meters above sea level.
• This means that Lesotho is a very high-altitude country. Longest Cave System: Mammoth Cave System in Kentucky, USA, with a total known length of 590.6 kilometers.

Deepest Cave: Krubera (Voronya) Cave in Georgia, with a depth of 2,191 meters. It was discovered in January 2001 by Ukrainian cave explorers in the western Caucasus mountains of Georgia.

Largest River: Amazon River in South America, with a length of 6,448 kilometers.

Longest River: Nile River in Africa, with a length of 6,725 kilometers.

Smallest River (shortest): Roe River in Montana.

Largest Delta: Sunderbans Delta, created by the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers in Bangladesh and West Bengal.

Largest Lake: Caspian Sea, located between Iran, Azerbaijan, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan, with an area of 371,000 square kilometers.

Largest Man-made Lake: Owen Falls Dam in Uganda/Kenya/Tanzania, created in 1954, with a volume of 204.80 cubic kilometers.

Deepest Lake: Lake Baikal in Russia, with a maximum depth of 1,642 meters. Deepest Lake:

• Lake Baikal in Russia is the deepest lake in the world. It is 1,637 meters deep.

Tallest Waterfall:

• Salto Angel in Venezuela is the tallest waterfall in the world. It has a total drop of 979 meters, with the longest single drop being 807 meters.

Largest Waterfall by Volume:

• Khone Falls on the Mekong River in Laos is the largest waterfall in the world by volume. It has an average annual flow of 11,610 cubic meters per second.

Largest Desert:

• The Sahara Desert in North Africa is the largest desert in the world. It covers an area of 9,000,000 square kilometers. The Gobi Desert in Mongolia and China is the second largest desert, covering an area of 1,300,000 square kilometers. The Arabian Desert in Egypt is the third largest desert, covering an area of 1,000,000 square kilometers.

Largest Glacier (Non-Polar Regions):

• The Siachen Glacier on the border between India and Pakistan is the largest glacier in the world outside of the polar regions.

Driest Place:

• The Atacama Desert in Chile is the driest place in the world. It receives almost no rainfall at all.

Hottest Place:

• Aziza, Libya is the hottest place in the world. The highest temperature ever recorded on Earth was 57.8 degrees Celsius (136 degrees Fahrenheit) in Aziza on September 13, 1922.

Rainiest Place:

• Mawsynram, near Cherrapunji in Meghalaya, India is the rainiest place in the world. It receives an average annual rainfall of 11,872 millimeters (467 inches). Here is the content rewritten in simpler language:

1. Gasherbrum: This mountain is 8,068 meters tall.
2. Broad Peak: This mountain is 8,047 meters tall.
3. Disteghil Sar: This mountain is 7,885 meters tall.
4. Masherbrum-E: This mountain is 7,820 meters tall.
5. Nanda Devi: This mountain is 7,817 meters tall.
6. Masherbrum-W: This mountain is 7,806 meters tall.
7. Rakaposhi: This mountain is 7,788 meters tall.
8. Kamet: This mountain is 7,756 meters tall.
9. Saser Kangri: This mountain is 7,672 meters tall.
10. Skyang Kangri: This mountain is 7,544 meters tall.
11. Sia Kangri: This mountain is 7,422 meters tall.
12. Chaukhamba (Badrinath Peak): This mountain is 7,138 meters tall.
13. Trishul West: This mountain is 7,138 meters tall.
14. Nunkun: This mountain is 7,135 meters tall.
15. Pauhunri: This mountain is 7,128 meters tall.
16. Kangto: This mountain is 7,090 meters tall.
17. Dunagiri: This mountain is 7,066 meters tall.