Concepts to remember on Genetics and Evolution

Genetics:

Inheritance:

• Mendel’s laws of inheritance:
• Law of segregation
• Law of independent assortment

Gene Expression:

• Transcription: DNA to RNA
• Translation: RNA to Protein
• Regulation of gene expression:
• Operon concept
• Jacob-Monod model

DNA Structure and Replication:

• Components of DNA:
  • nucleotides
  • bases
  • deoxyribose sugar
  • phosphate backbone
• DNA double helix model: Watson-Crick model
• DNA replication: semi-conservative replication, enzymes involved (DNA polymerases, helicase, DNA ligase)

Mutation:

• Types of mutations:
  • Gene mutations (substitution, deletion, insertion)
  • Chromosomal mutations (deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation)
• Causes of mutations: radiation, chemicals, errors during DNA replication

Genetic Engineering:

• Recombinant DNA technology: steps involved
  • Isolation of DNA
  • Restriction enzyme digestion
  • Gel electrophoresis
  • Ligation
  • Transformation
• Applications of genetic engineering:
• Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
• Gene therapy
• Protein production

Evolution:

Evidence of Evolution:

• Fossil records
• Comparative anatomy
• Embryology
• Molecular biology (DNA and protein similarities)

Mechanisms of Evolution:

• Natural selection:
• Concept
• Role of variation
• Fitness
• Adaptation
• Other mechanisms:
• Genetic drift
• Gene flow
• Mutation
• Genetic recombination
• Sexual selection

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:

• Conditions for equilibrium:
• No mutation
• No migration
• Random mating
• No natural selection
• Hardy-Weinberg equation: p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

Types of Natural Selection:

• Stabilizing selection: favors the average phenotype
• Directional selection: favors one extreme phenotype
• Disruptive selection: favors both extreme phenotypes

Speciation:

• Process of speciation:
• Allopatric speciation
• Sympatric speciation
• Parapatric speciation
• Reproductive isolation: mechanisms that prevent interbreeding between different species

Patterns of Evolution:

• Convergent evolution: evolution of similar traits in unrelated organisms due to adaptation to similar environments
• Divergent evolution: evolution of different traits in related organisms due to adaptation to different environments
• Coevolution: evolution of two or more species in response to each other’s adaptations

Human Evolution:

• Evolutionary history of humans: from primates to modern humans
• Key events:
  • Bipedalism
  • Increased brain size
  • Tool usage
  • Language development