<div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <h5 id="legal-reasoning">Legal Reasoning</h5> <h5 id="assume-that-the-statements-in-the-passages-are-the-applicable-law">Assume that the statements in the passages are the applicable law.</h5> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <p>XII. Quashing a case of cruelty that was filed against a man by his wife, the Bombay High Court said that if a married lady is asked to do household work for the family, it cannot be said that she is treated “like a maid servant”. The Court was hearing an application by the husband and his parents seeking that proceedings against them are quashed. A First Information Report (“FIR”) was filed against the trio in September 2020, around nine months after the marriage, alleging that they hounded the woman for money to purchase a car, harassed her mentally and physically and treated her like a maid servant. Examining the evidence, the Court found that there was no merit to the woman’s allegations. The Court said that though the FIR says that she was treated properly for about a month and then “like a maid servant”, there are no details of what this meant. The Court added: “If a married lady is asked to do household work for the purpose of the family, it cannot be said that it is like a maid servant.” The Court held that the mere use of the word harassment “mentally and physically” in the FIR is not sufficient to constitute an offence Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (“IPC”), which punishes the husband, or a relative of the husband of a woman who subjects her to cruelty in any way. It is interesting to note that Section 498A of the IPC also provides that if a married woman is actually treated like a ‘maid servant’, it would be an offence under that Section.</p> <p>[Extracted, with edits and revisions, from “If Wife Is Asked To Do Household Work, Does Not Mean She Is Treated Like Maid: Bombay HC”, The Wire]</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="66"> <li>Ashwin and Ashima were married in February 2020. In March 2020, Ashwin asked Ashima to take care of all their household work, such as cooking, cleaning, and other domestic chores, as he was very busy with his professional responsibilities. Ashima claims that this amounts to treating her like a maid servant and constitutes an offence under Section 498A of the IPC. Applying the Bombay High Court decision, is she likely to succeed?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Yes, since Ashwin had only asked Ashima to do their household work, and not for others.</p> <p>(B) No, since Ashwin had only asked Ashima to do their household work, and not for others.</p> <p>(C) Yes, since Ashwin had asked Ashima to do household work for themselves as well as others.</p> <p>(D) No, since treating a married woman like a maid servant would not amount to an offence under that Section.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="67"> <li>In April 2020, Ashwin’s friend Rakesh visits Ashwin and Ashima’s home, and stays with them for a few days. During his visit, he is very mean to Ashima, and uses abusive language with her. He also threw a plate at her one evening when he was unhappy with the meal that she had prepared. Ashima now claims that Rakesh has committed an offence under Section 498A of the IPC. Is she likely to succeed?</li> </ol> <p>(A) No, since Rakesh’s actions were perfectly justifiable for a man who does not get a well-cooked meal.</p> <p>(B) Yes, since Rakesh’s use of abusive language and throwing the plate at Ashima clearly amount to cruelty.</p> <p>(C) No, since Rakesh is not her husband, nor is he related to Ashwin.</p> <p>(D) Yes, since Rakesh was staying at Ashwin and Ashima’s home at the time of the incident.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="68"> <li>Frustrated and upset with her marriage, Ashima applies for and is granted a divorce from Ashwin in November 2020. Since she and Ashwin had been friends for many years before they got married, she stays in touch with him. She moves into her own apartment and starts going to office regularly at a new job. Ashwin is very upset at this and starts treating Ashima very cruelly. Ashima again claims that Ashwin has committed an offence under Section 498A of the IPC. Is she right?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Yes, since Ashwin has, as we are told, treated her cruelly.</p> <p>(B) Yes, since Ashwin has been her husband.</p> <p>(C) No, since Ashwin was understandably upset at Ashima’s behaviour.</p> <p>(D) No, since she is no longer married to Ashwin.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="69"> <li>Assume that the government passes a new law in January 2021, called the Protection of Rights of Married Women Act, 2021 (the “PoMWA”), according to which, asking a married woman to take care of household chores would be an offence. The PoMWA also provides that if a man commits such an offence, he would have to pay compensation to the woman. The PoMWA even applies to actions that were committed any time in the three years prior to the new law coming into force, and even if the man and woman involved in the matter were no longer married. Upon hearing about this new law, Ashima once again alleges that Ashwin has committed an offence under Section 498A of the IPC, and claims compensation under the PoMWA for his actions. Is she right, and will she succeed?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Ashima is right about Ashwin committing an offence under Section 498A of the IPC, but she will not get compensation under the PoMWA.</p> <p>(B) Ashima will get compensation under the PoMWA, but she is not right about Ashwin committing an offence under Section 498A of the IPC.</p> <p>(C) Ashima will get compensation under the PoMWA, and she is also right about Ashwin committing an offence under Section 498A of the IPC.</p> <p>(D) Ashima will neither get compensation under the PoMWA, nor is she right about Ashwin committing an offence under Section 498A of the IPC.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="70"> <li>Assume that in March 2021, the government changes Section 498A of the IPC. The effect of this change is that asking a married woman to do household chores - even for their own family - by herself would be considered cruelty, and therefore, an offence under the Section. Some days after this change comes into effect, Shamita, Ashima’s friend at work, tells her that her husband has been forcing her to do all the household work by herself. Ashima tells Shamita that her husband’s actions would amount to an offence under Section 498A of the IPC, even though Ashima herself has been unsuccessful in having Ashwin convicted under that Section in the past. Is Ashima’s advice to Shamita correct?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Yes, since Section 498A has now been changed, and Shamita’s husband’s actions would now be an offence under the changed Section 498A.</p> <p>(B) No, since Ashima has been unsuccessful in having Ashwin convicted under that Section in the past.</p> <p>(C) Yes, since the passing of the Protection of Married Women Act has resulted in Shamita’s husband’s actions being made illegal.</p> <p>(D) No, since Ashima is only Shamita’s friend, and only the married woman herself can file a complaint under Section 498A of the IPC.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <p>XIII. Parliament passed the Criminal Procedure (Identification) Act, 2022 (the “Act”) in March 2022. The legislation enables police and central investigating agencies to collect, store and analyse the measurements of arrested persons. Until rules are notified, an Act cannot be implemented or come into force. On September 19, 2022, the Ministry of Home Affairs (the “MHA”) notified the rules (the “Rules”) under the Act.</p> <p>The Act empowers a Magistrate to direct any person to give measurements to the police, which till now was reserved for convicts and those involved in heinous crimes. It also enables police personnel of the rank of Head Constable or above to take measurements of any person who resists or refuses to give measurements when ordered to do so by a Magistrate. As per the Rules, “measurements” mean finger-impressions, palm-print, footprint, photographs, iris and retina scan, physical, biological samples and their analysis, behavioural attributes including signatures, and handwriting. Though it has not been specified, analysis of biological samples could also include DNA profiling.</p> <p>However, the Rules state that measurements of those detained under preventive Sections of the Code of Criminal Procedure (“CrPC”) shall not be taken unless such person is at that time charged or under arrest in connection with any other offence punishable under any other law. Measurements can also be taken under the Rules if a person has been ordered to give security for his good behaviour for maintaining peace under Section 117 of the CrPC for a proceeding under that Section.</p> <p>[Extracted, with edits and revisions, from “Explained | Rules for identifying criminals”, by Vijaita Singh, The Hindu]</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="71"> <li>Bhargesh is arrested by the police on April 11, 2022, on suspicion of having committed a series of minor thefts. During their investigation, the police find some fingerprints at the crime scenes, and on April 12, 2022, they tell Bhargesh that he must provide his finger-impressions to them so that they can check whether they match the fingerprints from the crime scenes. When Bhargesh refuses, the police tell him that he has no choice but to provide his measurements, as the Act had been passed by Parliament the previous month. Was Bhargesh bound to provide his finger-impressions under the Act?</li> </ol> <p>(A) No, since Bhargesh had only been arrested, and not convicted.</p> <p>(B) Yes, since Bhargesh was under arrest.</p> <p>(C) No, since the Rules had not yet been notified.</p> <p>(D) Yes, since finger-impressions are included within the definition of “measurements” under the Act.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="72"> <li>Bhargesh is later released by the police because they are unable to find enough evidence to make a strong case against him. On October 5, 2022, the police receive a complaint alleging that Bhargesh had beaten up his neighbour and caused the neighbour severe injuries. They ask the local Magistrate to issue an order directing Bhargesh to provide the police his blood samples, so that they can match them against some blood stains that were found on the neighbour’s clothes. The Magistrate issues the order, but Bhargesh refuses to provide the blood samples. Is Bhargesh bound to provide his blood samples to the police under the Act?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Yes, since the crime that Bhargesh was accused of was very serious.</p> <p>(B) Yes, since the Magistrate had passed an order directing him to do so.</p> <p>(C) Yes, since Bhargesh had already been arrested in connection with another crime in the past.</p> <p>(D) Yes, since the police needed the blood samples to verify Bhargesh’s involvement in the crime.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="73"> <li>On October 15, 2022, the police detain Bhargesh under a preventive Section of the CrPC, since they believe that he had plans to disturb the public peace during a festival day. They then tell Bhargesh that he must provide his measurements to them for their records. Bhargesh refuses again. Is Bhargesh bound to provide his photographs to the police under the Act?</li> </ol> <p>(A) No, since he was not charged or under arrest in connection with any other offence at the time.</p> <p>(B) No, since that would violate Bhargesh’s right to privacy.</p> <p>(C) Yes, since the police had detained Bhargesh under a preventive Section of the {CrPC}.</p> <p>(D) Yes, since there was a high likelihood that Bhargesh would disturb the public peace on a festival day.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="74"> <li>Two days later, the police obtain an order from the Magistrate directing Bhargesh to provide them his photographs. As Bhargesh continues to refuse to provide his photographs, a regular police constable forces him to stand still and takes his photographs. Bhargesh files a case in court, claiming that the constable’s actions violate the Act. Will he succeed?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Yes, since Bhargesh had been detained under a preventive section of the CrPC.</p> <p>(B) Yes, since only police personnel of the rank of Head Constable or above can take measurements of any person who resists or refuses to give measurements when ordered to do so by a Magistrate.</p> <p>(C) No, the Magistrate had issued an order directing him to provide his photographs to the police.</p> <p>(D) No, since the police constable was only performing his duty.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="75"> <li>The police release Bhargesh, but to ensure that he does not disturb the public peace, they ask the Magistrate to issue an order under Section 117 of the CrPC, directing Bhargesh to provide a security of ₹ 1,00,000/- for his good behaviour and to ensure he maintains the peace, which the Magistrate refuses. The police now tell Bhargesh he must provide them his iris and retina scans. Is Bhargesh required to do so?</li> </ol> <p>(A) No, since a person against whom an order has been issued under Section 117 of the CrPC cannot be made to give their measurements to the police.</p> <p>(B) Yes, since a person against whom an order has been issued under Section 117 of the {CrPC} can be made to give their measurements to the police.</p> <p>(C) Yes, since Bhargesh had been detained under other preventive Sections of the {CrPC} in the past.</p> <p>(D) No, since the Magistrate had not issued the order.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <p>XIV. The government has amended the Electoral Bond Scheme, 2018. The Ministry of Finance on November 7, 2022, issued a notification for amending the scheme to provide “an additional period of 15 days” for their sale “in the year of general elections to the Legislative Assembly of any States or Union Territories with Legislature”. The bonds under this scheme are usually made available for purchase by any person for a period of ten days each in the months of January, April, July, and October, when specified by the Union Government. The original scheme had provided for an additional period of thirty days, as specified by the Government, in the year when Lok Sabha elections are held, while the amendment adds another 15 days.</p> <p>Since Assembly elections to various States and Union Territories are held every year, the amendment effectively means that there will be 15 additional dates annually during which the bonds can be sold. Immediately after issuing the notification, the Union Government also announced the sale of electoral bonds under the $23^{\text {rd }} tranche from the authorised branches of the State Bank of India. The notification said the sale of bonds would take place through the 29 authorised branches of the said bank from November 9 to November 15, 2022. Like in previous rounds of sale, the electoral bonds shall be valid for 15 calendar days from the date of issue and no payment shall be made to any payee political party if the bond is deposited after expiry of the validity period. The Electoral Bond deposited by an eligible political party in its account shall be credited on the same day.</p> <p>[Extracted, with edits and revisions, from “Electoral Bonds Scheme Amended To Allow Sale for Additional 15 Days in Assembly Election Years”, by Gaurav Vivek Bhatnagar, The Wire]</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="76"> <li>Assad buys an electoral bond worth ₹ 1,00,000/- on November 9, 2022 and plans to give the bond to the Popular People’s Party (the “PPP”), which he has been supporting for many years. On November 10, he must travel out of station on some urgent business, and he only hands the bond over to a representative of the PPP on November 14, 2022. The PPP’s representative deposits the bond in the Party’s account on November 16, 2022, but the bank refuses to credit the bond to the party’s account, on the grounds that it was no longer valid. Is the bank correct?</li> </ol> <p>(A) No, since Assad was a long-time supporter of the PPP.</p> <p>(B) Yes, since the bonds were only issued from November 9 to November 15, 2022 and were invalid after that.</p> <p>(C) Yes, since the party representative had not deposited the bond with an authorised branch of the bank.</p> <p>(D) No, since the bond was valid on November 16, 2022.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="77"> <li>The Government announces that there would be a sale of a $24^{\text {th }}$ tranche of electoral bonds on February 10, 2023, for a period of 15 days, since elections to the Legislative Assembly of some States are scheduled for that year. Since there are no elections to the Lok Sabha or the Legislative Assembly of the State in which Assad resides, he claims that the Government does not have the power to issue this $24^{\text {th }}$ tranche of electoral bonds in 2023. Is he right?</li> </ol> <p>(A) No, since the changes to the Electoral Bond Scheme, 2018 mean that electoral bonds can be issued for an additional period of 15 days in any year, regardless of whether any elections are scheduled that year.</p> <p>(B) Yes, since no elections were scheduled for Assad’s state in that year.</p> <p>(C) Yes, since the Government had already sold some bonds in the $23^{\text {rd }}$ tranche in 2022 .</p> <p>(D) No, since the changes to the Electoral Bond Scheme, 2018 provide that electoral bonds can be issued for an additional period of 15 days in years when there is an election to the Legislative Assembly of a State.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="78"> <li>On November 10, 2022, Palak purchases an electoral bond from a branch of the State Bank of India, and hands it over to a representative of the PPP. The next day, the PPP announces that it has changed its candidates for the upcoming elections in Palak’s State. Upset at this news, she tells a PPP representative that she would like her bond back. The representative tells her that the bond has already been deposited, and that the money has been credited to the party’s account. Palak claims that since the period of validity of the bonds has not expired, she has the right to get her bond back from the party. Is she right?</li> </ol> <p>(A) No, since Palak cannot ask for the bond back once she has given it to a political party.</p> <p>(B) No, since the party had already deposited the bond, and the money had been credited to its account.</p> <p>(C) Yes, since Palak bought the bond with her own money, and has the right to ask for it back.</p> <p>(D) Yes, since the PPP changed its candidates, and Palak may no longer support the party.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="79"> <li>On November 15, 2022, the Government issues another notification, announcing that from that date onwards, only political parties that have received at least $1 %$ of the votes polled in the last elections to the Lok Sabha, or the last elections to the Legislative Assembly of a State, would be eligible to receive and deposit electoral bonds. In the sale of the $24^{\text {th }} tranche of electoral bonds, Palak decides to give the electoral bonds she has purchased to the newly formed More Popular People’s Party (the “MPPP”), which is likely to win the first elections it would be contesting, in July 2023. Is the MPPP eligible to receive the electoral bonds?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Yes, since it is likely to succeed in the upcoming elections.</p> <p>(B) Yes, since it fulfils the criteria announced in the November 7, 2022 notification.</p> <p>(C) No, since it does not fulfil the eligibility criteria announced in the November 15, 2022 notification.</p> <p>(D) No, since it does not fulfil the eligibility criteria announced in the November 7, 2022 notification.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="80"> <li>Abraham, who lives in a different State from Assad, purchased an electoral bond in the sale of the $23^{\text {rd }} tranche. He decides to give the electoral bond to the PPP, even though the PPP is only active in Assad’s State. When the PPP representative goes to an authorised branch of the State Bank of India to deposit the electoral bond on December 5, 2022 however, the bank refuses to credit the money to the PPP’s account. Which of the following would be the most valid reason for the bank to refuse to credit the money to the party’s account?</li> </ol> <p>(A) The bond was no longer valid.</p> <p>(B) Abraham could not give the bond to the PPP since the PPP was not active in his state.</p> <p>(C) The PPP was not eligible to receive electoral bonds.</p> <p>(D) The PPP could only deposit the bond in a bank branch located in Abraham’s state.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <p>XV. Twitter’s lawyer on October 27, said before the Karnataka High Court that Union government orders to block certain Twitter handles and posts must contain reasons for the same that can be communicated to users of the microblogging site. He said this applies to all blocking orders sent to social media platforms. The lawyer representing Twitter said that reasons for the blocking order must be provided to users so they can determine whether or not they want to challenge the orders.</p> <p>Challenging the blocking orders, Twitter’s July 5 petition contended that several blocking orders “demonstrate excessive use of powers and are disproportionate”. Such orders can only be issued by the Union government and not the state governments, he said, which increases the danger of such abuse. Twitter also claimed that the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology had sent it a letter threatening consequences for failing to comply with the blocking orders, such as criminal proceedings against the company’s chief compliance officer and the stripping away of Twitter’s safe harbour immunity, otherwise available to social media platforms under Section 79(1) of the Information Technology Act (the “IT Act”). Note that the Government has the power to strip away such safe harbour immunity under the IT Act. Further, in a previous hearing, Twitter’s lawyer said that the company was asked to block entire accounts, although Section $69 \mathrm{~A} of the IT Act does not permit blocking of the whole account. It only permits the blocking of information, or a particular tweet or post. It argued that the Union government’s direction to block whole accounts will affect its business, adding that several prominent persons have their accounts on the platform.</p> <p>[Extracted, with edits and revisions, from " ‘Government Must Provide Reasons for Blocking User Accounts,’ Twitter Tells Karnataka HC”, The Wire]</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="81"> <li>Sunil is a high-ranking officer of the Union government. While scrolling through his timeline on a social media platform, he notices some posts by Sachin, a private businessman, which he finds objectionable. He sends an order to UnReal, the company that owns that social media platform, that the posts must be blocked, as they may bring disrepute to India. UnReal claims that Sunil has not provided a clear, detailed reason for blocking the posts, and so, the order is not valid. Is UnReal right?</li> </ol> <p>(A) No, the blocking order is valid since Sunil found the posts objectionable.</p> <p>(B) No, the blocking order is valid since Sunil had provided reasons for blocking the post.</p> <p>(C) Yes, Sunil’s reasons are vague, and he should have provided more detail.</p> <p>(D) Yes, such an order is violative of the fundamental right to freedom of speech and expression.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="82"> <li>Some days later, Sunil notices another post from Sachin on UnReal’s social media platform; this post contains some highly sensitive information about the country’s defence policies. He issues an order to UnReal, that the post must be blocked since it divulges the government’s confidential information. The order also says that UnReal should not let anyone know about the blocking order, or that the post was ordered to be deleted, since it relates to secret government information. UnReal claims that this order is invalid. Is UnReal right?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Yes, since it did not provide any reasons that could be communicated to the users of the social media platform.</p> <p>(B) No, since Sunil had provided reasons to UnReal for ordering that the post be blocked.</p> <p>(C) Yes, since Sunil did not have the authority to issue blocking orders so frequently.</p> <p>(D) No, since the post divulged confidential government information.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="83"> <li>Sunil sends UnReal a third blocking order. UnReal claims that this order too was invalid. Upset with UnReal for claiming that all his blocking orders were invalid, Sunil sends them a letter in which he says, “If you do not comply with my blocking orders, then I will be forced to initiate criminal proceedings against you and cancel your safe harbour immunity.” UnReal claims that Sunil has broken the law by making these statements in the letter. Is UnReal right?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Yes, since making such threats amounts to intimidation.</p> <p>(B) No, since Sunil had issued blocking orders in the past as well, and UnReal should have complied with the orders without questioning them.</p> <p>(C) Yes, since Sunil did not have the power to cancel UnReal’s safe harbour immunity.</p> <p>(D) No, since the IT Act does not forbid Sunil from doing so.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="84"> <li>Complying with a fourth blocking order that they receive from Sunil, UnReal blocks Sachin’s account, since his posts were seen as increasingly objectionable by the government. Sachin asks UnReal to share the reasons for the blocking order, which they do, yet Sachin claims the blocking order is invalid. Is he right?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Yes, since Sunil was clearly targeting Sachin, and was misusing his powers to silence him.</p> <p>(B) No, since UnReal had shared the reasons for the blocking order with Sachin.</p> <p>(C) Yes, since Section 69A of the IT Act only permits blocking information, or a particular post, but not a whole account.</p> <p>(D) No, since his posts were seen as increasingly objectionable by the government.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="85"> <li>Sunil sends UnReal a fifth blocking order, which says that several of Sachin’s latest posts must be blocked. The blocking order sets out several reasons why the posts should be blocked, but UnReal does not find them satisfactory. Rather than take on another fight with a government official however, UnReal blocks the posts, and gives Sachin what it thinks is a better set of reasons for blocking the posts. When Sachin finds out, he claims this was wrong on UnReal’s part, and that the blocking order was inappropriate. Which of the following is most accurate in this regard?</li> </ol> <p>(A) The blocking order was valid, but UnReal’s actions were inappropriate.</p> <p>(B) UnReal’s actions were valid, but the blocking order was invalid.</p> <p>(C) UnReal’s actions were valid, but Sachin’s actions were invalid.</p> <p>(D) Sachin’s actions were valid, but the blocking order was invalid.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:20px;'> <p>XVI. Free legal aid is the provision of free legal services in civil and criminal matters for those poor and marginalised people who cannot afford the services of a lawyer for the conduct of a case or a legal proceeding in any Court, Tribunal or Authority. These services are governed by the Legal Services Authority Act, 1987 (the “Act”) and provided by the National Legal Services Authority (“NALSA”).</p> <p>Provision of free legal aid includes:</p> <ul> <li>Representation by an advocate in legal proceedings;</li> <li>Payment of process fees, expenses of witnesses and all other charges payable or incurred in connection with any legal proceedings in appropriate cases;</li> <li>Preparation of pleadings, memo of appeal, paper book including printing and translation of documents in legal proceedings;</li> <li>Drafting of legal documents, special leave petition etc.; and</li> <li>Supply of certified copies of judgments, orders, notes of evidence and other documents in legal proceedings.</li> </ul> <p>Free legal aid also includes provision of aid and advice to the beneficiaries to access benefits under welfare statutes and schemes framed by the Central Government or the state governments and to ensure access to justice in any other manner. Free legal aid is not confined to cases before the subordinate courts. Free legal aid must be provided to the needy from the lowest court to the Supreme Court of India.</p> <p>According to Section 13(1) of the Act, any individual who satisfies any criteria under Section 12 is entitled to receive free legal aid, provided that NALSA is satisfied that such person has a genuine case to prosecute or defend the matter. There is hence no bar as to which kind of cases one can apply and not apply for. Section 12 of the Act includes the following:</p> <ul> <li>a member of a Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe;</li> <li>a woman or a child;</li> <li>a person with a disability;</li> <li>an industrial workman; or</li> <li>a person in police custody.</li> </ul> <p>[Extracted, with edits and revisions, from “FAQs”, National Legal Services Authority]</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="86"> <li>Divya was arrested by the police and charged with having committed a murder. She was convicted by the trial court and appealed to the high court. She lost her appeal there and decided to appeal to the Supreme Court. By this time she has run out of money, so she approaches NALSA and asks them to help her get an advocate who can represent her before the Supreme Court. Is Divya entitled to support from NALSA?</li> </ol> <p>(A) No, since she should have approached them at the beginning of the case before the trial court, and not at such a late stage.</p> <p>(B) Yes, since her previous lawyers were incompetent, and that is why she lost the matter in the trial court and the high court.</p> <p>(C) Yes, she is entitled to free legal aid in the Supreme Court proceedings because she is a woman.</p> <p>(D) No, since she had been accused of having committed the heinous crime of murder.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="87"> <li>Divya is acquitted by the Supreme Court and goes back to her regular life. Some days later, she has a fight with her neighbour Riya over a petty matter and decides to file a criminal case against her. She approaches NALSA for free legal aid to prosecute the matter. She tells NALSA representative that she knows she does not have a genuine case, but just wants to harass Riya.</li> </ol> <p>NALSA refuses to provide Divya free legal aid because they believe she does not have a genuine case to prosecute. Can NALSA do so?</p> <p>(A) Yes, since Section 13(1) of the Act provides that free legal aid can be provided if NALSA is satisfied the person has a genuine case to prosecute, and they did not believe that Divya had a genuine case to prosecute.</p> <p>(B) Yes, since Divya had earlier been prosecuted for the crime of murder.</p> <p>(C) Yes, since Divya had already applied for free legal aid from NALSA in the past and could not repeatedly ask NALSA for such assistance.</p> <p>(D) No, since Divya is a woman, and is included within the list of people entitled to free legal aid from NALSA under Section 12 of the Act.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="88"> <li>Incensed at Divya, Riya decides to file a civil case against Divya, claiming that Divya had violated the terms of a contract they had made some time back. Divya approaches NALSA for free legal aid to defend the matter, which NALSA agrees to provide. Since Riya is also short of funds, she too approaches NALSA for free legal aid. NALSA refuses to provide legal aid to Riya, since they are already providing Divya free legal aid in the same case. Is NALSA right in refusing free legal aid to Riya?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Yes, since NALSA cannot provide free legal aid to opposing parties in the same matter.</p> <p>(B) Yes, since NALSA does not provide free legal aid in civil matters.</p> <p>(C) No, since Divya had filed a frivolous case against Riya in the past, and Riya was entitled to retaliate by filing another case against Divya.</p> <p>(D) No, since Riya is a woman, and is entitled to free legal aid as long as NALSA is satisfied she has a genuine case.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="89"> <li>Farhan is an up-and-coming artist and makes a living selling his paintings. Since he is not very well known yet, he isn’t able to sell too many paintings, and is dependent on aid from the government and well-wishers. He reads about a new Central Government scheme in the papers one day, under which artists would be provided a monthly stipend by the local government. Since he finds the language of the scheme document very complex to understand, he approaches NALSA for help in understanding the scheme and obtaining the stipend. Is he entitled to free legal aid from NALSA in this regard?</li> </ol> <p>(A) No, since free legal aid does not include provision of help to understand and access benefits under government schemes.</p> <p>(B) No, since he does not fit within any of the categories under Section 12 of the Act.</p> <p>(C) Yes, since free legal aid includes provision of help to understand and access benefits under government schemes.</p> <p>(D) Yes, since he is a struggling artist, and is dependent on aid for survival.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="90"> <li>Vikram is a rich businessman and has a huge art collection. Farhan invites Vikram to his studio one day, hoping to convince Vikram to buy some of his paintings. Vikram doesn’t buy any of his paintings, but after he leaves, Farhan notices that one of his newest paintings is missing. He suspects that Vikram has stolen it, and complains to the police, who promptly arrest Vikram. Vikram approaches NALSA for free legal aid, so that he can obtain bail. Is Vikram entitled to free legal aid from NALSA?</li> </ol> <p>(A) No, since he is a rich businessman and can hire a lawyer with his own money.</p> <p>(B) Yes, since he was innocent.</p> <p>(C) Yes, since he was in police custody.</p> <p>(D) No, since he had stolen from a struggling artist.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <p>XVII. Surrogacy is defined by law as “a practice whereby one woman bears and gives birth to a child for an intending couple” and intends to hand over the child to them after the birth, as per the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 (the “SRA”). The SRA restricts altruistic surrogacy to legally wedded infertile Indian couples. The couple is deemed eligible for surrogacy only if they have been married for five years. The SRA sets an age limitation for the couple. A husband must be between 26 and 55 years of age and a wife between 23 and 50 years. Further, Indian couples with biological or adopted children are prohibited from undertaking surrogacy, save for some exceptions such as mentally or physically challenged children, or those suffering from a life-threatening disorder or fatal illness. The SRA provides that the surrogate mother has to be a close relative of the couple (such as a sibling of one of the members of the couple), a married woman with a child of her own, aged between 25 and 35 years, who has been a surrogate only once in her life. Even within this category of people, commercial surrogacy is banned in India and that includes the “commercialisation of surrogacy services or procedures or its component services or component procedures”. The surrogate woman cannot be given payments, rewards, benefits or fees, “except the medical expenses and such other prescribed expenses incurred on the surrogate mother and the insurance coverage for the surrogate mother”.</p> <p>A legal commentator points out some criticisms of the law. “Permitting limited conditional surrogacy to married Indian couples and disqualifying other persons on basis of nationality, marital status, sexual orientation or age does not pass the test of equality,” he writes. He adds that reproductive autonomy, inclusive of the right to procreation and parenthood is protected under Article 21 of the Constitution of India, which guarantees the right to life and personal liberty. The intending parents typically sign a contract with the surrogate. The Indian Contract Act, 1972 (the “ICA”) provides that a valid contract has to be in writing, and signed in the presence of two witnesses. The ICA also provides that a contract that is prohibited by any other law will not be valid under the ICA.</p> <p>[Extracted with edits and revisions from “What laws regulate surrogacy in India”, The Indian Express]</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="91"> <li>Rani and Shiva would like to opt for surrogacy. They have been married for 6 years. Rani is aged 51 and Shiva is aged 53. Both Rani and Shiva have built successful business empires. They are now working together on a joint initiative. Due to the demanding nature of their work, they have not thought about children previously. However, they are now keen to have a child via surrogacy.</li> </ol> <p>Are Rani and Shiva eligible for surrogacy under the SRA?</p> <p>(A) Yes, because they have been married for more than 5 years.</p> <p>(B) Yes, because they have financial capacity to bring up a child.</p> <p>(C) No, because they do not fall within the legal requirements of intending parents.</p> <p>(D) No, because they are not an infertile couple.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="92"> <li>Assume Rani and Shiva are eligible for surrogacy under the SRA. They approach Geeta to act as a surrogate. Geeta is Rani’s sister. She is 29 years old. She is married, has one child, and has been a surrogate twice before. Which of the following statements are false?</li> </ol> <p>i. Geeta is eligible to be a surrogate because she is a close relative.</p> <p>ii. Geeta is eligible to be a surrogate because she is married.</p> <p>iii. Geeta has been a surrogate only twice before and is now eligible to be a surrogate for Rani.</p> <p>iv. Geeta is eligible to be a surrogate because she is 29 .</p> <p>(A) Statement iii</p> <p>(B) Statements i and iii</p> <p>(C) Statements ii and iii</p> <p>(D) Statements ii, iii, and iv</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="93"> <li>Joseph and Neena are keen to have a child via surrogacy. They have been married for 8 years, and have been unable to conceive biologically due to infertility. Joseph is 40 years old and Neena is 42 years old. They have an adopted daughter, Maya, who is 4 years old. Maya has been diagnosed with Striker’s Syndrome, which would cause slow neurological deterioration, with chances of death. Devastated, Joseph and Neena decide to opt for surrogacy, to become parents to their biological child. Are they eligible for surrogacy?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Yes, because they have no biological children.</p> <p>(B) No, because they have an adopted child.</p> <p>(C) Yes, because their adopted child has been diagnosed with Striker’s Syndrome.</p> <p>(D) Yes, because their right to procreation and parenthood is protected under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="94"> <li>Queen runs a surrogacy clinic. She employs 54 women, aged between 25 and 35 years. They are all married women with one or more children. Most of them belong to economically disadvantaged backgrounds. They choose to be surrogates because it gives them a reliable source of income. Kishore and Noor are intending parents. They have been married 5 years, are both aged 35, and do not have children. Kishore has been certified as infertile. So, they decide to approach Queen’s clinic. They sign a contract with the surrogate. The contract is in writing and is signed in the presence of two witnesses. As per the contract, Kishore and Noor are required to remunerate the surrogate with ₹ 2 lakh per child born as a result of surrogacy, and take care of her medical needs, including providing her with medical insurance. A healthy baby girl is born as a result of surrogacy. Kishore and Noor are overjoyed. They take care of the surrogate’s medical expenses. However, they do not pay the surrogate the ₹ 2 lakh. The surrogate, supported by Queen, now wants to take Kishore and Noor to court, to demand that they make the payment.Will she succeed?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Yes, because Kishore and Noor are bound by the contract under the ICA.</p> <p>(B) Yes, because the intending parents and the surrogate meet the eligibility requirements under the SRA.</p> <p>(C) Yes, because the surrogate meets the eligibility requirements under the SRA.</p> <p>(D) No, because SRA allows only altruistic surrogacy, so the contract is not valid under the ICA.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="95"> <li>Karan and Daniel are in a homosexual relationship. As per the Hindu Marriage Act, marriage is allowed only between heterosexual couples. As a result, Karan and Daniel are not married. However, they wish to have children and decide to go in for surrogacy. When they approach Queen’s clinic, they are informed that they do not meet the requirements for an intending couple under the SRA. Karan and Daniel wish to challenge the SRA for violating their constitutional right to non-discrimination. The non-discrimination clause under the Constitution of India reads: ‘No citizen shall be discriminated on the basis of sex, caste, religion, nationality, place of birth or any other ground’. Karan and Daniel argue that the SRA discriminates against them on the basis of sexual orientation, because it restricts surrogacy to heterosexual couples alone. Which of the following arguments would most strongly support their claim in court?</li> </ol> <p>(A) The non-discrimination clause does not explicitly mention sexual orientation.</p> <p>(B) Discrimination on the basis of sex could include discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.</p> <p>(C) The non-discrimination clause is not restricted to explicitly mentioned grounds.</p> <p>(D) Surrogacy is restricted under the SRA to married couples, and only heterosexual couples can get married.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <p>XVIII. Until 2017, India did not have a codified law to order internet shut downs. A general power was vested in District Magistrates in this regard. The Magistrate could issue an order ordering a shut down if a ‘speedy remedy’ (extending to internet shut down) is desirable for ‘immediate prevention’ of an event. The Magistrate had to be satisfied that the order is ’likely to prevent or tends to prevent obstruction, annoyance or injury to human life, health or safety, or a disturbance of public tranquillity’. The Magistrate’s order cannot be for longer than two months.</p> <p>In 2017, new rules to order internet shut downs were introduced taking the power away from the Magistrate. These rules - the Temporary Suspension Rules - state that internet shut downs can now only be ordered by the Home Secretary of the Union or State Governments. Only in “unavoidable circumstances” can the passing of orders be delegated to someone lower than the rank of a Joint Secretary to the Government of India. And even in this case, the official must be authorised by the Centre or State Home Secretary. Shut downs can be ordered where ’necessary’ or ‘unavoidable’ during a ‘public emergency’ or in the ‘interest of public safety’. Shut down orders must necessarily detail the reasons to shut down the internet. The orders must also be sent to a review committee under the state or central government within 24 hours. The committee must then review them within five working days. The rules state that apart from the Chief Secretary and Legal Secretary, the committee can comprise a secretary other than the home secretary.</p> <p>In January 2020 the Supreme Court passed its judgement in the case of Anuradha Bhasin. The judgement in this case explicitly recognised two things: that the freedom to access information is a fundamental right under Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution of India (which protects the freedom of speech and expression); and that the freedom to conduct your trade, profession or business over the internet is also a fundamental right under Article 19(1)(g) of the Constitution of India (which protects the freedom to practise any profession, or to carry on any occupation, trade or business). Every time the internet is suspended, it is quite obvious that it is a violation of these rights. These rights can only be curtailed in the interest of the ‘sovereignty and security of the state, integrity of the nation, friendly relations with foreign states, or public order or for preventing incitement to the commission of an offence’. The Supreme Court’s judgement in Anuradha Bhasin’s case had also underlined that shut down orders must clearly provide reasons for the shut down and they must be publicly available.</p> <p>[Extracted with edits and revisions from “In India, are internet shut downs in accordance with law? Not always”, by Diksha Munjal, News Laundry]</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="96"> <li>In 2014 , India was hit by a terrible pandemic. It was the first time the country was experiencing a pandemic. People panicked. WhatsApp and Facebook groups became common platforms for sharing information about the pandemic. Messages were forwarded from group to group. Many of these messages prescribed different remedies to prevent and cure the flu caused by the pandemic. In Merodha district, people following these remedies began to fall sick. The already overburdened public sector hospitals became even more full. The district administration requested people to stop sharing such misinformation. However, these requests were not heeded. The District Magistrate issued an indefinite order to shut down the internet to prevent the transmission of these messages. Is this order legal?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Yes, because the District Magistrate has the power to issue a range of orders, which includes internet shut down orders.</p> <p>(B) Yes, because the order was necessary on grounds of public health.</p> <p>(C) Yes, because a speedy order was necessary to immediately prevent transmission of these messages.</p> <p>(D) No, because the order was indefinite.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="97"> <li>The Central government was preparing to conduct the National Medical Eligibility Test (“NMET”) on 25 October 2021. The exams were to be conducted in public schools around the country on computers provided by the government. In July 2021, there were rumours that several groups had hatched plans to share answers with the students taking the exam. A special chat application was developed. The student simply had to open the application on the browser of the computer on which they were taking the exam, allowing persons on the other end to send them the answers. The government was very concerned. If the rumours were true, the quality of doctors in training (who were selected through the NMET) would be severely affected. To prevent this public emergency, the government issued orders under the Temporary Suspension Rules to shut down internet countrywide on 25 October 2021. Many protested against this decision. They argued that the government could prevent cheating in the exams by shutting down the internet in the public schools where the exam was taking place. A nation-wide blanket shut down was not required for this purpose. Now, the issue is before the Supreme Court. What will the Court decide?</li> </ol> <p>(A) The government’s order is legal under the Temporary Suspension Rules because it prevents a public emergency by preserving the quality of doctors in India.</p> <p>(B) The government’s order is not legal under the Temporary Suspension Rules because the power belonged to the magistrate to issue orders under Section 144.</p> <p>(C) The government’s order is not legal under the Temporary Suspension Rules because the nation-wide internet shut down order was not necessary or unavoidable.</p> <p>(D) The government’s order is legal because it is the responsibility of the State to conduct exams in a fair manner.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="98"> <li>In the above instance, the order was passed by the Communications Minister of the Indian Central Government. The Communications Minister is below the rank of Joint Secretary. The Home Secretary was away for a conference in Geneva and thus was not present in Delhi when the decision to pass the order was made. However, the Home Secretary could be contacted by phone or email. She had, in fact, explicitly said that she should be contacted if any need arises, however minor. As she had taken measures to make herself available virtually, the Home Secretary did not authorise any other official to exercise her functions. Against this, consider the following statements:</li> </ol> <p>i. The Communications Minister had the power to pass the order under the 2017 Rules.</p> <p>ii. The passing of the order by the Communications Minister was avoidable.</p> <p>iii. The power to pass the order remained with the Home Secretary.</p> <p>iv. The Communications Minister did not have the power to pass the order under the 2017 Rules.</p> <p>Which of the following statements are false?</p> <p>(A) Statement iv</p> <p>(B) Statement i</p> <p>(C) Statements ii and iii</p> <p>(D) Statements ii and iv</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="99"> <li>Assume that in the above instance, the Joint Secretary passed the order. The order stated: ‘By means of the discretion vested in me by the Temporary Suspension of Telecom Services (Public Emergency or Public Safety) Rules 2017, I suspend internet across all Indian States and Union Territories on October 25, 2021’. The order was passed on 15 October, 2021. The order was sent to the Central Government review committee within 8 hours of its passing. The committee reviewed and approved of the order on 22 October, 2021. Is the order legal?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Yes, because it was passed under the 2017 rules.</p> <p>(B) No, because the procedure under the 2017 rules was not followed.</p> <p>(C) Yes, because the order was reviewed by the Central government review committee.</p> <p>(D) No, because the order was passed 10 days before it was to come into effect.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:20px;'> <ol start="100"> <li>In January 2022, communal riots were rife in five states in India, between two dominant communities, {X} and {Y}. The primary mode of communication amongst the rioters was Signal which could be accessed through the internet via mobile phones and computers. The State governments of the five States received information that some members of X group were planning to set the houses of members of Y group on fire. Through broad Signal broadcasts amongst all users, the leaders of {X} group were instigating members of their group to participate in this exercise, threatening public order. Creating or inciting threat to public order is a criminal offence under Section 163 F of the Indian Penal Code. To prevent further communication between the leaders of X group and their members, the State shut Signal down. However, communication then shifted to other platforms. Realising that targeting isolated platforms would not work, the State governments issued an order shutting down internet completely in all the States. Two groups protested against this order. First, students whose education was being conducted online due to the riots. They argued that they were prevented from accessing vital information, central to their education. Second, business owners who conducted business on the internet. The State’s order read: ‘In the five Indian States listed below, internet will be suspended for a period of two months from 10 January 2022 to 10 March 2022’. The State’s order was not displayed anywhere (in print or virtually) from January to March 2022.</li> </ol> <p>Consider the following statements:</p> <p>i. The students’ right under Article 19(1)(a) was violated by the State order.</p> <p>ii. The business owners’ right under Article 19(1)(g) was violated by the State order.</p> <p>iii. The State order validly restricted the said fundamental rights.</p> <p>iv. The State’s order complied with the guidelines under Anuradha Bhasin.</p> <p>How many statements are true?</p> <p>(A) One statement</p> <p>(B) Two statements</p> <p>(C) Three statements</p> <p>(D) All four statements</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <p>XIX. Consumers are people who buy and use goods or services. Consumers have a right to file a complaint for any of the services or goods used by them under Consumer Protection Law. Under Consumer Protection Law, a ‘consumer’ means:</p> <p>Person buying and using goods and services: A consumer includes any person who buys goods and services, as well as anyone who uses them. For instance, a person who watches a movie after buying a movie ticket is a consumer and similarly, a person who uses a gift voucher gifted from someone else is also a consumer.</p> <p>Person using goods for self-employment, and not for commercial purposes: The consumer protection law does not apply to people who use goods and services for commercial purposes. However, there are some exceptions to this. For example, people who use goods for self-employment are considered as consumers. For example, artists who buy art supplies for their work or beauticians who buy beauty products are consumers.</p> <p>Person using online facilities: A consumer also includes any person who buys or hires goods or services online. For example, if you order from an online clothes website, you are a consumer.</p> <p>People facing issues related to food: Consumers also include people who may be facing issues related to food items, such as adulteration, poor quality, lack of service, etc. For instance, issues related to food can cover problems across a wide range of products, starting from water that goes into the production of items like juices as well as the sale of animals like chicken, mutton etc. that are expressly intended for human consumption.</p> <p>[Extracted, with edits and revisions, from “Who is a Consumer?”, Nyaaya India]</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="101"> <li>Clint Leone Morricone Ltd. (“CLML”) is a factory manufacturing bicycles. For the purpose of documentation and record keeping, it purchased a laptop from Pacer. However, within a month of the purchase, the laptop crashed and there was a motherboard failure. Despite a warranty, Pacer failed to replace the motherboard. Which of the following statements is correct?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Purchase of electronic items do not fall within the purview of consumer law.</p> <p>(B) CLML is a consumer since it has bought a good for a price.</p> <p>(C) CLML is not a consumer since it has purchased the laptop for commercial purpose.</p> <p>(D) A company is not a person and so, cannot be a consumer.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="102"> <li>Sita Das has been working as a freelance journalist. She writes columns and news-reports for various newspapers and news-portals and is paid on the basis of each column and report. For the purpose of her writing work, she purchases a Pacer laptop. However, within a month of the purchase, the laptop crashed and there was a motherboard failure. Which of the following statements is correct?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Since she is using the laptop for the purpose of writing paid columns and news reports, Sita Das cannot be a consumer.</p> <p>(B) Purchase of goods does not fall within the purview of Consumer Protection Law.</p> <p>(C) Since she is using the laptop for the purpose of earning her livelihood, she will be a consumer.</p> <p>(D) None of the above</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="103"> <li>Kalpavruksha Charitable Trust runs a hospital. The hospital charges a fee from its patients. The fee is however $30 %$ less than the commercial rates for all services and medical devices sold to patients. The hospital purchased a pacemaker from St. Rude’s - a globally reputed manufacturer of pacemakers, to be resold to and used by patients. Which of the following statements is correct?</li> </ol> <p>(A) The hospital is a charitable hospital and therefore, it is a consumer with respect to the pacemakers purchased from St. Rude’s.</p> <p>(B) The hospital resells the pacemakers to patients and therefore cannot be considered as a consumer with respect to the pacemakers purchased from St. Rude’s.</p> <p>(C) The hospital resells the pacemakers at a discounted rate and therefore can be considered a consumer with respect to the pacemakers purchased from St. Rude’s.</p> <p>(D) Sale of medical devices is not covered by Consumer Protection Law.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="104"> <li>Fitzit is an online platform that provides physiotherapy and other ancillary medical services. Amit Ghosh booked a physiotherapist on Fitzit for three months by paying an amount of ₹ 25,000 . Fitzit guaranteed the availability of qualified physiotherapists for the duration. However, Fitzit failed to provide a qualified physiotherapist and the persons who were sent for the first two visits had no training or certification in the field. Amit Ghosh seeks to proceed against Fitzit under Consumer Protection Law. Which of the following statements can be correctly inferred?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Since online services are not covered by Consumer Protection Law, Amit Ghosh cannot be considered a consumer.</p> <p>(B) Since services are not covered by Consumer Protection Law, Amit Ghosh cannot be considered a consumer.</p> <p>(C) Since online services are covered by Consumer Protection Law, Amit Ghosh shall be considered a consumer.</p> <p>(D) Since medical services are not covered by Consumer Protection Law, Amit Ghosh cannot be considered a consumer.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="105"> <li>Jitesh Shah purchased from BreatheEasy, a company selling respiratory devices, a nebuliser device for his son, Jignesh Shah, for use for clearing his nasal passages. The nebulizer was however defective and led to severe respiratory distress for Jignesh. Jignesh is considering filing a complaint against BreatheEasy under the Consumer Protection Law. Which of the following statements can be correctly inferred?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Since Jignesh Shah did not purchase the device from BreatheEasy, he cannot be considered a consumer with respect to BreathEasy.</p> <p>(B) Since Jignesh Shah is a user of the device, he can be considered a consumer.</p> <p>(C) Sale of medical devices are not covered by Consumer Protection Law.</p> <p>(D) None of the above</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <p>XX. The depreciation of an economy’s currency is not a matter of concern in itself. The decline in value against major currencies has to be viewed within a set of macroeconomic factors. The recent depreciation of the Indian rupee is a case in point. The rupee has been depreciating for a long time. What are of concern now are the rate at which the depreciation is occurring and the underlying factors causing the change. The Russia-Ukraine war has disrupted supply chains causing commodity prices to rise, leading to a worldwide hardening of inflationary trends. This, in turn, has caused major central banks to raise interest rates, forcing investors back to the safe haven of the US dollar. For India, these headwinds from the global economy have caused several problems. The rise in international prices, especially of crude oil, has led to a higher import bill and, hence, a greater demand for dollars. Higher interest rates in developed country markets have caused a significant outflow of portfolio investments from India, aggravating the already climbing demand for dollars from a rising import bill. By May 2022, foreign institutional investors had pulled out Rs. 1.50 lakh crore from Indian markets.</p> <p>In the face of these pressures, the rupee, left to itself, would decline in value as the rupee-price of a dollar would increase substantially. One way the Reserve Bank of India could stem the tide would be to sell off dollars in the market to ease the supply situation. However, this would mean that while the value of the rupee could be contained, the nation’s foreign exchange kitty would start to erode further. The RBI has been doing exactly that. The challenge before the RBI is this: how much to let the rupee depreciate and how much to intervene to prop it up? Too much depreciation would raise domestic inflation rates as the rupee-price of imports, especially oil, would raise costs of production. It could trigger a rise in policy-controlled interest rates while closely monitoring inflationary expectations. The biggest challenge is to navigate unpredictable international economic shocks in the near future. The Indian economy’s health is not exactly at its best. Exports may not be able to take advantage of a falling rupee since international demand is expected to stagnate. India’s growth and employment situations are yet to stabilise to what they were about a decade ago. The RBI has difficult choices: controlling inflation versus stimulating growth and stabilising the rupee without severely diminishing the economy’s foreign exchange kitty.</p> <p>[Extracted, with edits and revisions, from “Stiff test: Editorial on depreciation of rupee & challenges before RBI”, The Telegraph]</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="106"> <li>Which of the following is the author most likely to agree with?</li> </ol> <p>(A) It is a major cause for concern if an economy’s currency is depreciating.</p> <p>(B) Currency depreciation is not a reason for worry in itself, but if macroeconomic factors are not good, there may be a cause for concern.</p> <p>(C) The fact that the Indian rupee is witnessing a decline in value against major currencies is very worrisome.</p> <p>(D) A central bank must always do everything in its power to stem the slightest depreciation of an economy’s currency.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="107"> <li>Based on the author’s arguments, which of the following, if true, would reduce the decline in value of the rupee?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Appointing a new Governor for the RBI who has a better sense of how to control inflationary trends.</p> <p>(B) A steep increase in commodity prices and the continued disruption of supply chains.</p> <p>(C) A reduction in worldwide inflationary trends and the reduction of interest rates in developed country markets.</p> <p>(D) The RBI buying as many dollars as possible from the market.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="108"> <li>Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the author’s arguments?</li> </ol> <p>(A) The Indian economy has been affected by global inflationary trends and the increase of interest rates in developed country markets.</p> <p>(B) Since developed country markets have increased their interest rates, global investors have pulled their investments out of other economies, and routed them to such developed country markets.</p> <p>(C) As the demand for US dollars increases, it is likely the rupee-price of a dollar would increase substantially.</p> <p>(D) The Indian economy and currency are highly protected and have been insulated from the effects of global inflationary trends and the increase of interest rates in developed country markets.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="109"> <li>Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author’s arguments for why Indian exports may not be able to take advantage of a falling rupee?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Economies across the world are witnessing a slowdown, and in such economies, demand for imports decreases substantially.</p> <p>(B) Economies across the world are booming, and there is an increasing demand for Indian exports.</p> <p>(C) A reduction in the volume of exports would be more than offset by the increased value of dollars that Indian exporters would earn.</p> <p>(D) Countries across the world have managed to find ways to insulate themselves from the effects of the Russia-Ukraine war and will need a lot of Indian imports to sustain their new growth models.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="110"> <li>Based on the author’s arguments, which of the following must necessarily be true?</li> </ol> <p>(A) The continuing depreciation of the Indian rupee at its current rate, coupled with worldwide inflationary trends, would result in immense political instability in India, and consequently, in all of South Asia.</p> <p>(B) If nothing else is done, the rise of interest rates in developed country markets, coupled with hardening of inflationary trends across the world, will result in a fall in the value of the rupee against the dollar.</p> <p>(C) If inflationary trends continue to harden across the world, and if interest rates in developed country markets continue to rise, portfolio investors will increase their investments in India, and this will have a positive impact on India’s foreign exchange reserves.</p> <p>(D) If nothing else is done, the rise of interest rates in developed country markets, coupled with hardening of inflationary trends across the world, will result in a rise in the value of the rupee against the dollar.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="111"> <li>Which of the following is the author most likely to agree with?</li> </ol> <p>(A) The RBI must not focus solely on preventing the depreciation of the rupee, as that may result in negative impacts on other aspects of the economy.</p> <p>(B) The RBI must focus solely on preventing the depreciation of the rupee at all costs, since it is by far the most important indicator of the health of the Indian economy.</p> <p>(C) Periodic inflationary trends are normal in any economy, and the RBI need not worry about the inflationary effects in the Indian economy caused by the depreciation of the rupee.</p> <p>(D) The RBI need not do anything to reduce the rate of depreciation of the rupee, since the depreciation of an economy’s currency is not a matter of concern in itself.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <p>XXI. The post-truth era is, expectedly, marked by a discerning erosion of public trust in sources of information. Mass media - both traditional and new-age avatars - has borne the brunt of this mistrust. And for good reasons too. Social media, its most popular platform, is a harbinger of falsity. It is thus encouraging to see that at least the old guard of the media ecosystem - the newspaper - continues to defy this discouraging trend. A pan-India survey of media consumption by Lokniti found that print media remains the most trusted source of information. The finding is consistent with the heartening surge in public endorsement of the reliability of newspapers since the pandemic. An earlier survey, which attempted to examine the impact of the lockdown on ‘reading patterns’, had found that the number of readers who used to spend over an hour on newspapers every day had risen to $38 %$, up from $16 %$ in the pre-lockdown period. The increased trust in newspapers is because the lockdowns coincided with the dissemination of the crudest kinds of misinformation about the pandemic in India and around the world and newspapers played a pivotal role in exposing these lies.</p> <p>But that is where the good news ends - for the print media, at least. Among other things, the data collated by the survey found deepening footprints of social media in rural and urban constituencies while television continues to dominate the screen. These developments are consistent with global trends that reveal that the newspaper industry is struggling to contain the migration of readers and revenue to other formats, especially digital media. Ironically, the pandemic, which saw a resurgence in collective trust in newspapers, adversely affected the print media as traditional advertisers, reeling under the economic fallouts of CoVID-19, cut back on advertisements. But the crisis in print precedes the pandemic. Newspapers have been outpaced by speedier, but also spurious, sources of information. The dominance of the image over text as a cultural phenomenon is another formidable challenge. The print media’s hopes of remaining competitive and profitable must, therefore, centre on using this collective trust as a form of capital. Survival strategies, especially the revenue model, must be re-explored and the emphasis shifted to in-depth analyses of news as well as eyecatching layouts now that newspapers are slower to reach news to the audience.</p> <p>[Extracted, with edits and revisions, from “Good news: Editorial on print media remaining the most trusted source of information”, The Telegraph]</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="112"> <li>Which of the following is the author most likely to agree with?</li> </ol> <p>(A) The CoVID-19 pandemic was an unmitigated disaster for the newspaper industry.</p> <p>(B) The CoVID-19 pandemic had negative as well as positive effects on the newspaper industry.</p> <p>(C) The CoVID-19 pandemic only had good effects on the newspaper industry.</p> <p>(D) The CoVID-19 pandemic had no effect at all on the newspaper industry.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="113"> <li>Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the author’s arguments?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Social media is a reliable source of true and accurate news and information.</p> <p>(B) Social media is a highly unreliable source of news and information and should not be trusted.</p> <p>(C) Social media is a good way for people to stay connected with each other.</p> <p>(D) Social media is a speedier source of information than newspapers.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="114"> <li>Which of the following would be an effective way of making print media more competitive?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Slowing down the process of print media production.</p> <p>(B) Using more expensive printing methods that achieve better print quality, even if it results in newspapers becoming more expensive.</p> <p>(C) Only publishing newspapers on alternate days.</p> <p>(D) Developing ways of ensuring that print media can reach readers more speedily.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="115"> <li>Based on the author’s arguments, which of the following, if true, would have resulted in the weakening, rather than deepening of public trust in newspapers since the pandemic?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Newspapers were very careful in ensuring they reported accurate and true news during the lockdowns.</p> <p>(B) Newspapers played a leading role in exposing lies and misinformation spread during the lockdown.</p> <p>(C) Newspapers actively disseminated misinformation during the lockdowns and made no efforts to expose lies spread by others.</p> <p>(D) Newspapers alerted the public to the fact that a number of sources were spreading crude forms of misinformation during the pandemic.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="116"> <li>What would be the impact on the readership and revenues of the print media if the image were not dominant over text as a cultural phenomenon?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Print media would not suffer as much of a reduction in readership and revenue as readers shifted to other formats.</p> <p>(B) Print media would suffer a greater reduction in readership and revenue as readers shifted to other formats.</p> <p>(C) There would be no impact on the readership and revenues of the print industry.</p> <p>(D) There would be an increased demand from readers that newspapers carry more images and less text.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="117"> <li>How does the author suggest newspapers can overcome the problem of being outpaced by speedier sources of information?</li> </ol> <p>(A) They offer direct means by which newspapers can become faster to publish and deliver to readers.</p> <p>(B) They encourage a complete and immediate shift to digital media as a way of ensuring newspapers are not outpaced by other sources of information.</p> <p>(C) They offer ways to reduce production costs, which would offset the losses caused by readers shifting allegiance to faster sources of information.</p> <p>(D) They offer alternative means for newspapers to become competitive and profitable, but do not solve the problem of how newspapers can become faster sources of information.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <p>XXII. In this moment, the developed countries - I point to them, because these countries have already burnt massive amounts of carbon dioxide for energy to build their economies - are faced with a real energy conundrum. On the one hand, developed countries are battered because of a fast-heating planet; temperatures have gone through the roof; droughts and extreme weather events are hitting them as well. On the other hand, ordinary people in these countries are worried, not just because of climate change but because of the lack of energy to heat their homes this coming winter. In the US, gas prices went up in summer, so much so that people travelled less and consumption of fuel dropped. But now prices are down and it is business as usual.</p> <p>The fact is that this energy disruption has provided the much-needed vault to the beleaguered fossil fuel industry. Governments are asking this industry to supply more. Europe has baptised natural gas, a fossil fuel less polluting than coal but still a major emitter of carbon dioxide, as “clean”. The US has passed a climate bill, which will invest in renewable energy but conditional to increased spends on oil and gas and the opening up of millions of hectares of federal land for drilling. Through this bill the US will do more than ever before to build a manufacturing base for renewable energy, particularly solar. Europe, even in this desperate scramble for gas, is working to ramp up its investment in renewable power. So, it is the worst of times. It could be the best of times, but there are some caveats. One, this renewed interest in fossil fuels must remain temporary and transient. Given the nature of economies, once the investment has been made in this new infrastructure or the supply of fossil fuel has increased from new oil and gas discoveries, it will be difficult to wean off. Two, these countries should not be entitled to more use of fossil fuels in our world of shrunk carbon budgets. They need to reduce emissions drastically and leave whatever little carbon budget space that is remaining to poorer countries to use, thereby satisfying such poorer countries’ demands.</p> <p>[Extracted, with edits and revisions, from “New energy conundrum”, by Sunita Narain, DownToEarth]</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="118"> <li>Which of the following is the author most likely to agree with?</li> </ol> <p>(A) People in the US are not worried at all about climate change.</p> <p>(B) People in the US are worried about climate change, and these concerns affect their energy consumption habits more than anything else.</p> <p>(C) Climate change has resulted in the increase of energy prices across the world, and as a result, governments have had to invest in finding newer sources of renewable energy.</p> <p>(D) Changes in the energy consumption habits of people in the US are affected more by energy prices than concerns of climate change.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="119"> <li>Which of the following is most similar to the author’s statements about developed countries’ renewed interest in fossil fuels?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Developed countries should not, under any circumstances, invest any resources in fossil fuel energy extraction, and must immediately put a halt to all fossil fuel consumption.</p> <p>(B) Things could improve if developed countries recognise the difficulty of moving away from reliance on such sources of energy and make a conscious effort to move to alternate or renewable energy sources quickly.</p> <p>(C) Since investments in energy extraction of any kind are very expensive, developed countries must ensure that they make permanent and continuing investments in fossil fuels.</p> <p>(D) Developing countries must not, under any circumstances, consume fossil fuels, and leave whatever carbon budget space is remaining to richer countries to use.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="120"> <li>If the information in the passage above is correct, which of the following must necessarily be true?</li> </ol> <p>(A) The fossil fuel industry in developing countries will face reduced sales in the short term, with increased sales in the long term.</p> <p>(B) The cost of making, installing, and using solar panels will reduce substantially in the coming years.</p> <p>(C) Passing a bill in the US is a huge effort, and it would not have been possible to pass the new climate bill unless the current energy crisis had compelled lawmakers to do so.</p> <p>(D) The fossil fuel industry in developing countries will see an increase in business, at least in the short term.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="121"> <li>Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the author’s argument about why travel and fuel consumption in the US reduced in summer?</li> </ol> <p>(A) People like to travel regardless of season, and the only thing that would prevent them from travelling at any time of the year would be high costs.</p> <p>(B) Airlines raised ticket prices as a response to increase in fuel prices, and therefore, fewer people were able to buy air tickets to travel.</p> <p>(C) Strict lockdowns were imposed in the US in summer, because of which people travelled less; further, temperatures were moderate, and this meant people had to use less fuel to heat or warm their homes.</p> <p>(D) Widespread geopolitical tensions in the first half of the year meant that fuel prices were at an all-time high in summer; but prices have now eased off somewhat, making fuel slightly more affordable in the US.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="122"> <li>Which of the following, if true, would resolve the ‘conundrum’ the author says developed countries face now?</li> </ol> <p>(A) The development of adequate renewable power sources in the near term that would lead to a reduction in consumption of fossil fuels.</p> <p>(B) Finding new sources of fossil fuels that will ensure there is no shortage of energy to heat homes in the winter.</p> <p>(C) Switching immediately to renewable power sources, even if it leads to a shortage in energy supply for people.</p> <p>(D) Providing adequate aid to poorer countries so that they can develop renewable power sources for their use.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="123"> <li>Assuming the aim of the US climate bill is to reduce fossil fuel consumption, which of the following would be the strongest argument that it will fail to achieve such an aim?</li> </ol> <p>(A) The bill promotes investments in renewable energy but does not provide for enough increase in investments in developing more sources of fossil fuel-powered energy.</p> <p>(B) The bill is written in technical language, which ordinary people cannot easily understand.</p> <p>(C) The bill is self-defeating, since it makes investments in renewable energy conditional to more expenditure on oil and gas and making millions of hectares of federal land available for drilling, which would lead to an increased consumption of fossil fuels.</p> <p>(D) The bill does not provide any means of increasing carbon budgets, thereby making more room for fossil fuel consumption.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <p>XXIII. While men and women are both considered to be more capable as they get older, only women bear the brunt of being seen as “less warm” as they age, new research has found. This series of studies is reportedly the first to look at both gender and age to determine how perceptions of women and men differ. “It’s just stunning… These stereotypes are so hard-wired and deeply entrenched that they come out even when absolutely identical information is provided about a man and a woman,” Jennifer Chatman, Distinguished Professor of Management at UC Berkeley’s Haas School of Business, said. In an analysis of professors’ evaluations, female professors witnessed a decline as they moved from their 30s to 40s, hitting an all-time low around the age of 47. All this while, the evaluation of male professors remained consistent. Interestingly, after the age of 47, the evaluations for women increased again, becoming equal with those of men around the early 60s. “At that point, there are different stereotypes of women, and they may benefit from being seen as more grandmotherly,” said Laura Kray, faculty director of the Center for Equity, Gender, and Leadership at Berkeley Haas and an author of the study.</p> <p>Women around the age of mid 30s to late 40s also face what is called “the motherhood penalty,” where assumptions around parenting duties lead people to believe women are less committed to their careers than men. This has several repercussions, most particularly evident in hiring, promotions and wages. Women executives further pointed out that they face “hyper-scrutiny” and “scepticism” which harks back to perceptions of likeability versus agency. Gendered networks in the workplace, with men gaining greater access to senior leaders, become cemented mid-career, pose another difficulty for working women. Negative perceptions of women in middle-age can also be linked to stereotypes around menopause. In 2008, psychologists studied the attitudes of people towards women in different reproductive stages. They found that while the pregnant women or the woman with the baby were thought about in glowing terms, menopausal women were associated with negative emotions, illness and ageing.</p> <p>[Extracted, with edits and revisions, from “How Stereotypes Affect Middle-Aged Women’s Careers”, by Ananya Singh, The Swaddle]</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="124"> <li>Which of the following is most likely to be true if the author’s statements about gendered networks in the workplace are true?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Mid-career women do not find it as easy to get access to senior leaders, who are usually male, as their male colleagues. They therefore find career progression or new opportunities easier to come by.</p> <p>(B) Mid-career women find it easier to get access to senior leaders, who are usually male, as their male colleagues. They therefore find career progression or new opportunities easier to come by.</p> <p>(C) Mid-career women do not find it as easy to get access to senior leaders, who are usually male, as their male colleagues. They therefore find career progression or new opportunities harder to come by.</p> <p>(D) Mid-career women find it easier to get access to senior leaders, who are usually male, as their male colleagues. They therefore do not find career progression or new opportunities harder to come by.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="125"> <li>Which of the following is most likely to be an outcome of what the author describes as the “motherhood penalty”?</li> </ol> <p>(A) People are more hesitant to hire men from their mid 30s to their late 40s but may be more willing to hire women of a similar age.</p> <p>(B) People are more hesitant to hire women from their mid 30s to their late 40s but may be more willing to hire men of a similar age.</p> <p>(C) Women from their mid 30s to their late 40s always prioritise parenting responsibilities and so are not really interested in pursuing a career.</p> <p>(D) Women who have children are less committed to their careers than men.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="126"> <li>If professors’ evaluations are the most important criteria in awarding promotions, then which of the following would be the most likely outcome, based on the information provided in the passage?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Male professors are likely to be promoted at an even rate throughout their career, while women professors would experience a lower likelihood of promotion in the mid-career stage.</p> <p>(B) Since there is a wide disparity between the evaluations that male and female professors receive, the practice of relying upon such evaluations will quickly be abandoned.</p> <p>(C) Male and female professors will receive promotions at a similar rate throughout the course of their career.</p> <p>(D) Women professors are likely to be promoted at an even rate throughout their career, while male professors would experience a lower likelihood of promotion in the mid-career stage.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="127"> <li>Which of the following is the author most likely to disagree with?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Women going through menopause often quit the workforce voluntarily.</p> <p>(B) Women going through menopause are more likely to be perceived negatively at the workplace and to have difficulty achieving professional success.</p> <p>(C) Women going through menopause should be permitted to take a mid-career sabbatical.</p> <p>(D) Women going through menopause are more likely to be perceived positively at the workplace and to achieve professional success.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="128"> <li>Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the main argument in the passage?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Several independent studies conducted in different countries have shown that women in the workplace are perceived positively and are favourably treated as they age.</p> <p>(B) Several independent studies conducted in different countries have shown that women in the workplace are perceived negatively and are unfairly treated as they age.</p> <p>(C) The studies mentioned in the passage have been discredited after they were published, and no reliance should be placed on them.</p> <p>(D) The studies mentioned in the passage were conducted on very small sample sets and cannot be used to make general statements about the difference in perception between men and women.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="129"> <li>Which of the following, if true, would most weaken Laura Kray’s arguments?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Women professors perceived as being ‘grandmotherly’ are regarded as being likeable and caring.</p> <p>(B) Women professors perceived as being ‘grandmotherly’ are treated better by their colleagues and students.</p> <p>(C) Women professors perceived as being ‘grandmotherly’ are regarded as being slow, inefficient, and outdated in their field.</p> <p>(D) Women professors perceived as being ‘grandmotherly’ are regarded very highly and receive much more respect than younger women professors.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <p>XXIV. Why are we humans so susceptible to the doom and gloom of the news? Two reasons. The first is what psychologists call negativity bias: we’re more attuned to the bad than the good. Back in our hunting and gathering days, we were better off being frightened of a spider or a snake a hundred times too often than one time too few. Too much fear wouldn’t kill you; too little surely would.</p> <p>Second, we’re also burdened with an availability bias. If we can easily recall examples of a given thing, we assume that thing is relatively common. The fact that we’re bombarded daily with horrific stories about aircraft disasters, child snatchers and beheadings which tend to lodge in the memory - completely skews our view of the world.</p> <p>In this digital age, the news we’re being fed is only getting more extreme. In the old days, journalists didn’t know much about their individual readers. They wrote for the masses. But the people behind Facebook, Twitter and Google know you well. They know what shocks and horrifies you, they know what makes you click. They know how to grab your attention and hold it so they can serve you the most lucrative helping of personalised ads. This modern media frenzy is nothing less than an assault on the mundane. Because, let’s be honest, the lives of most people are pretty predictable. Nice, but boring. So while we’d prefer having nice neighbours with boring lives, ‘boring’ won’t make you sit up and take notice. ‘Nice’ doesn’t sell ads. And so Silicon Valley keeps dishing us up ever more sensational clickbait, knowing full well, as a Swiss novelist once quipped, that “News is to the mind what sugar is to the body.”</p> <p>[Extracted, with edits and revisions, from Humankind: A Hopeful History, by Rutger Bregman, Bloomsbury Publishing, London, 2021.]</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="130"> <li>Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the author’s arguments?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Behavioural traits that helped us in the days when we were hunter-gatherers continue to be present in modern-day humans.</p> <p>(B) Behavioural traits that helped us in the days when we were hunter-gatherers are no longer found in modern-day humans.</p> <p>(C) The negativity bias makes us more likely to be affected by depressing or sad news.</p> <p>(D) We have certain behavioural characteristics that affect how we perceive and are affected by sad news.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="131"> <li>Which of the following is the author most likely to agree with?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Contemporary media continuously exposes us to exciting news and information, which may be just like the things we usually experience in our lives.</p> <p>(B) Contemporary media continuously exposes us to exciting news and information, which may be very unlike the kinds of things we usually encounter in our lives.</p> <p>(C) Contemporary media continuously exposes us to boring news and information, which may be very unlike the kinds of things we usually encounter in our lives.</p> <p>(D) Contemporary media continuously exposes us to boring news and information, which may be just like the things we usually experience in our lives.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="132"> <li>Based only on the author’s statement that “we’d prefer having nice neighbours with boring lives”, and the author’s argument about the nature of news that modern media exposes us to, which of the following would the author be most likely to agree with?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Constantly being exposed to negative news gives us a warped perspective of the world.</p> <p>(B) In our hunting and gathering days, it was better for us to be unnecessarily scared rather than being scared too little.</p> <p>(C) The news modern media exposes us to is just like our day-to-day experiences.</p> <p>(D) The news modern media exposes us to is very different from our day-to-day experiences.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="133"> <li>The author’s statements about negativity bias, if true, provide most support for which of the following conclusions?</li> </ol> <p>(A) We are more likely to notice a story about a billionaire donating their money to charity than a story about an airplane crash.</p> <p>(B) We are more likely to be attracted to a news article about a rise in life expectancy in our country than a news article about a murder in our city.</p> <p>(C) We are more likely to notice a story about increasing pollution levels than a story about improving educational levels in schools.</p> <p>(D) We are more likely to form our opinion of the world based on the information available to us rather than information we do not have access to.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="134"> <li>Which of the following would be the most effective way of countering the effects of what the author describes as our ‘availability bias’?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Ensuring that we do not seek out news sources and stories that we may not otherwise have been exposed to.</p> <p>(B) Following only one news source and limiting our perspective of the world to that one source.</p> <p>(C) Avoiding all positive news stories, and instead only reading news stories about disasters and tragedies.</p> <p>(D) Ensuring that we seek out news sources and stories that we may not otherwise have been exposed to.</p> </div> <p>======</p> <div style = 'text-align:left; font-size:22px;'> <ol start="135"> <li>The author says that “The fact that we’re bombarded daily with horrific stories about aircraft disasters, child snatchers and beheadings - which tend to lodge in the memory - completely skews our view of the world.” The conclusion the author draws in this argument follows logically if which of the following is assumed?</li> </ol> <p>(A) Our ideas about the world are shaped by the information we are exposed to.</p> <p>(B) Modern media is concerned only with making massive profits.</p> <p>(C) Modern journalists generate news stories much faster than in the old days.</p> <p>(D) Humans once lived as hunter-gatherers.</p>