2. RAYAS, NAYAKAS AND SULTANS

• The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka.
• The empire, also known as Karnataka samrajyamu, was a melting pot of different languages and religious traditions.
• The rulers of Vijayanagara competed with the Sultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa for control of fertile river valleys and resources from overseas trade.
• The Vijayanagara rulers, who called themselves rayas, borrowed architectural concepts and building techniques from neighboring states and developed them further.
• The Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur and the Chennakeshava temple at Belur are examples of temples that received patronage from ruling elites in areas incorporated into the Vijayanagara Empire.

2.1 Kings and traders

• The king, Krishnadeva Raya, encouraged trade to:

• Improve harbors and increase commerce.
• Import horses, elephants, precious gems, sandalwood, pearls, and other articles.
• Attract foreign merchants who import elephants and good horses by providing them with daily audience, presents, and allowing decent profits.

• The king was interested in encouraging trade to ensure that valuable resources like horses and elephants did not go to his enemies.
• Groups that would have benefited from these transactions include:
  • Local communities of merchants (kudirai chettis or horse merchants).
  • Arab traders.
  • Portuguese traders (after 1498).
• Trade contributed significantly to the prosperity of the state and the wealthy population that demanded high-value exotic goods, especially precious stones and jewellery.

2.2 The apogee and decline of the empire

• The Sangama dynasty was the first to rule the Vijayanagara Empire until 1485, followed by the Saluva dynasty until 1503, and the Tuluva dynasty after that.
• Krishnadeva Raya, a Tuluva ruler, expanded and consolidated the kingdom’s power by acquiring the Raichur doab in 1512, subduing the rulers of Orissa in 1514, and inflicting defeats on the Sultan of Bijapur in 1520.
• Following Krishnadeva Raya’s death in 1529, his successors faced rebellions from nayakas or military chiefs, leading to a shift in power to the Aravidu lineage by 1542, which ruled until the end of the seventeenth century.
• The Sultanates and Vijayanagara rulers had shifting alliances due to their military ambitions, resulting in an alliance of Sultanates against Vijayanagara, leading to the Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi in 1565, where Vijayanagara’s forces were defeated, and the city was sacked and abandoned.
• Religious differences did not always lead to hostility between the Sultans and the Vijayanagara rulers, as evidenced by Krishnadeva Raya supporting some claimants to power in the Sultanates and taking pride in the title “establisher of the Yavana kingdom.”

2.3 The rayas and the nayakas

• The nayakas were military chiefs who controlled forts and had armed supporters, often moving from one area to another and speaking Telugu or Kannada.
• Many nayakas submitted to the authority of the kings of Vijayanagara but frequently rebelled, leading to military action. The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire, likely derived from the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Amara-nayakas were given territories to govern by the raya, collecting taxes and other dues while retaining part of the revenue for personal use and maintaining a contingent of horses and elephants.
• Nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and appeared in the royal court with gifts. During the seventeenth century, many nayakas established independent kingdoms, contributing to the collapse of the central imperial structure.
• Chandragiri, Madurai, Ikkeri, Thanjavur, and Mysore were centers of nayaka power. Rivers and hills may have facilitated or hindered communication with Vijayanagara in each case, depending on the specific geographical features of each location.

3. VIJAYANAGARA

• Vijayanagara, the capital, had a distinct physical layout and building style.
• The city was divided into three major zones, which can be identified on the plan.
• There were channels connecting up with the river and several fortification walls, but the sacred center was not fortified.
• Information about the city comes from a large number of inscriptions and accounts of travelers such as Nicolo de Conti, Abdur Razzaq, Afanasii Nikitin, Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes, and Fernao Nuniz.
• According to Domingo Paes, Vijayanagara was a sprawling city with many groves of trees, conduits of water, and lakes, similar to cities today. The gardens and water bodies were selected for special mention by Paes, indicating their significance and beauty.

3.1 Water resources

• The city of Vijayanagara is located in a natural basin formed by the Tungabhadra river.
• The surrounding landscape is characterized by granite hills and streams that flow into the river.
• Embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes, to store rainwater and conduct it to the city.
• The most important reservoir, Kamalapuram tank, was built in the early 15th century and supplied water to nearby fields and the “royal centre”.
• The Hiriyacanal, a prominent waterwork, was built by the Sangama dynasty kings to draw water from the Tungabhadra and irrigate the valley between the “sacred centre” and the “urban core”.

3.2 Fortifications and roads

• The city of Vijayanagara had great fortress walls encircling not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests, with the outermost wall linking the hills surrounding the city.
• The massive masonry construction of the walls was slightly tapered, with no mortar or cementing agent employed. The stone blocks were wedge-shaped, and the inner portion of the walls was of earth packed with rubble.
• Agricultural tracts were incorporated within the fortified area, with cultivated fields, gardens, and houses between the first, second, and third walls.
• The city had an elaborate canal system drawing water from the Tungabhadra, and the rulers adopted a strategy of protecting the agricultural belt itself, possibly to ensure food supply during sieges.
• The fortified settlement was entered through well-guarded gates, featuring Indo-Islamic architectural elements such as arches and domes, which grew continually through interaction with local building practices in different regions.

3.3 The urban core

• The urban core has limited archaeological evidence of ordinary people’s houses.
• Fine Chinese porcelain found in some areas suggests occupation by wealthy traders.
• The area, home to the Muslim residential quarter, has tombs, mosques, and structures resembling mandapas.
• Field surveys indicate numerous shrines, small temples, and various water sources, suggesting diverse cults and communities.
• A mosque in Vijayanagara shows architectural similarities with Indo-Islamic features, but a detailed comparison is not provided in the text.
• The layout of Vijayanagara is not directly compared to a modern town or village in the text.

4. THE ROYAL CENTRE

• The royal center was a significant area in the south-western part of the settlement.
• It housed over 60 temples, indicating the importance of temple patronage and cults in establishing and legitimizing rulers’ authority.
• Around thirty building complexes were identified as palaces, which were large structures not associated with ritual functions.
• Unlike temples, which were made of masonry, the superstructure of secular buildings was made of perishable materials.
• The presence of these palaces and temples suggests the strategic use of religious and secular architecture for political purposes.

4.1 The mahanavami dibba

• The “mahanavami dibba” is a massive platform, standing 40 feet high with a base of about 11,000 sq. ft, located on one of the highest points in the city.
• It is believed to have supported a wooden structure and is covered with relief carvings, possibly associated with Mahanavami, a Hindu festival.
• The platform was used for ceremonies and rituals, displaying the prestige, power, and suzerainty of the Vijayanagara kings.
• The “House of Victory” refers to the audience hall and the mahanavami dibba, where the king had a room of cloth and a throne of state.
• The purpose of the audience hall is unclear due to the closely spaced pillars leaving little free space.
• The mahanavami dibba remains an enigma as the space surrounding the structure does not seem adequate for elaborate processions.

4.2 Other buildings in the royal centre

• The Lotus Mahal is a beautiful building in the royal center of Vijayanagara, whose original purpose is uncertain. It may have served as a council chamber.
• There were several temples in the royal center, including the Hazara Rama temple, which was likely used exclusively by the king and his family.
• The “elephant stables” are a series of structures near the Lotus Mahal, whose actual use is debated. They contain features such as arches and large halls.
• The Hazara Rama temple contains sculpted panels depicting scenes from the Ramayana, as well as images of elephants and horses.
• The nayakas, who ruled after the fall of Vijayanagara, continued the tradition of building palatial structures, many of which have survived to the present day.

5. THE SACRED CENTRE

• The Sacred Centre is a concept in ancient Indian architecture and urban planning.
• It is a square or rectangular space, often found at the heart of a city or temple complex.
• The concept is based on the idea of a divine energy center.
• The square or rectangle is divided into smaller squares, often 8 or 9, symbolizing the cosmic order.
• The Sacred Centre is typically the location for the main temple or shrine, and is often raised above the surrounding area.

5.1 Choosing a capital

• The area of Vijayanagara, with the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi, was likely chosen as the capital due to its sacred associations with several traditions.

• Temple building had a long history in the region, with rulers often encouraging it as a means of associating themselves with the divine and establishing centers of learning.

• Temples served as significant religious, social, cultural, and economic centers, with rulers and others granting land and resources for their maintenance.

• The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha, signing all royal orders “Shri Virupaksha” in the Kannada script and using the title “Hindu Suratrana” (Hindu Sultan).

• The rulers of Vijayanagara innovated and developed earlier traditions, displaying royal portrait sculpture in temples and treating the king’s visits to temples as important state occasions.

5.2 Gopurams and mandapas

• The text discusses new features in temple architecture during a certain period, including:

1. Imperial authority marked by immense scale structures, such as raya gopurams (royal gateways) that often dwarfed central shrines.
2. Mandapas or pavilions and long, pillared corridors around shrines within temple complexes.
3. The Virupaksha temple and Vitthala temple are used as examples of these architectural developments.

• The Virupaksha temple was built over centuries, with substantial enlargements during the Vijayanagara Empire era. It features delicately carved pillars and an eastern gopuram, with halls used for various purposes.
• The Vitthala temple, with its chariot-designed shrine, is an example of how the rulers of Vijayanagara drew on different traditions to create an imperial culture.
• The nayakas continued and elaborated on temple building traditions, resulting in some of the most spectacular gopurams.

The text does not provide equations or formulae, and examples and their solutions are not included, making it suitable for a clear and short summarization.

6. PLOTTING PALACES, TEMPLES AND BAZAARS

• The text discusses the process of documenting and mapping the Vijayanagara site, a vast area divided into smaller squares designated by the alphabet and further subdivided into even smaller units.
• Scholars have conducted extensive and intensive surveys to recover and document traces of thousands of structures, from tiny shrines and residences to elaborate temples, as well as traces of roads, paths, and bazaars.
• The mapping process involved dividing the entire area into 25 squares, each further subdivided into smaller squares, and then into yet smaller units. The scale of the map is not specified, but each small square can be measured using the map’s scale.
• In Square N of Fig. 7.28, a temple can be identified, with walls, a central shrine, and traces of paths leading to the temple. The squares containing the plan of the temple can be named based on the map.
• The bazaar in Vijayanagara is described as having a wide variety of goods, including precious stones, cloth, and food, and being stocked with abundant and cheap provisions. Meat was also sold in the marketplaces.

7. QUESTIONS IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS

• In 1800, Colin Mackenzie, a surveyor, visited Vijayanagara, an archaeological site in India.
• In 1856, Alexander Greenlaw took the first detailed photographs of the archaeological remains at Hampi, the modern name for the site.
• In 1876, J.F. Fleet started documenting the inscriptions on the temple walls at the site, contributing to the historical record.
• In 1902, conservation efforts began under John Marshall, indicating a growing interest in preserving the site.
• In 1986, Hampi was declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO, recognizing its global historical significance.

ANSWER IN 100-150 WORDS

1. The ruins of Hampi have been studied over the last two centuries using various methods such as archaeological excavations, architectural surveys, and historical research. The information provided by the priests of the Virupaksha temple would have complemented these studies by offering insights into the religious practices and beliefs of the people who lived in Vijayanagara.
2. The water requirements of Vijayanagara were met through a complex system of tanks, canals, and aqueducts. This system was designed to collect and store rainwater, as well as to divert water from rivers and streams.
3. Enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the city had both advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, it provided protection for the food supplies and allowed for easy distribution to the city’s residents. On the other hand, it may have led to overcrowding and the inefficient use of space.
4. The rituals associated with the Mahanavami Dibba were likely significant as they reflected the power and wealth of the rulers of Vijayanagara. These rituals may have also played a role in strengthening social bonds and promoting political stability.
5. Fig. 7.33 shows a pillar from the Virupaksha temple with floral motifs and depictions of animals and human figures. The animals shown, such as lions and elephants, may have symbolized strength and royalty. The human figures, dressed in fine clothing and jewelry, may have represented the elite members of society. The floral motifs, on the other hand, may have been used for their aesthetic appeal or to convey religious or cultural messages.

WRITE A SHORT ESSAY (ABOUT 250-300 WORDS) ON THE FOLLOWING:

• The term “royal centre” may be an appropriate description for the part of the city it refers to, as it was a area that housed structures and buildings associated with royalty, such as the Royal Pavilion and the Hazara Rama Temple. However, the text also mentions that this area was not exclusively reserved for royal use, which could argue against the term’s appropriateness.

• The architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and the elephant stables indicates the influence of Islamic design and building techniques. The Lotus Mahal, with its lotus-like dome and geometric patterns, is a clear example of this influence. The elephant stables, with their arched entrances and use of domes, also show this influence. The rulers who commissioned these buildings were likely interested in incorporating elements of Islamic design into their own architecture.

• The architectural traditions that inspired the architects of Vijayanagara were primarily derived from the South Indian styles of the Chalukya, Hoysala, and Chola dynasties. These traditions can be seen in the use of intricate carvings, the creation of ornate pillars, and the construction of stepped wells. However, the architects of Vijayanagara also transformed these traditions by incorporating elements of Islamic design, as seen in the use of arches, domes, and geometric patterns.

• Based on the descriptions in the chapter, it is likely that the lives of the ordinary people of Vijayanagara were heavily influenced by their caste and occupation. The text mentions that different areas of the city were reserved for different castes, and that the occupations of the people were often tied to their caste. It is also mentioned that the city was a center of trade and commerce, and that many of the people were involved in some form of trade or craft.

MAP WORK

• The text provides instructions for marking certain countries and routes on a world outline map.
• Italy, Portugal, Iran, and Russia are the countries to be marked.
• The routes the travelers took to reach Vijayanagara are to be traced, with reference to page 176.
• No equations or formulae are provided in the text.
• Examples and their solutions are also not included in the text.
• The summary is concise and focuses on the main task: marking specific locations and routes on a map.

PROJECT (CHOOSE ONE)

• The passage provides instructions to summarize information about the architecture of a major city from the fourteenth-seventeenth centuries or a religious building.
• For the city, the summary should include details about its political and ritual centers, commercial activities, unique urban layout, and any notable buildings or structures.
• For the religious building, the summary should cover its roof, pillars, arches, corridors, passages, halls, entrance, water supply, and historical background.
• The summary should also include a comparison of the religious building’s features with those of the Virupaksha temple.
• No equations or specific formulae are provided in the text.
• Examples and their solutions are also not included in the text.