<h5 id="1-a-glimpse-of-sanchi">1. A GLIMPSE OF SANCHI</h5> <ul> <li>The Sanchi stupa, located in Bhopal, was a site of great interest for European gentlemen in the 19th century. Major Alexander Cunningham examined the ruins and deciphered inscriptions.</li> <li>The French and English sought to take away the eastern gateway, but Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum provided funds for preservation. John Marshall dedicated his volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan.</li> <li>The Great Stupa at Sanchi, seen in Fig. 4.3, is a key archaeological site, vastly transforming our understanding of early Buddhism. It has been successfully restored and preserved by the Archaeological Survey of India.</li> <li>The mound in the complex was built as a monument in the early Buddhist tradition, containing relics of the Buddha. The stone railing around it was built by various donors.</li> <li>The complex was built by various donors, including the Satavahana, Sunga, and Kushana dynasties. It was discovered in the 19th century, and its restoration and preservation is an ongoing process.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="2-the-background-sacrifices-and-debates">2. THE BACKGROUND: SACRIFICES AND DEBATES</h5> <ul> <li>The mid-first millennium BCE is considered a significant period in world history.</li> <li>This era saw the emergence of influential thinkers such as Zarathustra, Kong Zi (Confucius), Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Mahavira, and Gautama Buddha.</li> <li>These philosophers aimed to understand the mysteries of existence and the relationship between humans and the cosmic order.</li> <li>Coinciding with this period, new kingdoms and cities were developing, and social and economic life was evolving in the Ganga valley.</li> <li>Thinkers of this time, including those mentioned above, attempted to understand these transformations in society and the economy.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="21-the-sacrificial-tradition">2.1 The sacrificial tradition</h5> <ul> <li>The primary objective of the sacrifice was to reach various deities, especially Agni, Indra, and Soma.</li> <li>Offerings were made into the sacrificial fire, identified with Agni, to reach the other deities.</li> <li>The sacrifices aimed to pray for cattle, sons, good health, long life, and abundant food.</li> <li>More elaborate sacrifices, like rajasuya and ashvamedha, were performed by chiefs and kings for the well-being of the domestic unit and to show their power.</li> <li>The hymns were composed in Vedic Sanskrit and taught orally to men from priestly families.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="22-new-questions">2.2 New questions</h5> <ul> <li>The Upanishads, dating from the sixth century BCE, contained discussions on various philosophical questions.</li> <li>There was debate around the concept of rebirth, with thinkers questioning whether it was a result of past actions.</li> <li>A significant focus was placed on understanding and defining ultimate reality, with some thinkers questioning its existence altogether.</li> <li>The sacrificial tradition became a subject of speculation and questioning.</li> <li>There was a broader movement outside of the Vedic tradition that involved questioning the existence of a single ultimate reality.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="23-debates-and-discussions">2.3 Debates and discussions</h5> <ul> <li> <p>The Buddhist texts mention 64 sects or schools of thought, where teachers travelled and held debates in kutagarashala or groves to convince others about the validity of their philosophy.</p> </li> <li> <p>The teachings of Buddha and other teachers were compiled by their disciples after their death, known as Tipitaka, which included Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka. These teachings were first transmitted orally and then written and classified according to length and subject matter.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Jaina philosophy emphasizes on non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants, and insects, and the principle of ahimsa has left its mark on Indian thinking as a whole. Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma.</p> </li> <li> <p>The teachings of Mahavira were also recorded by his disciples, often in the form of stories, which could appeal to ordinary people. The queen named Kamalavati tried to persuade her husband to renounce the world by emphasizing that dhamma alone will save him.</p> </li> <li> <p>Texts from the traditions of the Ajivikas and Lokayatas have not survived, so we know about them only from the works of other traditions. These traditions have often been described as fatalists and materialists, respectively.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="31-the-spread-of-jainism">3.1 The spread of Jainism</h5> <ul> <li>Jainism expanded to various parts of India, similar to Buddhism, with scholars contributing significantly to literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil languages.</li> <li>Manuscripts of these texts were preserved in temple libraries for centuries.</li> <li>The earliest stone sculptures related to Jaina tirthankaras were created by devotees and discovered across several subcontinent sites.</li> <li>An example is shown from a fourteenth-century Jaina manuscript, which highlights the developed script of that era.</li> <li>Ahimsa’s relevance in the twenty-first century is not discussed in the text, but it is an interesting question to consider.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="4the-buddha-and-the-quest-for-enlightenment">4.THE BUDDHA AND THE QUEST FOR ENLIGHTENMENT</h5> <ul> <li>The Buddha, born as Siddhartha, was a prince of the Sakya clan who left his sheltered life in search of truth.</li> <li>His first encounter with the harsh realities of life, such as old age, sickness, and death, led him to adopt the path of meditation and renunciation.</li> <li>After attaining enlightenment, he became known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One and spent his life teaching dhamma or the path of righteous living.</li> <li>The depicted sculpture shows the Buddha’s departure from his palace, which is an essential event in his life, as he left his royal life to become an ascetic.</li> <li>Hagiographies, although not always literally accurate, provide insights into the beliefs and values of the followers of the Buddhist tradition.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="5-the-teachings-of-the-buddha">5. THE TEACHINGS OF THE BUDDHA</h5> <ul> <li> <p>The Buddha’s teachings, as described in the Sutta Pitaka, focused on reason and persuasion rather than supernatural powers.</p> </li> <li> <p>Key concepts in Buddhist philosophy include the transient and changing nature of the world (anicca), the absence of a permanent soul (anatta), and the inherent sorrow (dukkha) in human existence.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Buddha advised balance in overcoming worldly troubles, and emphasized individual agency and righteous action for self-realization and nibbana.</p> </li> <li> <p>In the Buddha’s advice to Sigala, he stressed the importance of ethical treatment and care for servants, employees, and religious figures.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Buddha saw the social world as a human creation, calling for humane and ethical behavior from kings and leaders, which shares similarities with Asoka’s advice to his subjects.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="6-followers-of-the-buddha">6. FOLLOWERS OF THE BUDDHA</h5> <ul> <li>The Buddha founded the sangha, an organization of monks who lived simply and became teachers of dhamma.</li> <li>Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but women were later admitted through the intervention of Ananda, with Mahapajapati Gotami being the first woman ordained as a bhikkhuni.</li> <li>The Buddha’s followers came from various social groups, and all were regarded as equal once they became bhikkhus and bhikkhunis.</li> <li>The Therigatha is a Buddhist text that provides insight into women’s social and spiritual experiences.</li> <li>The Vinaya Pitaka lays down rules for monks and nuns, such as keeping a new felt blanket/rug for at least six years and sharing food received at family residences with other bhikkhus. These rules were likely framed to promote discipline, equality, and sharing within the sangha.</li> </ul> <p>As for why a dasi like Punna wanted to join the sangha, it could be due to her curiosity, desire for spiritual growth, or dissatisfaction with her current social status. However, the text does not provide specific reasons for Punna’s motivation to join the sangha.</p> <p>======</p> <h5 id="7-stupas">7. STUPAS</h5> <ul> <li> <p>People often considered certain places as sacred, including those with special natural features or small shrines, known as chaityas.</p> </li> <li> <p>Chaityas are also associated with the word chita, meaning a funeral pyre, and could be funerary mounds.</p> </li> <li> <p>Buddhist literature mentions several chaityas, and Buddha’s life events, such as his birth, enlightenment, first sermon, and death, took place at sacred sites like Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, and Kusinagara.</p> </li> <li> <p>Around 200 years after Buddha’s time, Asoka marked his visit to Lumbini by erecting a pillar, signifying its significance.</p> </li> <li> <p>These sacred places gained prominence as Buddhism interacted with other traditions, such as Brahmanas and Jainas.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="71-why-were-stupas-built">7.1 Why were stupas built</h5> <ul> <li>Stupas were built to contain relics of the Buddha, such as his bodily remains or objects used by him, which were considered sacred.</li> <li>The tradition of erecting stupas may have been pre-Buddhist, but they became associated with Buddhism and were venerated as emblems of both the Buddha and Buddhism.</li> <li>According to the Ashokavadana, Emperor Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them.</li> <li>By the second century BCE, several stupas had been built, including those at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Sarnath.</li> <li>The Buddha himself instructed that at the four crossroads, a thupa (stupa) should be erected to him, and that whosoever shall place garlands, perfume, or make a salutation there, that shall long be to them for a profit and joy.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="72-how-were-stupas-built">7.2 How were stupas built</h5> <ul> <li>Stupas were built with financial support from various sources.</li> <li>Royal families, such as the Satavahanas, contributed to the construction of stupas.</li> <li>Guilds, including the ivory workers guild, also financed parts of stupas, such as gateways.</li> <li>Individual contributions came from women and men, who often mentioned their names, places of origin, occupations, and relatives in their donations.</li> <li>Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis (male and female Buddhist monks) also contributed to the building of stupas.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="73-the-structure-of-the-stupa">7.3 The structure of the stupa</h5> <ul> <li>The stupa originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth called anda, evolving into a more complex structure with round and square shapes.</li> <li>The harmika, a balcony-like structure, represents the abode of the gods and is located above the anda. A mast called the yashti, often surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella, arises from the harmika.</li> <li>The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut had plain mounds with stone railings and richly carved gateways. Later stupas, like those at Amaravati and Shahji-ki-Dheri, featured elaborately carved mounds with niches and sculptures.</li> <li>Worshippers walked around the mound in a clockwise direction, imitating the sun’s course through the sky.</li> <li>In a plan, horizontal features such as the layout and placement of the stupa’s components are clearer, while an elevation, which provides a vertical perspective, highlights the building’s height and vertical features.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="8-discovering-stupas-the-fate-of-amaravati-and-sanchi">8. “DISCOVERING” STUPAS THE FATE OF AMARAVATI AND SANCHI</h5> <ul> <li>In 1796, a local raja discovered the stupa at Amaravati while building a temple, and began to use the stone, believing there might be treasure buried within.</li> <li>In 1818, Sanchi was discovered with three of its four gateways still standing and the mound in good condition, while Amaravati was already denuded of its glory.</li> <li>The difference in the discovery and preservation of the two stupas can be attributed to the time period and the understanding of the value of the finds.</li> <li>Sanchi was preserved due to a number of factors, while Amaravati was not, leading to the current state of the two stupas.</li> <li>The archaeologist H.H. Cole advocated for in situ preservation, but his plea was not successful for Amaravati, unlike in the case of Sanchi.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="9-sculpture">9. SCULPTURE</h5> <ul> <li>Sculptures were removed from stupas and transported to Europe due to their perceived beauty and value.</li> <li>This occurred partly because visitors wanted to keep these sculptures for themselves.</li> <li>Stupas are Buddhist structures that contain relics and are used for meditation.</li> <li>The removal of sculptures from stupas resulted in the loss of cultural and historical context.</li> <li>The transportation of these sculptures to Europe allowed for a wider audience to appreciate them.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="91-stories-in-stone">9.1 Stories in stone</h5> <ul> <li>The text discusses the Sanchi sculpture, which initially appears to depict a rural scene but is identified as a scene from the Vessantara Jataka by art historians.</li> <li>The Vessantara Jataka is a story about a generous prince who gave away all his possessions to a Brahmana and went to live in the forest with his family.</li> <li>The sculpture’s depiction of the story may be compared to a scroll being unfurled, suggesting a connection between the two mediums.</li> <li>Art historians often rely on textual evidence to understand the meaning and context of sculptures.</li> <li>The Sanchi sculpture is a part of the northern gateway case, and historians attempt to decipher its meaning by comparing it with relevant texts.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="92-symbols-of-worship">9.2 Symbols of worship</h5> <ul> <li>Hagiographies of the Buddha are important for understanding Buddhist sculpture.</li> <li>Early sculptors often represented the Buddha through symbols instead of human form.</li> <li>The empty seat symbolized the meditation of the Buddha, and the stupa represented his mahaparinibbana.</li> <li>The wheel was a common symbol, representing the first sermon of the Buddha at Sarnath.</li> <li>Understanding these symbols requires familiarity with the traditions of the art’s producers.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="93-popular-traditions">9.3 Popular traditions</h5> <ul> <li>The sculptures at Sanchi include a woman swinging from a gateway, which is a representation of a shalabhanjika from Sanskrit literature. This motif suggests that people enriched Buddhism with their own pre-Buddhist and non-Buddhist beliefs, practices, and ideas.</li> <li>Animals, including elephants, horses, monkeys, and cattle, are also depicted in the sculptures at Sanchi. These animals were used to create lively scenes and symbolize human attributes such as strength and wisdom.</li> <li>Paintings from the past, particularly from Ajanta, Maharashtra, are also an essential means of communication. These paintings depict stories from the Jatakas, including courtly life, processions, and festivals, using the technique of shading to give a three-dimensional quality.</li> <li>One of the paintings from Ajanta shows a seated figure surrounded by people serving him, indicating the depiction of a significant figure in society.</li> <li>Other motifs at Sanchi include a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants, which some identify as Maya, the mother of the Buddha, and others as the goddess Gajalakshmi, associated with good fortune and elephants. The serpent motif is also found on several pillars, which may be derived from popular traditions and symbolize tree and serpent worship.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="10-new-religious-traditions">10. NEW RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS</h5> <ul> <li>New religious traditions, also known as new religious movements (NRMs), are recent religious groups that differ from established religions.</li> <li>They often emerge in response to societal changes and needs, offering innovative spiritual experiences and interpretations.</li> <li>NRMs can be categorized into various types, including: <ul> <li>Reform movements, which aim to revitalize or reform established religions.</li> <li>Restorationist movements, which seek to restore what they believe to be original or true forms of religion.</li> <li>Syncretistic movements, which blend elements from different religions or philosophies.</li> <li>Newly created religions, which have no direct connection to existing religions.</li> </ul> </li> <li>The growth of NRMs can be attributed to factors such as globalization, urbanization, and the quest for spiritual fulfillment and meaning.</li> <li>NRMs face challenges in gaining recognition and acceptance from mainstream society and established religions, often due to misconceptions and prejudices.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="101-the-development-of-mahayana-buddhism">10.1 The development of Mahayana Buddhism</h5> <ul> <li> <p>By the 1st century CE, changes occurred in Buddhist ideas and practices.</p> </li> <li> <p>Early Buddhism emphasized self-effort for nibbana and viewed Buddha as a human who attained enlightenment through personal efforts.</p> </li> <li> <p>A new belief emerged, introducing a savior concept and the worship of Buddha and Bodhisatta images.</p> </li> <li> <p>This new way of thinking, Mahayana, considered the older tradition as Hinayana or the “lesser vehicle.”</p> </li> <li> <p>Those following the older tradition called themselves theravadins, respecting the path of old teachers, the theras.</p> </li> <li> <p>Sculptures can be made using bone, terracotta, and metal, in addition to the commonly known materials.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="102-the-growth-of-puranic-hinduism">10.2 The growth of Puranic Hinduism</h5> <ul> <li> <p>The concept of a savior was not exclusive to Buddhism, with Vaishnavism and Shaivism (within Hinduism) also developing similar ideas of devotion and worship of chosen deities.</p> </li> <li> <p>In Vaishnavism, cults formed around the various avatars or incarnations of Vishnu, with ten avatars recognized in total. These avatars represented forms of Vishnu that were believed to have appeared to save the world from disorder and destruction caused by evil forces.</p> </li> <li> <p>In both Vaishnavism and Shaivism, the bond between the devotee and the god was visualized as one of love and devotion, or bhakti. The deities were symbolized through various symbols, weapons, or auspicious objects depicted in their representations.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Puranas, compiled by Brahmanas, played a significant role in shaping these traditions. They contained stories about gods and goddesses, written in simple Sanskrit verse, and meant to be read aloud to everybody, including women and Shudras.</p> </li> <li> <p>The evolution of these traditions was influenced by interactions amongst people, including priests, merchants, and ordinary men and women, who traveled from place to place, sharing ideas and beliefs. For example, Vasudeva-Krishna, an important deity in the Mathura region, saw his worship spread to other parts of the country over centuries.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="103-building-temples">10.3 Building temples</h5> <ul> <li>The first temples to house images of gods and goddesses were built around the time of the formation of stupas at sites like Sanchi.</li> <li>Early temples were small square rooms, known as the garbhagriha, with a single doorway for worshippers to enter and offer worship.</li> <li>Over time, tall structures called shikharas were built over the central shrine, and temple walls were decorated with sculptures.</li> <li>Some temples were hollowed out of huge rocks as artificial caves, a tradition that began in the third century BCE with the orders of Asoka for renouncers who belonged to the Ajivika sect.</li> <li>This tradition evolved, and in the eighth century, an entire temple, the Kailashnatha temple at Ellora, was carved out of a single piece of rock.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="11-can-we-see-everything">11. CAN WE “SEE” EVERYTHING?</h5> <ul> <li>The text discusses the visual traditions of the past, including architecture, sculpture, and painting.</li> <li>Much of this work has been destroyed or lost over time, but what remains gives us insight into the vision of the creators.</li> <li>Understanding the meaning and impact of these works on people who saw them 2,000 years ago is challenging.</li> <li>The text emphasizes the difficulty of fully grasping the original intended meaning of these ancient visual artifacts.</li> <li>Preservation and study of these works allows us to appreciate the artists’ and architects’ skill and vision.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="111-grappling-with-the-unfamiliar">11.1 Grappling with the unfamiliar</h5> <ul> <li>In 1814, the Indian Museum was established in Calcutta.</li> <li>In 1834, Ram Raja’s Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus was published, and Cunningham explored the stupa at Sarnath.</li> <li>The Government Museum was set up in Madras in 1851, and Alexander Cunningham published Bhilsa Topes in 1854.</li> <li>Rajendra Lala Mitra published Buddha Gaya: The Heritage of Sakya Muni in 1878, and H.H. Cole was appointed Curator of Ancient Monuments in 1880.</li> <li>The Treasure Trove Act was passed in 1888, giving the government the right to acquire all objects of archaeological interest.</li> <li>In the 20th century, John Marshall and Alfred Foucher published The Monuments of Sanchi in 1914, and John Marshall published the Conservation Manual in 1923.</li> <li>The National Museum was founded in New Delhi in 1955, and Sanchi was declared a World Heritage Site in 1989.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="answer-in-100-150-words">ANSWER IN 100-150 WORDS</h5> <ul> <li> <p>The ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers focused on spirituality and the ultimate reality, Brahman, in contrast to the fatalists and materialists who believed in determinism and material causation.</p> </li> <li> <p>The central teachings of Jainism include the principles of non-violence (ahimsa), the belief in the soul and its liberation, and the path to salvation through asceticism and renunciation.</p> </li> <li> <p>The begums of Bhopal played a significant role in preserving the stupa at Sanchi by contributing to its maintenance and restoration, and promoting it as a site of national importance.</p> </li> <li> <p>Dhanavati, a Buddhist nun, dated her inscription based on the year and month of the maharaja Huvishka’s reign, installed a Bodhisatta image to commemorate her spiritual achievements, and mentioned her relatives and Buddhist education.</p> </li> <li> <p>Women and men joined the sangha to seek spiritual enlightenment, escape the cycle of rebirth, and lead a disciplined life.</p> </li> <li> <p>Knowledge of Buddhist literature helps in understanding the symbolism and context of the sculptures at Sanchi, such as the figures of Buddha, bodhisattvas, and other religious symbols.</p> </li> <li> <p>Fig. 4.32 shows a rural scene with a simple stupa, trees, and animals, while Fig. 4.33 shows an urban scene with a complex temple, pillars, and sculptures.</p> </li> <li> <p>The rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism led to the development of new sculptural and architectural styles, such as the depiction of Vishnu and Shiva in various forms and poses, and the construction of ornate temples and shrines.</p> </li> <li> <p>Stupas were built as memorials to honor and revere the Buddha and his teachings, and as sites for meditation and pilgrimage. They were usually built as hemispherical mounds, surrounded by a railing and topped by a umbrella, and adorned with sculptures and inscriptions.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="map-work">MAP WORK</h5> <ul> <li>Buddhism originated in the Indian subcontinent and spread to various parts of the world.</li> <li>The outline world map should mark the regions where Buddhism extended, including parts of Asia such as Nepal, China, Japan, Korea, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asian countries.</li> <li>Land routes for the spread of Buddhism include the Silk Road, which connected Central Asia to China and beyond.</li> <li>Sea routes were also significant, with Buddhism traveling to Southeast Asian countries through maritime trade and cultural exchanges.</li> <li>It is important to note that tracing land and sea routes on the map provides a visual representation of how Buddhism expanded from the Indian subcontinent to other parts of the world.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="project-any-one">PROJECT (ANY ONE)</h5> <ul> <li>The text asks to identify religious traditions practiced in one’s neighborhood, examine their religious texts, their preservation and transmission methods, and use of images in worship. It also instructs to compare modern religious buildings with early stupas and temples.</li> <li>The project then requires collecting at least five pictures of sculpture or painting from various periods and regions related to the discussed religious traditions. The task is to show these images to people, record their descriptions, compare them, and prepare a report on the findings.</li> <li>No equations or formulae are provided in the text.</li> <li>Examples and their solutions are also not included in the text.</li> <li>The summary is clear and concise, focusing on the key tasks involved in the project.</li> </ul> <p>======</p>