<h5 id="1-the-critical-edition-of-the-mahabharata">1. THE CRITICAL EDITION OF THE MAHABHARATA</h5> <ul> <li>The critical edition of the Mahabharata is a scholarly project initiated in 1919, led by V.S. Sukthankar, that took 47 years to complete.</li> <li>The project involved collecting Sanskrit manuscripts from various parts of India, comparing verses, and selecting common verses for publication in several volumes (over 13,000 pages).</li> <li>The final edition revealed common elements in Sanskrit versions of the story and significant regional variations, documented in footnotes and appendices.</li> <li>These variations reflect the complex dialogues between dominant traditions and local ideas, characterized by both conflict and consensus.</li> <li>Early social historians primarily relied on Sanskrit texts by Brahmanas, while later scholars studied other traditions, revealing that normative Sanskrit texts were recognized, questioned, and occasionally rejected.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="2-kinship-and-marriage-many-rules-and-varied-practices">2. KINSHIP AND MARRIAGE MANY RULES and VARIED PRACtICES</h5> <ul> <li>Kinship and marriage are governed by numerous rules and varied practices across different cultures.</li> <li>Consanguine kinship, which involves relationships through blood, and affinal kinship, which involves relationships through marriage, are the two main types of kinship.</li> <li>Marriage rules include prohibitions on incest and the requirement of a bride price or dowry.</li> <li>Different societies have varying rules regarding the number of spouses, age at marriage, and gender roles in marriage.</li> <li>The practice of cross-cousin marriage, where a man marries his mother’s brother’s daughter or father’s sister’s daughter, is common in some cultures.</li> <li>The concept of kinship and marriage is complex and constantly evolving, with new forms of relationships and family structures emerging in modern times.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="21-finding-out-about-families">2.1 Finding out about families</h5> <ul> <li>Families show variation in terms of members, relationships, and activities.</li> <li>Families often share resources, live, work, and perform rituals together.</li> <li>Families are part of larger networks of relatives or kinfolk, which can be defined differently across societies.</li> <li>The definition and understanding of familial ties can differ between societies, including the recognition of cousins as blood relations.</li> <li>Historians study familial relationships and attitudes towards kinship, as they offer insights into people’s thinking and actions.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="22-the-ideal-of-patriliny">2.2 The ideal of patriliny</h5> <ul> <li>The Mahabharata, an ancient Indian epic, highlights the shift towards patriliny, a system where sons could inherit their father’s resources, including the throne.</li> <li>Sanskrit texts use the terms kula for families, jnati for kinfolk, and vamsha for lineage. Patriliny, tracing descent from father to son, was prevalent but not exclusive; variations existed, such as brothers or other kinsmen succeeding the throne.</li> <li>The concern with patriliny was not limited to ruling families, as evident in mantras in ritual texts like the Rigveda. The marriage mantra indicates a focus on producing “fine sons,” suggesting a preference for male offspring.</li> <li>In the Mahabharata, conflicts arose amongst the Kauravas and Pandavas due to jealousy and fear of exclusion from royal succession. The passage suggests that capability and virtue were considered important, but birth in a particular family also played a significant role.</li> <li>The criteria for becoming king seemed to include birth in a particular family, capability, and virtue. The fear of exclusion from royal succession and the emphasis on inheriting the patrimony indicate the importance of birth. The passage does not explicitly state which criteria are justified or unjust.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="23-rules-of-marriage">2.3 Rules of marriage</h5> <ul> <li>Exogamy and endogamy are types of marriages where the former refers to marriage outside a unit (kin group, caste, or locality) and the latter within a unit.</li> <li>Polygyny is the practice of a man having several wives and polyandry is the practice of a woman having several husbands.</li> <li>The Manusmriti mentions eight forms of marriage, four of which are: <ul> <li>The gift of a daughter, after dressing her in costly clothes and honoring her with presents of jewels, to a man learned in the Veda whom the father himself invites.</li> <li>The gift of a daughter by the father after he has addressed the couple with the text, “May both of you perform your duties together”, and has shown honor to the bridegroom.</li> <li>When the bridegroom receives a maiden, after having given as much wealth as he can afford to the kinsmen and to the bride herself, according to his own will.</li> <li>The voluntary union of a maiden and her lover which springs from desire.</li> </ul> </li> <li>The decision about these forms of marriage was taken by (c) the father of the bride, (b) the bridegroom, and (e) any other person (the maiden and her lover).</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="24-the-gotra-of-women">2.4 The gotra of women</h5> <ul> <li> <p>From 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE, the Satavahanas, a powerful ruling lineage in western India and the Deccan, followed the practice of classifying people in terms of gotras.</p> </li> <li> <p>Each gotra was named after a Vedic seer, and all those who belonged to the same gotra were considered his descendants. Two important rules about gotra were that women had to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage, and members of the same gotra could not marry.</p> </li> <li> <p>The names of Satavahana kings from inscriptions show that several women in the Satavahana dynasty retained their father’s gotra names instead of adopting their husband’s gotra names, which was against the Brahmanical rules.</p> </li> <li> <p>Some of these women even belonged to the same gotra as their husbands, which was an example of endogamy or marriage within the kin group, prevalent amongst several communities in south India.</p> </li> <li> <p>This practice of endogamy ensured a close-knit community, and there were likely variations of this practice in other parts of the subcontinent.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="25-were-mothers-important">2.5 Were mothers important?</h5> <ul> <li>The importance of mothers in Satavahana rule is seen through the use of metronymics, but succession to the throne was generally patrilineal.</li> <li>The Mahabharata describes a scene where Gandhari, as a mother, advises her son Duryodhana to avoid war, highlighting the role of mothers in decision-making and upholding values.</li> <li>The text suggests that mothers in early Indian societies may have been viewed as important advisors and nurturers, with a significant influence on their children’s lives.</li> <li>The sculpture from the Mahabharata, depicting a battle scene, is an early example of the recognition and representation of mothers’ roles in society.</li> <li>Naming practices today differ from those in the text, as children are not generally named after their mothers or through metronymics.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="3-social-differences-within-and-beyond-the-framework-of-caste">3. SOCIAL DIFFERENCES: WITHIN AND BEYOND THE FRAMEWORK OF CASTE</h5> <ul> <li>The term “caste” refers to a hierarchical social structure with categories laid down in the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras.</li> <li>The order ranked Brahmanas first and placed Shudras and “untouchables” at the bottom, claiming it was divinely ordained.</li> <li>The position in the order was generally determined by birth.</li> <li>This social framework, known as varna, consisted of four main categories: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.</li> <li>The “untouchables” were considered outside the varna system and subjected to social exclusion.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="31-the-right-occupation">3.1 The “right” occupation</h5> <ul> <li>The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras outlined the ideal occupations for the four varnas, with Brahmanas studying and teaching the Vedas, performing sacrifices, and giving and receiving gifts. Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people, administer justice, study the Vedas, get sacrifices performed, and make gifts. Vaishyas were expected to engage in agriculture, pastoralism, trade, and follow the last three occupations of Kshatriyas. Shudras were assigned only one occupation, serving the three “higher” varnas.</li> <li>Brahmanas enforced these norms by claiming divine origin, advising kings, and persuading people that their status was determined by birth. This was often reinforced by stories in the Mahabharata and other texts.</li> <li>The story of Ekalavya, a forestdwelling nishada, illustrates how Drona, a Brahmana, demanded his right thumb as a fee to maintain Arjuna’s position as the best archer, conveying the message that nishadas should remain subordinate and skilled in their designated roles.</li> <li>The story also highlights how Drona, as a Brahmana, was acting according to the Dharmasutras by teaching archery to the Kuru princes, but not to Ekalavya, a nishada.</li> <li>The verse from the Purusha sukta in the Rigveda was frequently quoted by Brahmanas to justify their claims about the varna order’s divine origin, with the four social categories emanating from the body of the primeval man.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="32-non-kshatriya-kings">3.2 Non-Kshatriya kings</h5> <ul> <li>The Shastras stated that only Kshatriyas could be kings, but many ruling lineages likely had different origins.</li> <li>Political power was not solely dependent on being born a Kshatriya, but rather on gathering support and resources.</li> <li>The Shungas and Kanvas, who succeeded the Mauryas, were Brahmanas, indicating that political power could be held by other varnas.</li> <li>The Satavahanas, a notable dynasty, claimed to be Brahmanas and uphold the fourfold varna order, but also entered into marriage alliances with those excluded from the system and practiced endogamy.</li> <li>Powerful “mlechchhas” or barbarians, such as Rudradaman, were familiar with Sanskritic traditions, further illustrating the complexity of social integration within the varna framework.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="33-jatis-and-social-mobility">3.3 Jatis and social mobility</h5> <ul> <li>Jati, in Brahmanical theory, is a social category based on birth with no restriction on the number of jatis. New groups or occupations were classified as a jati.</li> <li>Jatis sharing a common occupation or profession were sometimes organized into shrenis or guilds.</li> <li>The case of the merchants: Sanskrit texts and inscriptions used the term vanik to designate merchants. Merchants could be of any varna, as depicted in the play Mrichchhakatika and the inscription of two kshatriya-vanik brothers.</li> <li>The inscription of the silk weavers’ guild provides insights into the nature of guilds or shrenis, showing that members shared more than a common profession and could adopt other occupations.</li> <li>The excerpt from the silk weavers’ inscription suggests that they were engaged in various activities, not just following the occupation laid down for them in the Shastras.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="34-beyond-the-four-varnas-integration">3.4 Beyond the four varnas: Integration</h5> <ul> <li>The practices of hunting and gathering, as followed by some forest-dwellers.</li> <li>The marriage of Bhima, a Brahmanical character, with Hidimba, a rakshasa, which may represent the mixing of cultures or social norms.</li> <li>The free roaming of the couple all over the world, which could be seen as a lack of adherence to settled life.</li> <li>The birth of a rakshasa boy, Ghatotkacha, who may symbolize the offspring of non-Brahmanical practices.</li> <li>The use of the term “rakshasa” to describe people with different practices, suggesting a non-Brahmanical identity.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="35-beyond-the-four-varnas-subordination-and-conflict">3.5 Beyond the four varnas Subordination and conflict</h5> <ul> <li>The Brahmanas classified certain social categories as “untouchable” and developed a sharper social divide.</li> <li>Those designated as “untouchable” were placed at the bottom of the hierarchy and were given specific duties such as disposing of bodies and serving as executioners.</li> <li>Non-Brahmanical texts depicting the lives of chandalas suggest that chandalas may not have accepted the life of degradation prescribed in the Shastras.</li> <li>In the Matanga Jataka, a Pali text, the Bodhisatta is identified as a chandala’s son and is treated with disrespect and discrimination.</li> <li>The story of Draupadi suggests that wives could be treated as the property of their husbands, as Draupadi was staked by her husband Yudhisthira in a game of dice.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="4-beyond-birth-resources-and-status">4. BEYOND BIRTH RESOURCES AND STATUS</h5> <ul> <li>The text discusses the social implications of access to resources among different social actors in the subcontinent.</li> <li>Slaves, landless agricultural laborers, hunters, fisherfolk, pastoralists, peasants, village headmen, craftspersons, merchants, and kings had varying social positions, often determined by their access to economic resources.</li> <li>The text explores specific situations where access to resources shapes social positions.</li> <li>However, the text does not provide any equations or formulae.</li> <li>Examples and their solutions are also not included in the text.</li> <li>The summarization is clear and short, focusing on the main theme of the text.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="41-gendered-access-to-property">4.1 Gendered access to property</h5> <ul> <li>In the Mahabharata, Yudhisthira lost all his property, including his wife Draupadi, in a game of dice.</li> <li>The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras, such as the Manusmriti, outline that the paternal estate should be divided equally amongst sons after the death of the parents, with a special share for the eldest. Women were not allowed to claim a share of these resources.</li> <li>Women, however, were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of their marriage as stridhana, which could be inherited by their children.</li> <li>Men could acquire wealth through seven means: inheritance, finding, purchase, conquest, investment, work, and acceptance of gifts from good people.</li> <li>Women could acquire wealth through six means: what was given in front of the fire (marriage) or the bridal procession, or as a token of affection, and what she got from her brother, mother or father. They could also acquire wealth through any subsequent gift and whatever their “affectionate” husband might give them.</li> <li>There is cumulative evidence that while upper-class women may have had access to resources, land, cattle and money were generally controlled by men, indicating sharpened social differences between men and women due to differences in access to resources.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="42-varna-and-access-to-property">4.2 Varna and access to property</h5> <ul> <li> <p>The Brahmanical texts use varna as a criterion to regulate access to wealth, with Shudras only allowed servitude and the other three varnas having various occupations.</p> </li> <li> <p>The wealthiest men would likely have been Brahmanas and Kshatriyas, as described in other textual traditions. However, Buddhist texts critique the varna order, recognizing differences in society but not considering them natural or inflexible.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Buddhist story of Avantiputta and Kachchana reveals that wealth, not birth, can influence how one is treated, as a wealthy Shudra could have obedient servants of any varna.</p> </li> <li> <p>Avantiputta concedes that there is no difference amongst the varnas in terms of wealth and servitude, implying that social difference is not determined by varna alone.</p> </li> <li> <p>The source of the ideas in Avantiputta’s first statement can be traced back to Brahmanical texts and traditions, which consider Brahmanas as the best and purest caste.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="43-an-alternative-social-scenario-sharing-wealth">4.3 An alternative social scenario: Sharing wealth</h5> <ul> <li>In ancient Tamilakam, generosity was valued over mere accumulation of wealth.</li> <li>The poem from Puranaruru describes a chief who, although not wealthy, is generous and supportive of bards.</li> <li>The bard uses persuasion techniques such as highlighting the chief’s existing generosity and offering a solution to the chief’s poverty.</li> <li>The chief is expected to acquire wealth through means like requesting a weapon from the blacksmith.</li> <li>This social scenario shows a contrast between the chief and his follower in present-day societies, with potential similarities in social expectations and relationships.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="5-explaining-social-differences-a-social-contract">5. EXPLAINING SOCIAL DIFFERENCES: A SOCIAL CONTRACT</h5> <ul> <li>Buddhists proposed an alternative explanation of social differences and conflicts in a text called Sutta Pitaka.</li> <li>Initially, human beings and nature existed peacefully, with people taking only what they needed.</li> <li>As humans became greedy, vindictive, and deceitful, they decided to select a being to serve as a king, who would ensure justice and receive rice as payment.</li> <li>This narrative suggests that kingship was based on human choice and recognition of human agency in creating and institutionalizing economic and social relations.</li> <li>The text implies that humans, having created the system, could also change it in the future.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="6-handling-texts">6. HANDLING TEXTS</h5> <ul> <li>Historians consider various elements when analyzing texts, including:</li> </ul> <ol> <li>The language used: Prakrit, Pali, or Tamil (languages of common people) or Sanskrit (for priests and elites).</li> </ol> <p>======</p> <h5 id="61-language-and-content">6.1 Language and content</h5> <ul> <li>The Mahabharata is an epic written in Sanskrit, but simpler in language than the Vedas or prashastis.</li> <li>Historians categorize its content into two main sections: narrative (story-based) and didactic (instructional).</li> <li>The didactic sections, added later, often include stories and social messages; the narrative is considered the main part of the epic.</li> <li>The Bhagavad Gita, a significant didactic section, contains advice from Lord Krishna to Arjuna.</li> <li>The Mahabharata is described as an itihasa in early Sanskrit tradition, which can be translated as “history,” possibly preserving memories of a real war or kinfolk conflict.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="62-authors-and-dates">6.2 Author(s) and dates</h5> <ul> <li>The original story of the Mahabharata was likely composed by charioteer-bards called Sutas.</li> <li>From the fifth century BCE, Brahmanas began committing the story to writing, as chiefdoms became kingdoms and social values evolved.</li> <li>Between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the worship of Vishnu grew in importance, and Krishna became identified with Vishnu, leading to additions in the text.</li> <li>Large didactic sections were added between 200 and 400 CE, resembling the Manusmriti, causing the text to grow from less than 10,000 verses to about 100,000 verses.</li> <li>The Mahabharata is traditionally attributed to a sage named Vyasa, who dictated the text to the deity Ganesha according to legend.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="63-the-search-for-convergence">6.3 The search for convergence</h5> <ul> <li>The archaeologist B.B. Lal excavated at Hastinapura in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, and found evidence of five occupational levels.</li> <li>The second phase (c. twelfth-seventh centuries BCE) had houses made of mud and mud-bricks, with some having reed walls plastered over with mud.</li> <li>The third phase (c. sixth-third centuries BCE) had houses built of mud-brick and burnt bricks, with soakage jars, brick drains, and terracotta ring-wells used for various purposes.</li> <li>The description of Hastinapura in the epic does not match Lal’s findings, suggesting the description may have been added after the main narrative or is a flight of poetic fancy.</li> <li>The marriage of Draupadi to the Pandavas is an instance of polyandry, which may have been prevalent among ruling elites at some point. However, the multiple explanations offered for this episode suggest that polyandry gradually fell out of favor.</li> <li>The association of polyandry with the central characters of the Mahabharata could be due to narrative requirements rather than social realities.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="7-a-dynamic-text">7. A DYNAMIC TEXT</h5> <ul> <li>The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata was prepared and published between 1919 and 1966.</li> <li>J.A.B. van Buitenen started the English translation of the Critical Edition in 1973.</li> <li>Van Buitenen’s translation work remained incomplete due to his death in 1978.</li> <li>The text does not provide any equations or formulae.</li> <li>The text does not include any examples or their solutions.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="answer-in-100-150-words">ANSWER IN 100-150 WORDS</h5> <ul> <li> <p>Patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families due to the inheritance of property and status being passed down through the male line, ensuring the continuation of the family’s power and influence.</p> </li> <li> <p>Kings in early states were not always Kshatriyas, as the caste system was not as rigidly defined and the role of a king could be filled by individuals from various backgrounds.</p> </li> <li> <p>The dharma or norms in the stories of Drona, Hidimba, and Matanga vary, reflecting their individual experiences and social positions. Drona’s dharma is shaped by his role as a Brahmin and a teacher, Hidimba’s by her status as a rakshasi, and Matanga’s by his experience as an outcast.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Buddhist theory of a social contract differed from the Brahmanical view in that it emphasized the importance of individual action and moral conduct, rather than birth and caste.</p> </li> <li> <p>In Yudhisthira’s greetings, the criteria used to make the list include age, gender, kinship ties, and social status. The elderly, men, and those of higher social status are placed in a more prominent position, reflecting societal norms at the time.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="write-a-short-essay-about-500-words-on-the-following">WRITE A SHORT ESSAY (ABOUT 500 WORDS) ON THE FOLLOWING:</h5> <ul> <li> <p>The Mahabharata, according to historian Maurice Winternitz, is a comprehensive literature that provides insight into the deepest depths of the Indian folk’s soul. Its vastness and diversity offer a unique understanding of the Indian culture and its people.</p> </li> <li> <p>It is uncertain whether the Mahabharata was the work of a single author. The text’s complexity, depth, and the inclusion of various regional dialects suggest a possibility of multiple authors or a long period of creation.</p> </li> <li> <p>Gender differences were significant in early societies. Women were often relegated to domestic roles, and patriarchal norms were prevalent. However, there are instances in the Mahabharata that suggest women’s significant roles in society, such as Draupadi, who had five husbands, indicating a deviation from the norm.</p> </li> <li> <p>The evidence suggesting that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and marriage were not universally followed includes:</p> <ul> <li>The Mahabharata itself, where characters often deviate from the prescribed norms.</li> <li>Archaeological evidence, such as burial sites, that suggest different societal structures.</li> <li>Historical accounts of foreign travelers that describe Indian societies that do not align with Brahmanical prescriptions.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p>The above points suggest that while Brahmanical prescriptions may have been influential, they were not the sole determinant of societal structures and norms in early Indian societies.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="map-work">MAP WORK</h5> <ul> <li>The map in this chapter should be compared with Map 1 in Chapter 2 to identify the following:</li> <li>Mahajanapadas: The states of Kuru and Panchala are located near the Kuru-Panchala lands.</li> <li>No specific cities are mentioned in the text, but based on the context of Map 1 in Chapter 2, cities like Hastinapur and Indraprastha could be near the Kuru-Panchala lands.</li> <li>No equations or formulae are provided in the text.</li> <li>Examples and their solutions are also not included in the text.</li> <li>The summary is clear and brief, focusing on the comparison of maps and identification of Mahajanapadas near the Kuru-Panchala lands.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="project-any-one">PROJECT (ANY ONE)</h5> <ul> <li>The Mahabharata has been retold in various languages, with different treatments of specific episodes.</li> <li>Two episodes often retold are the story of Ekalavya and the game of dice.</li> <li>In the Ekalavya story, some versions emphasize his devotion to learning and Drona’s dilemma, while others focus on the caste issue.</li> <li>The dice game episode is often retold with variations on the role of loaded dice and Shakuni’s manipulation.</li> <li>When rewriting Ekalavya’s story, an author might focus on themes like self-sacrifice, discrimination, or the guru-shishya relationship.</li> </ul> <p>======</p>