2. THE EARLIEST STATES

• The earliest states appeared around 3500 BCE in Mesopotamia, along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
• These states, including Sumer, Akkad, and Assyria, developed complex societies with advanced technologies, such as irrigation systems and writing.
• The Sumerians invented cuneiform writing, while the Egyptians developed hieroglyphics around the same time, leading to the recording of history and laws.
• The Akkadian Empire, under Sargon the Great, was the first to unify multiple city-states, marking the beginning of larger, centralized states.
• The Assyrian Empire later emerged as a powerful, militaristic state, known for its efficient bureaucracy and impressive architectural achievements.

2.1 The sixteen mahajanapadas

• The sixth century BCE is a significant era in early Indian history, marked by the growth of states, cities, use of iron, and development of coinage.

• During this period, Buddhism and Jainism emerged, and texts from this time mention sixteen major states, known as mahajanapadas. These included Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, and Avanti.

• Some mahajanapadas were oligarchies, called ganas or sanghas, where power was shared by a number of men. Both Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to these ganas.

• Inscriptions from this era, written in Prakrit, Pali, Tamil, and Sanskrit, are vital sources of historical information, recording the achievements and activities of rulers and donations to religious institutions.

• By the sixth century CE, the letter ‘a’ in inscriptions was written differently than in the fifth century BCE, providing a means to date them.

2.2 First amongst the sixteen: Magadha

• Magadha, located in present-day Bihar, became the most powerful mahajanapada between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE due to various reasons:

1. Productive agriculture
2. Accessible iron mines for tools and weapons
3. Availability of elephants for the army
4. Ganga and its tributaries for communication

• Early Buddhist and Jaina writers attributed Magadha’s power to ambitious kings like Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, and Mahapadma Nanda, and their ministers.
• Initial capital of Magadha was Rajagaha (Rajgir), a fortified settlement with an old name meaning “house of the king”. It was later shifted to Pataliputra (Patna) in the fourth century BCE.
• Asokan inscriptions were in Prakrit, Brahmi script, some in Kharosthi, and northwest in Aramaic and Greek, with the lion capital being considered important today.

3. AN EARLY EMPIRE

• The Magadha’s growth led to the formation of the Mauryan Empire.
• Chandragupta Maurya founded the empire around 321 BCE and expanded it to include northwestern regions up to Afghanistan and Baluchistan.
• Chandragupta Maurya’s grandson, Asoka, is considered one of the most renowned rulers of early India.
• Asoka conquered Kalinga, which is present-day coastal Orissa.
• The Mauryan Empire expansion reached its peak during Asoka’s reign.

3.1 Finding out about the Mauryas

• The Mauryan Empire’s history has been constructed using various sources, including archaeological finds, contemporary works like Megasthenes’ account, and the Arthashastra, possibly written by Kautilya or Chanakya.
• Later Buddhist, Jaina, and Puranic literature, as well as Sanskrit literary works, mention the Mauryas.
• However, the most valuable sources are the inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231 BCE) on rocks and pillars, as they are the first instances of a ruler inscribing messages to subjects and officials on stone surfaces.
• Asoka’s inscriptions proclaimed his understanding of dhamma, which included respect for elders, generosity, kind treatment of slaves and servants, and respect for religions and traditions other than one’s own.
• Asoka’s inscriptions are highly valued as they provide firsthand insights into the moral and administrative principles of the Mauryan Empire.

3.2 Administering the empire

• The Mauryan Empire included five major political centers: Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri.

• Administrative control was likely strongest around the capital and provincial centers, which were strategically located.

• Officials, as described by Megasthenes, supervised state activities such as managing rivers, land, sluices, huntsmen, taxes, and various occupations.

• A committee with six subcommittees, overseeing military activities including the navy, transport, foot-soldiers, horses, chariots, and elephants, was essential for maintaining the empire.

• Asoka propagated dhamma and appointed special officers, the dhamma mahamatta, to spread its principles and ensure the well-being of the people.

3.3 How important was the empire?

• The emergence of the Mauryan Empire was a significant event in early Indian history, regarded as a major landmark in the 19th century.
• Historians found the existence of an empire in early India challenging yet exciting, with archaeological finds like stone sculpture considered as examples of spectacular art.
• The message on Asokan inscriptions was different from most other rulers, suggesting Asoka was more powerful, industrious, and humble than later rulers.
• The Mauryan Empire lasted for about 150 years and did not encompass the entire subcontinent, with control not uniform within the empire.
• By the 2nd century BCE, new chiefdoms and kingdoms emerged in several parts of the subcontinent, indicating the empire’s limited reach and influence.

4. NEW NOTIONS OF KINGSHIP

• The text introduces new notions of kingship that emerged in Europe during the late Middle Ages.
• The concept of “divine right of kings” is discussed, which suggests that a monarch’s authority comes directly from God.
• Another notion is the “king’s two bodies,” distinguishing between the monarch’s physical body and the body politic or corporate continuity of the state.
• The text also presents the idea of “political friendship,” a relationship between the king and his subjects based on mutual obligations.
• Lastly, it introduces the “king’s touch” belief, where monarchs were thought to have healing powers, particularly for scrofula.

4.1 Chiefs and kings in the south

• The new kingdoms in the Deccan and further south, including the chiefdoms of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas, were stable and prosperous.
• Chiefs were powerful men, whose position may or may not be hereditary, and derived support from their kinfolk. Their functions included performing special rituals, leadership in warfare, and arbitrating disputes.
• Chiefs received gifts from their subordinates and often distributed these amongst their supporters, with no regular armies and officials in chiefdoms.
• The Satavahanas and Shakas derived revenues from long-distance trade and attempted to claim social status once they acquired power.
• The Arthashastra outlines the process of capturing elephants for the army, requiring the cooperation of various individuals and female elephants to trace the whereabouts of herds.

4.2 Divine kings

• The Kushanas, a divine king dynasty, ruled over a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to northwest India (c. first century BCE - first century CE).

• They considered themselves godlike, as indicated by colossal statues found in shrines at Mat near Mathura and Afghanistan. Some Kushana rulers also adopted the title “devaputra” or “son of god”, possibly inspired by Chinese rulers.

• By the fourth century, larger states like the Gupta Empire emerged, which depended on samantas for support. Samantas were men who maintained themselves through local resources and offered homage and military support to rulers.

• The Gupta rulers’ histories have been reconstructed from literature, coins, inscriptions, and prashastis. Prashastis were composed in praise of kings and patrons, often valued as works of poetry rather than literal accounts.

• The Prayaga Prashasti, composed by Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta, describes Samudragupta as a supreme being, adorned by many good qualities, and equal to gods Kubera, Varuna, Indra, and Yama.

• Rulers made arrangements for irrigation, such as the Sudarshana lake in Gujarat, to ensure prosperity and claim credit for repairs during their reign, often using their own resources without imposing taxes on subjects.

5. A CHANGING COUNTRYSIDE

• The text “A Changing Countryside” discusses the evolution of landscapes and ecosystems in rural areas.
• Human activities, such as agriculture and land use changes, are major drivers of these transformations.
• The process of rural urbanization is also highlighted, where rural areas are being integrated into urban systems.
• This has led to the loss of biodiversity and changes in ecosystem services, impacting both the environment and human well-being.
• The text emphasizes the need for sustainable land use practices and integrated land use planning to manage these changes.

5.1 Popular perceptions of kings

• Historians study stories from anthologies like Jatakas and Panchatantra to understand subjects’ thoughts about rulers.
• The Gandatindu Jataka, written in Pali, describes a wicked king’s subjects including elderly, cultivators, herders, village boys, and animals who complain about robbers, tax collectors, and high taxes.
• The relationship between kings and subjects, particularly rural populations, was often strained due to high tax demands.
• Escaping into the forest was a common response to oppressive taxation, as depicted in the Jataka story.
• Other strategies to increase production and meet growing tax demands were also adopted.

5.2 Strategies for increasing production

• The shift to plough agriculture, particularly in the alluvial river valleys of the Ganga and Kaveri from around the sixth century BCE, led to an increase in production due to the use of iron-tipped ploughshares.
• Transplantation of paddy was introduced in some parts of the Ganga valley, significantly increasing production, although this method was labor-intensive.
• The use of irrigation through wells, tanks, and less commonly, canals was adopted to increase agricultural production.
• Communities and individuals, including kings, played a role in organizing the construction of irrigation works, with records of such activities found in inscriptions.
• The adoption of these strategies was limited to certain areas, with cultivators in semi-arid regions and hilly tracts not adopting the iron ploughshare until the twentieth century.

5.3 Differences in rural society

• The introduction of new technologies in agriculture led to an increase in production but resulted in uneven benefits, causing a growing differentiation among people engaged in agriculture.

• The Pali text used the term ‘gahapati’ to designate small peasants and large landholders, while early Tamil literature mentioned different categories of people living in the villages based on differential access to land, labor, and new technologies.

• The large landholders and village headmen, often hereditary, emerged as powerful figures, exercising control over other cultivators.

• The Manusmrti, a well-known legal text of early India, advised the king to bury boundary markers to resolve controversies due to ignorance of boundaries.

• The Harshacharita described people in a small village on the outskirts of a forest in the Vindhyas, classified based on their occupations such as small farmers, collectors of forest products, and village wives.

5.4 Land grants and new rural elites

• Land grants were common in early Common Era, with records on copper plates given to recipients. Most grants were in Sanskrit, some with parts in local languages.

• Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta II and queen of Vakatakas, had access to land and made grants, suggesting exceptions to legal texts restricting women’s access to resources.

• Land grants had regional variations in plot sizes and rights given to recipients. Their impact is debated, with theories including extension of agriculture, weakening political power, and attempts to project power.

• An agrahara was land granted to a Brahmana, often with tax exemptions and rights to collect dues from locals.

• Cultivators, pastoralists, fisherfolk, hunter-gatherers, artisans, and shifting cultivators had varying relationships with the state, with less interaction from those in alternative systems or without detailed records.

• Pataliputra, once a large city, began as a village and served as the Mauryan capital. Its importance declined over time, with Xuan Zang finding it in ruins during his visit.

6. TOWNS AND TRADE

• Towns were crucial to the growth of trade during the Middle Ages.
• They provided central locations for trade, which attracted merchants from across regions and countries.
• The establishment of markets in towns allowed for regular trading events, fostering economic growth.
• Guilds, associations of artisans or merchants, were formed in towns to regulate trade, production, and pricing, further promoting commercial development.
• The presence of fairs, often held in towns, offered opportunities for long-distance trade and the exchange of unique goods between regions.

6.1 New cities

• Urban centers emerged in the Indian subcontinent from the 6th century BCE, many of which were capitals of mahajanapadas.
• Most major towns were situated along communication routes, with examples including Pataliputra on riverine routes, Ujjayini along land routes, and Puhar near the coast.
• Cities like Mathura were thriving hubs of commercial, cultural, and political activities.
• The location of these cities allowed them to serve as important centers for various activities.
• The connectivity offered by their locations also played a significant role in their development and growth.

6.2 Urban populations:

• Elites and craftspersons lived in fortified cities during the time when Harappan civilization flourished.
• A variety of artifacts have been recovered from these cities, including Northern Black Polished Ware, pottery bowls, dishes, ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines made of materials like gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell, and terracotta.
• Votive inscriptions from the second century BCE mention people living in towns, including washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials, religious teachers, merchants, and kings.
• Guilds or shrenis, organizations of craft producers and merchants, are mentioned in the inscriptions, which likely procured raw materials, regulated production, and marketed finished products.
• The Malabar coast (present-day Kerala) was an important region for trade, with large quantities of pepper and malabathrum (possibly cinnamon) being exported, as well as fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth, transparent stones, diamonds, sapphires, and tortoise shell.

6.3 Trade in the subcontinent and beyond

• From 6th century BCE, extensive land and river routes criss-crossed the Indian subcontinent, extending overland into Central Asia and beyond, and overseas to North Africa, West Asia, East Africa, Southeast Asia, and China.
• Rulers often tried to control these routes, offering protection for a price, with peddlers, merchants, and seafarers utilizing them. Successful merchants could amass great wealth.
• A wide range of goods were transported, including: salt, grain, cloth, metal ores, finished products, stone, timber, and medicinal plants.
• High-demand goods included spices, especially pepper, in the Roman Empire, as well as textiles and medicinal plants, all of which were transported across the Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean.
• Seafaring ventures, while risky, were highly profitable due to the high demand for these goods.

6.4 Coins and kings

• The introduction of coinage, particularly punch-marked coins made of silver and copper, facilitated exchanges and economic activities in the subcontinent, starting from the sixth century BCE.
• The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks in the second century BCE, and the Kushanas issued the largest hoards of gold coins in the first century CE.
• The widespread use of gold coins and hoards of Roman coins found in south India indicate the enormous value of transactions and the existence of extensive trade networks beyond political boundaries.
• The study of coins, numismatics, involves analyzing visual elements, metallurgical composition, and contexts, as seen in the punch-marked coins, Gupta coins, and Asokan inscriptions.
• The decline in finds of gold coins from the sixth century CE could be attributed to various factors, such as the collapse of the Western Roman Empire or the emergence of new towns and trade networks. Coins continued to be mentioned in inscriptions and texts, suggesting circulation rather than hoarding.

7. BACK TO BASICS HOW ARE INSCRIPTIONS DECIPHERED?

• Inscriptions are deciphered through a combination of linguistic, historical, and archaeological methods.
• First, researchers identify the language and script used in the inscription, which often requires knowledge of ancient languages and writing systems.
• They then analyze the context in which the inscription was found, such as its archaeological, historical, or geographical context, to help understand its content and purpose.
• Next, they examine the physical features of the inscription, such as its layout, format, and style, to aid in deciphering and interpreting the text.
• Finally, researchers use various techniques, such as comparing the inscription with other known texts or using statistical analysis, to confirm their interpretation and resolve any ambiguities.

7.1 Deciphering Brahmi

• The script used in most Asokan inscriptions is Brahmi, which is the root of many modern Indian language scripts.
• Early European scholars, with the help of Indian pandits, started deciphering older scripts from the late eighteenth century using contemporary Bengali and Devanagari manuscripts as references.
• While some early scholars assumed that the inscriptions were in Sanskrit, they were actually in Prakrit.
• The deciphering of Asokan Brahmi was accomplished by James Prinsep in 1838 after decades of meticulous investigations by several epigraphists.
• The earliest inscriptions were primarily in Prakrit, not Sanskrit as some scholars had initially assumed.

7.2 How Kharosthi was read

• The decipherment of Kharosthi, used in northwest inscriptions, was facilitated by finds of coins of Indo-Greek kings.
• Coins contained names of kings in Greek and Kharosthi scripts, enabling comparisons.
• European scholars found similar symbols in both scripts, like the symbol for “a” in Apollodotus names.
• With Prinsep identifying Kharosthi inscriptions as Prakrit, longer inscriptions became readable.
• This comparative analysis allowed for the understanding of Kharosthi script and its associated inscriptions.

7.3 Historical evidence from inscriptions

• The text discusses the methods used by epigraphists and historians to analyze inscriptions, using two Asokan inscriptions as examples.
• The name Asoka is not explicitly mentioned in the inscriptions, but titles such as “devanampiya” and “piyadassi” are used instead. Epigraphists have determined that these inscriptions were issued by the same ruler through content, style, language, and palaeography analysis.
• The inscriptions reveal that Asoka made arrangements for regular reports on the affairs of the people, and that he was devoted to an intense study of Dhamma after the conquest of the Kalingas.
• The text also mentions the use of brackets in inscriptions to clarify meaning, and the challenges of ensuring the intended meaning of the author is not changed.
• Historians must assess the truthfulness of statements made in inscriptions, and consider factors such as literacy rates and language differences when evaluating the impact of inscriptions on the population.
• The text references an Asokan inscription (Source 11) that has been interpreted as reflecting the anguish of the ruler, but notes that the inscription depicting his anguish is missing in the region that was conquered.

8. THE LIMITATIONS OF INSCRIPTIONAL EVIDENCE

• In 1784, the Asiatic Society (Bengal) was established, marking the beginning of systematic study of Indian epigraphy.
• During the 1810s, Colin Mackenzie collected over 8,000 inscriptions in Sanskrit and Dravidian languages.
• In 1838, James Prinsep deciphered the Asokan Brahmi script, providing a significant breakthrough in the field of Indian epigraphy.
• In 1877, Alexander Cunningham published a set of Asokan inscriptions, further advancing the study of Indian epigraphy.
• The first issue of Epigraphia Carnatica, a journal of south Indian inscriptions, was released in 1886, and the first issue of Epigraphia Indica followed in 1888.
• In 1965-66, D.C. Sircar published Indian Epigraphy and Indian Epigraphical Glossary, contributing significantly to the field in the 20th century.

ANSWER IN 100-150 WORDS

1. Craft production in Early Historic cities is evident through specialized workshops, presence of raw materials, and finished products. Unlike Harappan cities, they show a shift from urban to rural, with craft production in villages and small towns.

2. Mahajanapadas, the sixteen powerful states in the 6th century BCE, had salient features like organized administration, use of iron, growth of urban centers, and religious movements.

3. Historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people through studying artifacts, inscriptions, and archaeological remains, interpreting them in the context of social, economic, and political conditions of the time.

4. The Pandyan chief received items like gems, pearls, and quality cloth, while Danguna village produced iron tools, pottery, and simple ornaments. The contrast suggests a hierarchical society with luxury goods for elites and basic necessities for commoners.

5. Epigraphists face problems like deciphering faded or damaged inscriptions, understanding the language and script, interpreting the meaning, and verifying the authenticity of the inscriptions.

WRITE A SHORT ESSAY (ABOUT 500 WORDS)

• The Mauryan administration was characterized by a centralized bureaucracy, a strong military, and a well-organized system of justice. These features are evident in the Asokan inscriptions, which show the emperor’s concern for the welfare of his subjects and his efforts to promote social harmony and moral behavior.

• The statement by D.C. Sircar highlights the importance of inscriptions as a source of information about various aspects of Indian life, culture, and activities during different periods. The Asokan inscriptions, for instance, provide insights into the Mauryan administration, society, and religion.

• In the post-Mauryan period, notions of kingship evolved to reflect the changing political and social landscape. Kings were often depicted as divine figures, with absolute power and authority. This is evident in the inscriptions and coinage of the period.

• Agricultural practices underwent significant transformations in the period under consideration. The use of iron tools and the development of irrigation systems led to increased agricultural productivity and the growth of settlements. The Asokan inscriptions mention the emperor’s efforts to promote agriculture and improve the living conditions of his subjects.

• The above points summarize the main features of Mauryan administration, the significance of inscriptions as a source of historical information, the evolution of kingship in the post-Mauryan period, and the transformations in agricultural practices during this time.

MAP WORK

• The mahajanapadas that might have been included in the Mauryan Empire, based on a comparison of Maps 1 and 2, are Gandhara, Kamboja, and possibly Vatsa.
• There is no specific information in the text about Asokan inscriptions being found in these areas.
• Asokan inscriptions have been discovered in other mahajanapadas, such as Kalinga, confirming the empire’s reach.
• The Mauryan Empire, under Ashoka, adhered to Buddhism, which influenced its administrative and social systems.
• The empire’s expansion was facilitated by advancements in iron technology, agriculture, and trade.

PROJECT (ANY ONE)

• The task requires collecting newspapers for a month and cutting out statements made by government officials about public works. It involves noting down the resources required, mobilization, objectives, and communication of these projects.
• The second part of the task is to compare and contrast the collected data with evidence from inscriptions discussed in the chapter, focusing on similarities and differences.
• The next task is to collect five different kinds of currency notes and coins in circulation today, describing their obverse and reverse sides, common features, differences in pictures, scripts, languages, size, shape, and other significant elements.
• This should be followed by comparing the collected coins with those shown in the chapter, focusing on materials used, minting techniques, visual symbols, and their significance and possible functions.
• The final objective is to analyze the data collected and draw meaningful conclusions based on the comparison and contrast of the information.