<h5 id="international-context">International Context</h5> <ul> <li>India’s foreign policy after Independence was shaped by a global context of post-war reconstruction, emergence of new nations, and the challenge of balancing welfare and democracy.</li> <li>India’s foreign relations aimed to respect the sovereignty of all nations and maintain peace, reflecting the principles outlined in the Directive Principles of State Policy.</li> <li>Developing nations like India, due to resource constraints, focused on peace and development in their own neighborhood and often influenced by economic and security dependencies.</li> <li>India chose not to align with any bloc during the Cold War, instead opting for the Non-Aligned Movement, promoting peaceful coexistence and independence in global politics.</li> <li>The Indian Constitution, through Article 51, directs the state to promote international peace and security, maintain just and honorable relations, foster respect for international law, and encourage arbitration to settle disputes.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="the-policy-of-non-alignment">The Policy Of Non-Alignment</h5> <ul> <li>The Indian national movement was part of the global struggle against colonialism and imperialism, influencing many Asian and African liberation movements.</li> <li>The Indian National Army, established by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose during WWII, demonstrated links between India and overseas Indians in the freedom struggle.</li> <li>India’s foreign policy was shaped by the ideals of its freedom struggle, but its independence coincided with the beginning of the Cold War era.</li> <li>The Cold War era was marked by political, economic, and military confrontations between the US and USSR-led blocs, as well as the establishment of the UN, creation of nuclear weapons, emergence of Communist China, and decolonization.</li> <li>India’s leadership had to balance national interests with the prevailing international context during this period.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="nehrus-role">Nehru’s Role</h5> <ul> <li>Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India and also served as the Foreign Minister from 1946 to 1964.</li> <li>The major objectives of Nehru’s foreign policy were to preserve sovereignty, protect territorial integrity, and promote rapid economic development.</li> <li>Nehru pursued these goals through the strategy of nonalignment, keeping India neutral in the Cold War.</li> <li>There were internal pressures to align with the US-led bloc, particularly from leaders like Dr Ambedkar and political parties such as the Bharatiya Jan Sangh and Swatantra Party.</li> <li>However, Nehru had considerable autonomy in formulating foreign policy, enabling him to exercise profound influence on India’s international relations.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="distance-from-two-camps">Distance From Two Camps</h5> <ul> <li>India’s foreign policy during the Cold War era was centered around the principle of non-alignment, with the goal of keeping away from military alliances led by the US and Soviet Union.</li> <li>India’s independent stand on international issues allowed it to receive aid and assistance from members of both blocs, despite facing difficulties in maintaining a neutral position.</li> <li>India advocated for Afro-Asian unity and played a major role in world affairs, particularly in Asian affairs. This was evident through initiatives such as the Asian Relations Conference in 1947 and the Bandung Conference in 1955.</li> <li>India’s development strategy during this time emphasized import-substitution, limiting economic interaction with the outside world.</li> <li>India’s moral influence in the world grew significantly, with its voice being respected in international forums, as noted by C. Rajagopalachari in his letter to Edwina Mountbatten in 1950.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="peace-and-conflict-with-china">Peace And Conflict With China</h5> <ul> <li>India and China had a friendly relationship after the Chinese revolution in 1949, with India being one of the first countries to recognize the communist government.</li> <li>The joint enunciation of Panchsheel in 1954 was a significant step in strengthening the relationship between the two countries.</li> <li>Tension arose due to the issue of Tibet, which was taken over by China in 1950. India tried to persuade China to recognize Tibet’s claims for independence.</li> <li>In 1959, the Dalai Lama sought asylum in India after China suppressed an armed uprising in Tibet. This led to a large number of Tibetans seeking refuge in India and other countries.</li> <li>Border disputes between India and China erupted in 1960, with talks between Nehru and Mao Tsetung proving futile. Despite this, C. Rajagopalachari had a favorable impression of the Chinese premier, Zhou Enlai.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="the-chinese-invasion-1962">The Chinese Invasion, 1962</h5> <ul> <li>In 1950, China annexed Tibet, causing strain in Indo-Chinese relations.</li> <li>A boundary dispute between India and China arose, with China claiming the Aksai-chin area in Ladakh and much of Arunachal Pradesh.</li> <li>Despite lengthy discussions, the border dispute remained unresolved, leading to small border skirmishes.</li> <li>In 1962, China launched a massive invasion on disputed regions, capturing key areas in Arunachal Pradesh and advancing towards Assam.</li> <li>China declared a unilateral ceasefire and withdrew, but the war severely impacted India’s image and led to significant political changes.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="wars-and-peace-with-pakistan">Wars And Peace With Pakistan</h5> <ul> <li>The conflict between India and Pakistan started just after Partition over the dispute on Kashmir.</li> <li>The Kashmir conflict did not prevent cooperation between the governments of India and Pakistan; they worked together to restore abducted women to their original families and resolve a long-term dispute about the sharing of river waters through the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960.</li> <li>A more serious armed conflict began in 1965, with Pakistan launching attacks in the Rann of Kutch and Jammu and Kashmir. Indian troops launched a counter-offensive on the Punjab border, reaching close to Lahore.</li> <li>The hostilities ended with the UN intervention and the signing of the Tashkent Agreement in January 1966, brokered by the Soviet Union.</li> <li>Despite military victories, the 1965 war added to India’s already difficult economic situation.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="bangladesh-war-1971">Bangladesh War, 1971</h5> <ul> <li>In 1970, Pakistan’s first general election resulted in a split verdict with Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s party winning in West Pakistan and the Awami League led by Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman winning in East Pakistan.</li> <li>The Bengali population of East Pakistan voted to protest against years of being treated as second class citizens by the rulers based in West Pakistan. The Pakistani rulers were not willing to accept the Awami League’s demand for a federation.</li> <li>In early 1971, the Pakistani army arrested Sheikh Mujib and unleashed a reign of terror on the people of East Pakistan, leading to a struggle for the liberation of ‘Bangladesh’ from Pakistan. India extended moral and material support to the freedom struggle in Bangladesh.</li> <li>In December 1971, a full-scale war between India and Pakistan broke out. India retaliated with an attack involving the air force, navy and the army on both the Western and the Eastern front. The Indian army made rapid progress in East Pakistan and the Pakistani army of about 90,000 had to surrender.</li> <li>India and Pakistan signed the Shimla Agreement on 3 July 1972, formalising the return of peace. The 1971 war led to national jubilation in India, seen as a moment of glory and a clear sign of India’s growing military prowess.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="indias-nuclear-policy">India’s Nuclear Policy</h5> <ul> <li>In May 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test, which was termed as a peaceful explosion, committed to using nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.</li> <li>India has opposed international treaties aimed at non-proliferation due to their selective applicability to non-nuclear powers, legitimizing the monopoly of five nuclear weapons powers.</li> <li>India conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998, demonstrating its capacity to use nuclear energy for military purposes, leading to sanctions by the international community.</li> <li>India’s nuclear doctrine of credible minimum nuclear deterrence professes “no first use” and reiterates India’s commitment to global, verifiable, and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament.</li> <li>India’s foreign policy has shifted to a more pro-US strategy due to the loss of global preeminence by Russia and the increased influence of economic interests in international politics.</li> </ul> <p>======</p>