<h5 id="land-use-categories">Land Use Categories</h5> <ul> <li>The land use categories are maintained by the land revenue department and include: Forests, Barren and Wastelands, Land put to Non-agricultural Uses, Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands, Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves, Culturable Wasteland, Current Fallow, Fallow other than Current Fallow, and Net Area Sown.</li> <li>The area under actual forest cover is different from the area classified as forest, which is the area identified and demarcated for forest growth.</li> <li>Barren and Wastelands include barren hilly terrains, desert lands, ravines, etc., which cannot be brought under cultivation with the available technology.</li> <li>Land put to Non-agricultural Uses includes land under settlements, infrastructure, industries, shops, etc., and can increase with the expansion of secondary and tertiary activities.</li> <li>Culturable Wasteland is any land left fallow for more than five years, which can be brought under cultivation after reclamation, while Current Fallow is land left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="land-use-changes-in-india">Land-use Changes in India</h5> <ul> <li>The size of the economy growing over time leads to increased pressure on land, resulting in the use of marginal lands.</li> <li>The composition of the economy undergoes change, with the secondary and tertiary sectors growing faster than the primary sector, leading to a shift of land from agricultural uses to non-agricultural uses.</li> <li>The pressure on land for agricultural activities does not decline over time due to a slow decline in the share of population dependent on agriculture compared to the decline in the sector’s share in GDP and an increasing number of people to feed.</li> <li>Land-use changes in India between 1950-57 and 2014-15 show an increase in area under non-agricultural uses, forest, current fallow lands, and net area sown, and a decrease in barren and wasteland, culturable wasteland, area under pastures and tree crops, and fallow lands.</li> <li>The actual increase and rate of increase for land-use categories between 1950-51 and 2014-15 can be calculated from the data in the Appendix (vi), with the rate of increase being the growth rate between the two time points.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="common-property-resources">Common Property Resources</h5> <ul> <li>Common Property Resources (CPRs) are natural resources owned by the state but used by the community.</li> <li>CPRs provide essential items such as fodder for livestock, fuel for households, and minor forest products like fruits, nuts, fiber, and medicinal plants.</li> <li>In rural areas, CPRs are significant for the livelihood of landless and marginal farmers, as well as other vulnerable sections who depend on income from livestock due to limited land access.</li> <li>CPRs are crucial for women, as they are primarily responsible for collecting fuel and fodder in rural areas, often spending long hours on degraded CPR areas.</li> <li>CPRs can be defined as a community’s natural resource, where every member has the right of access and usage, accompanied by specified obligations, without property rights being granted to anyone. Examples include community forests, pasture lands, village water bodies, and other public spaces managed by a group larger than a household or family unit.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="agricultural-land-use-in-india">Agricultural Land Use in India</h5> <ul> <li>The text discusses the limited scope for increasing the net sown area in India and highlights the need for land-saving technologies.</li> <li>Two categories of land-saving technologies are mentioned: those that increase yield per unit area and those that increase total output by increasing land-use intensity.</li> <li>The advantage of the second category is that it increases output from limited land and significantly increases labor demand, which is beneficial for a labor-abundant country like India.</li> <li>Cropping intensity (C) is calculated using the formula: C (in percentage) = (GCA / NSA) x 100, where GCA is gross cropped area and NSA is net sown area.</li> <li>The table provided shows data for culturable waste land, fallow land, current fallow, net area sown, and total cultivable land for the years 1950-51, 2014-15, and 1950-51, 2014-15.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="cropping-seasons-in-india">Cropping Seasons in India</h5> <ul> <li>In India, there are three crop seasons in the northern and interior parts: kharif, rabi, and zaid.</li> <li>Kharif season, coinciding with the Southwest Monsoon, allows cultivation of tropical crops like rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra, and tur.</li> <li>Rabi season, beginning in October-November and ending in March-April, facilitates growth of temperate and subtropical crops such as wheat, gram, and mustard due to low temperature conditions.</li> <li>Zaid is a short summer cropping season after the harvest of rabi crops, used for cultivating watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables, and fodder crops on irrigated lands.</li> <li>This seasonal distinction is not present in southern parts of the country, where same crops can be grown thrice a year with sufficient soil moisture.</li> <li>The southern region has a consistent high temperature, allowing tropical crop cultivation year-round when soil moisture is available.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="types-of-farming">Types of Farming</h5> <ul> <li>The growing season in Northern States is divided into Kharif (June-September), Rabi (October-March), and Zaid (April-June).</li> <li>Kharif crops in Northern States include Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Maize, Jowar, and Tur. Rabi crops include Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds and Mustard, Barley. Zaid crops are Vegetables, Fruits, Fodder.</li> <li>In Southern States, Kharif crops are Rice, Maize, Ragi, Jowar, Groundnut. Rabi crops are Wheat, Gram, Barley, Sugarcane.</li> <li>Dryland farming, practiced in regions with annual rainfall less than 75 cm, includes growing hardy and drought resistant crops like ragi, bajra, moong, gram, guar (fodder crops) and various soil moisture conservation measures.</li> <li>Wetland farming, practiced in areas with excess rainfall, includes growing water intensive crops like Rice, Jute, and Sugarcane, and practicing aquaculture in fresh water bodies.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="foodgrains">Foodgrains</h5> <ul> <li>Foodgrains are crops that occupy about two-thirds of the total cropped area in India, with cereals and pulses being the main categories.</li> <li>Cereals, accounting for 54% of the total cropped area, include fine grains like rice and wheat, and coarse grains like jowar, bajra, maize, and ragi. Rice and wheat are the most important cereals in terms of production and consumption.</li> <li>Pulses, which are leguminous crops, occupy about 11% of the total cropped area and are a major source of protein, especially for vegetarians. The main pulses cultivated in India are gram and tur.</li> <li>Jowar, also known as sorghum, is a coarse cereal that is the main food crop in semi-arid areas of central and southern India. It is a rainfed crop in these regions and is primarily grown for human consumption and fodder.</li> <li>Bajra is another coarse cereal that is grown in hot and dry climatic conditions in northwestern and western parts of the country. It is a hardy crop that resists frequent dry spells and drought, and is primarily grown as a rainfed crop.</li> <li>Maize is a food and fodder crop that is grown under semi-arid climatic conditions and over inferior soils. It is sown all over India except in Punjab and eastern and north-eastern regions, and is primarily grown for human consumption and fodder.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="oilseeds">Oilseeds</h5> <ul> <li>Oilseeds are primarily grown for extracting edible oils in India.</li> <li>The main oilseeds grown are groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, soyabean, and sunflower.</li> <li>Groundnut production in India is about 18.8% of the world’s total (2018), with the majority produced in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.</li> <li>Rapeseed and mustard are subtropical crops grown during the rabi season in north-western and central parts of India. Major producers are Rajasthan, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh.</li> <li>Soyabean and sunflower are other important oilseeds, with soyabean mainly produced in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, and sunflower in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and adjoining areas of Maharashtra.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="fibre-crops">Fibre Crops</h5> <ul> <li>Fibre crops, such as cotton and jute, are used for making cloth, bags, sacks, and other items.</li> <li>Cotton is a tropical crop grown in the kharif season in semi-arid areas of India. India grows both short staple (Indian) cotton and long staple (American) cotton called ’narma’ in north-western parts of the country.</li> <li>India ranks second in the world in cotton production after China, with a 4.7% share of total cropped area. The leading cotton-producing states are Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Telangana.</li> <li>Jute is used for making coarse cloth, bags, sacks, and decorative items. India produces about three-fifths of the world’s jute, with West Bengal accounting for about three-fourths of the production.</li> <li>Jute is a cash crop in West Bengal and adjoining eastern parts of the country. India lost large jute growing areas to East Pakistan (Bangladesh) during partition, and currently, jute accounts for only about 0.5% of total cropped area in the country.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="other-crops">Other Crops</h5> <ul> <li>Sugarcane is a tropical crop, mainly cultivated in irrigated areas of the Indo-Gangetic plain, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh. India is the second-largest producer of sugarcane, accounting for 19.7% of the world’s production.</li> <li>Tea is a plantation crop, used as a beverage, and is grown in humid and sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics. Major tea producing regions in India are Brahmaputra valley of Assam, West Bengal, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, Cooch Behar districts, and the lower slopes of Nilgiri. India is a leading producer of tea, accounting for 21.22% of the world’s production.</li> <li>Coffee is a tropical plantation crop, and India mostly grows superior quality coffee, arabica. Coffee is cultivated in the highlands of Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. India produces about 3.17% of the world’s coffee and ranks eighth in the world.</li> <li>Sugarcane and coffee are largely rainfed crops, while tea is a plantation crop that requires well-drained soils.</li> <li>Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh are the leading producers of sugarcane. Assam, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu are the other leading producers of tea. Karnataka alone accounts for more than two-thirds of total production of coffee in the country.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="agricultural-development-in-india">Agricultural Development in India</h5> <ul> <li>Before Independence, Indian agricultural economy was mostly subsistence in nature with dismal performance and frequent famines.</li> <li>After Independence, the government aimed to increase foodgrains production by switching to food crops, intensifying cropping, and increasing cultivated area.</li> <li>To overcome stagnation in the late 1950s, Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) were launched, followed by the Green Revolution in the mid-1960s using high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds and irrigation.</li> <li>In the 1980s, the Planning Commission focused on agro-climatic planning and diversification of agriculture, including dairy farming, poultry, horticulture, livestock rearing, and aquaculture.</li> <li>The National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), launched in 2014, aims to make agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative, and climate resilient through organic farming and soil conservation measures.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="growth-of-agricultural-output-and-technology">Growth of Agricultural Output and Technology</h5> <ul> <li>There has been a significant increase in agricultural output and improvement in technology in the last 50 years.</li> <li>Production and yield of crops such as rice, wheat, sugarcane, oilseeds, and cotton have increased appreciably.</li> <li>Expansion of irrigation, providing a basis for the introduction of modern agricultural technology, has played a crucial role in enhancing agricultural output.</li> <li>The net irrigated area in the country has increased, and modern agricultural technology has diffused rapidly in various areas of the country.</li> <li>The Farmer’s Portal of India is a platform that provides detailed information related to agriculture, including farmers’ insurance, agriculture storage, crops, extension activities, seeds, pesticides, farm machineries, fertilizers, market prices, and welfare schemes.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="problems-of-indian-agriculture">Problems of Indian Agriculture</h5> <ul> <li>Indian agriculture faces regional specific problems due to varying agro-ecological and historical experiences.</li> <li>However, there are common problems that can be categorized into physical constraints and institutional hindrances.</li> <li>Physical constraints include issues like small and fragmented land holdings, lack of adequate irrigation facilities, and low productivity of soil.</li> <li>Institutional hindrances consist of problems like inadequate access to institutional credit, insufficient extension services, and lack of market access.</li> <li>Modern agricultural equipment, such as the Roto Till Drill, can help address some of these issues by improving efficiency and productivity.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="dependence-on-erratic-monsoon">Dependence on Erratic Monsoon</h5> <ul> <li>Irrigation is only used in about 33% of cultivated land in India, with the rest relying on rain.</li> <li>The performance of the south-west monsoon affects the supply of canal water for irrigation.</li> <li>Rainfall in Rajasthan and other drought-prone areas is scarce and unpredictable, making them susceptible to both droughts and floods.</li> <li>High annual rainfall areas also have significant fluctuations, making them prone to droughts and floods.</li> <li>Droughts are common in low rainfall areas and can experience occasional floods; flash floods in Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rajasthan in 2006 and 2017 are examples.</li> <li>Droughts and floods remain a significant issue in Indian agriculture.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="low-productivity">Low productivity</h5> <ul> <li>The yield of crops in the country is low compared to the international level, particularly for crops like rice, wheat, cotton, and oilseeds.</li> <li>The per hectare output in India is significantly lower than in countries like the USA, Russia, and Japan.</li> <li>The high pressure on land resources in India negatively impacts labor productivity in agriculture.</li> <li>Drylands in India, which primarily grow coarse cereals, pulses, and oilseeds, have low yields.</li> <li>The low productivity in dry regions is largely due to the lack of adequate resources and farming support.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="constraints-of-financial-resources-and-indebtedness">Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness</h5> <ul> <li>Modern agriculture requires significant financial resources, which can be challenging for marginal and small farmers due to high costs and limited savings.</li> <li>Many of these farmers rely on credit from institutions and moneylenders to manage their operations, which can lead to indebtedness, particularly in cases of crop failure or low agricultural returns.</li> <li>Severe indebtedness has several implications, including psychological stress, social stigma, and potential loss of land or assets.</li> <li>While it is difficult to attribute farmers’ suicides solely to indebtedness, there is a correlation between the two, as financial stress can exacerbate other issues farmers face.</li> <li>Indebtedness is a critical concern in addressing the overall well-being and sustainability of marginal and small farmers.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="lack-of-land-reforms">Lack of Land Reforms</h5> <ul> <li>The British implemented three revenue systems in India: Mahalwari, Ryotwari, and Zamindari, with the latter being the most exploitative for peasants.</li> <li>After Independence, land reforms were prioritized to address the historical exploitation and unequal distribution of land, but implementation was ineffective due to a lack of strong political will.</li> <li>Many state governments avoided taking decisions that would contradict politically powerful landlord lobbies.</li> <li>This lack of implementation has led to the continued inequitable distribution of cultivable land.</li> <li>The ongoing unequal distribution of land is detrimental to agricultural development in India.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="small-farm-size-and-fragmentation-of-landholdings">Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings</h5> <ul> <li>Many marginal and small farmers exist in the country, with an increasing population leading to a shrinking average size of land holdings.</li> <li>Land holdings in India are predominantly fragmented, with some states yet to carry out consolidation even once.</li> <li>In states where consolidation has occurred, a second consolidation is necessary due to fragmentation during division of land among next-generation owners.</li> <li>Small, fragmented landholdings are economically inefficient.</li> <li>The lack of consolidation and continuous fragmentation results in uneconomic landholdings, which is a significant issue for the agricultural sector.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="lack-of-commercialisation">Lack of Commercialisation</h5> <ul> <li>Many farmers produce crops primarily for self-consumption.</li> <li>These farmers often lack sufficient land resources to produce surpluses.</li> <li>Small and marginal farmers often grow foodgrains for their families.</li> <li>Modernization and commercialization of agriculture have occurred mainly in irrigated areas.</li> <li>The majority of farmers growing crops for self-consumption are not involved in commercialized agriculture.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="vast-underemployment">Vast Underemployment</h5> <ul> <li>High levels of underemployment exist in the agricultural sector of India, particularly in unirrigated tracts.</li> <li>Seasonal unemployment ranges from 4-8 months in these areas.</li> <li>Even during the cropping season, work is not consistently available due to the non-intensive nature of agricultural operations.</li> <li>This leads to limited work opportunities for those engaged in agriculture.</li> <li>Consequently, people in agriculture do not have the chance to work year-round.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="degradation-of-cultivable-land">Degradation of Cultivable Land</h5> <ul> <li>The degradation of cultivable land is a significant issue, often resulting from faulty irrigation and agricultural development strategies.</li> <li>In irrigated areas, soil fertility is particularly at risk due to alkalization, salinization, and waterlogging, leading to a loss of agricultural land fertility.</li> <li>The overuse of chemicals such as insecticides and pesticides can result in toxic concentrations in the soil profile.</li> <li>The displacement of leguminous crops and reduced fallow duration in irrigated areas has eliminated natural fertilization processes like nitrogen fixation.</li> <li>Rainfed areas in humid and semi-arid tropics often experience degradation in the form of soil erosion by water and wind, which can be exacerbated by human activities.</li> </ul> <p>======</p>