<h5 id="hunting-and-gathering">HUNTING AND GATHERING</h5> <ul> <li>Earliest human societies were primarily gatherers and hunters, subsisting on wild animals and edible plants.</li> <li>Gathering is more prevalent in regions with harsh climatic conditions, where people extract both plants and animals for food, shelter, and clothing.</li> <li>Modern gathering has become commercial, with gatherers collecting valuable plants and selling them in the market for various uses such as beverages, drugs, cosmetics, and fibers.</li> <li>Hunting was the primary source of sustenance for people in extremely cold and hot climates, and is still practiced in coastal areas, although many species have become extinct or endangered due to illegal hunting.</li> <li>Gathering has little chance of becoming important at the global level, as synthetic products often replace items supplied by gatherers in tropical forests, and the yield per person is very low with little to no surplus produced.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="pastoralism">PASTORALISM</h5> <ul> <li>The history of pastoralism began with the domestication of animals, a shift from unsustainable hunting.</li> <li>Different animals were domesticated in various geographical regions, depending on climate and technological development.</li> <li>Pastoralism can be practiced at two levels: subsistence (for personal use) and commercial (for profit).</li> <li>Animal rearing, a significant aspect of pastoralism, is influenced by geographical factors and technological advancements.</li> <li>The practice of pastoralism has evolved over time, from subsistence to commercial level, shaped by human needs and technological progress.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="nomadic-herding">Nomadic Herding</h5> <ul> <li> <p>Nomadic herding, also known as pastoral nomadism, is a primitive subsistence activity where herders rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools, and transport.</p> </li> <li> <p>The herders move from one place to another with their livestock, depending on the amount and quality of pastures and water. Each nomadic community occupies a well-identified territory traditionally.</p> </li> <li> <p>A variety of animals are kept in different regions, including cattle in tropical Africa, sheep, goats, and camels in Sahara and Asiatic deserts, yak in Tibet and Andes, and reindeer in Arctic and sub-Arctic areas.</p> </li> <li> <p>Pastoral nomadism is associated with three important regions: the core region extending from North Africa to Mongolia and Central China, the tundra region of Eurasia, and small areas in South-west Africa and Madagascar.</p> </li> <li> <p>The movement of nomadic herders is undertaken either over vast horizontal distances or vertically in mountainous regions. Transhumance is the process of migration from plain areas to pastures on mountains during summers and again from mountain pastures to plain areas during winters.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="commercial-livestock-rearing">Commercial Livestock Rearing</h5> <ul> <li>Commercial livestock rearing is a more organized and capital-intensive practice compared to nomadic herding.</li> <li>It is typically associated with western cultures and practiced on large, permanent ranches divided into parcels for regulated grazing.</li> <li>Only one type of animal is usually reared in this specialized activity, with products such as meat, wool, hides, and skin processed and exported.</li> <li>Ranching operations prioritize breeding, genetic improvement, disease control, and animal healthcare.</li> <li>Countries known for commercial livestock rearing include New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay, and the United States.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="agriculture">AGRICULTURE</h5> <ul> <li> <p><strong>Subsistence agriculture</strong>: This is practiced to meet the basic food requirements of the farmer’s family. It is common in areas with high population density and limited land availability.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Commercial agriculture</strong>: In this system, the farmers produce crops or raise livestock for sale in a market. The main goal is to generate profit.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Mixed farming</strong>: This involves the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock on the same piece of land. It is common in areas where there is a need for diversification of income sources.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Plantation agriculture</strong>: This is a type of commercial farming where a single crop is grown on a large scale. It is often characterized by the use of hired labor.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Livestock rearing</strong>: This involves the raising of animals for meat, milk, eggs, or other products. It can be practiced under different agricultural systems, including pastoralism and ranching.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="subsistence-agriculture">Subsistence Agriculture</h5> <ul> <li>Subsistence agriculture is a type of farming where the local population consumes most or all of the crops and products grown.</li> <li>It can be divided into two categories: Primitive Subsistence Agriculture and Intensive Subsistence Agriculture.</li> <li>Primitive Subsistence Agriculture is practiced on small areas with simple tools and little to no irrigation.</li> <li>Intensive Subsistence Agriculture is practiced on larger areas with more advanced tools and techniques, leading to higher yields.</li> <li>This type of agriculture focuses on self-sufficiency rather than producing surpluses for trade or sale.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="primitive-subsistence-agriculture">Primitive Subsistence Agriculture</h5> <ul> <li>Primitive subsistence agriculture, also known as shifting cultivation, is a common practice in tropical regions, particularly in Africa, South and Central America, and South East Asia.</li> <li>The vegetation is cleared by fire, and the ashes enrich the soil. This method is called slash and burn agriculture. Cultivation is done using basic tools like sticks and hoes.</li> <li>After 3-5 years, when the soil loses its fertility, farmers move to another patch and clear a new area of the forest for cultivation. The earlier patch may be used again in the future.</li> <li>This practice is prevalent in various regions with different names, such as Jhuming in North Eastern states of India, Milpa in Central America and Mexico, and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia.</li> <li>A significant issue with shifting cultivation is the reduction in the fallow period ($j h$) due to loss of fertility in different parcels.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="intensive-subsistence-agriculture">Intensive Subsistence Agriculture</h5> <ul> <li>Intensive subsistence agriculture is common in monsoon Asia, characterized by small landholdings and high population density.</li> <li>There are two types: (i) intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by wet paddy cultivation, and (ii) intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by crops other than paddy.</li> <li>The first type is dominated by rice cultivation, with manual labor and limited machinery use. Soil fertility is maintained through farm yard manure.</li> <li>The second type, due to regional differences, grows crops like wheat, soybean, barley, and sorghum. In India, wheat is grown in western parts. Irrigation is often used in this type.</li> <li>This form of agriculture has high yield per unit area but low labor productivity. The European colonization introduced other forms of agriculture, such as plantations, which were large-scale profit-oriented production systems.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="plantation-agriculture">Plantation Agriculture</h5> <ul> <li>Plantation agriculture is a type of farming introduced by Europeans in tropical colonies.</li> <li>It is characterized by large estates, capital investment, managerial and technical support, scientific methods, single crop specialization, cheap labor, and transportation.</li> <li>Important plantation crops include tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas, and pineapples.</li> <li>The French, British, Spanish, Americans, and Dutch established plantations for cocoa, coffee, tea, rubber, sugarcane, and coconut.</li> <li>Presently, plantation ownership has mostly transferred to governments or local nationals.</li> <li>Tea plantations are often located on the slopes of hills due to favorable geographical conditions.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="extensive-commercial-grain-cultivation">Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation</h5> <ul> <li>Commercial grain cultivation is typically carried out in large-scale farms located in semi-arid interior regions of the midlatitudes.</li> <li>The primary crop is wheat, with other crops like corn, barley, oats, and rye also grown.</li> <li>Due to large farm sizes, all farming operations from plowing to harvesting are mechanized, leading to high yield per person but low yield per acre.</li> <li>Mechanized grain farming allows for extensive harvesting, with combine crews capable of covering multiple hectares in a single day.</li> <li>Major regions for this type of agriculture include the Eurasian steppes, Canadian and American Prairies, Argentine Pampas, South African Velds, Australian Downs, and New Zealand’s Canterbury Plains.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="mixed-farming">Mixed Farming</h5> <ul> <li>Mixed farming is a prevalent form of agriculture in highly developed regions like North-western Europe, Eastern North America, parts of Eurasia, and the temperate latitudes of Southern continents.</li> <li>The average-sized mixed farms primarily cultivate crops such as wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder crops, and root crops, with fodder crops being a significant component.</li> <li>Crop rotation and intercropping are essential practices in mixed farming to maintain soil fertility.</li> <li>Both crop cultivation and animal husbandry receive equal emphasis in mixed farming systems, with animals like cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry contributing significantly to income alongside crops.</li> <li>This farming method is characterized by high capital expenditure on farm machinery and buildings, extensive use of chemical fertilizers and green manures, and the expertise of farmers.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="dairy-farming">Dairy Farming</h5> <ul> <li>Dairy farming is a specialized and capital-intensive form of rearing milch animals.</li> <li>It involves high costs for animal sheds, storage facilities, and machinery for feeding, milking, and storage.</li> <li>Special emphasis is placed on cattle breeding, health care, and veterinary services.</li> <li>Dairy farming is labor-intensive, with no off-season, and is mainly practiced near urban and industrial centers for fresh milk and dairy product sales.</li> <li>The development of transportation, refrigeration, pasteurization, and other preservation methods has increased the storage duration of various dairy products.</li> <li>The three main regions of commercial dairy farming are Northwestern Europe, Canada, and a belt including Southeastern Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="mediterranean-agriculture">Mediterranean Agriculture</h5> <ul> <li>Mediterranean agriculture is specialized commercial agriculture practiced in countries on either side of the Mediterranean.</li> <li>This region is known for viticulture, or grape cultivation, and is a major supplier of citrus fruits.</li> <li>High-quality grapes are used to produce some of the best wines in the world with distinctive flavors.</li> <li>Inferior grapes are dried into raisins and currants, and other crops such as olives and figs are also produced.</li> <li>The region takes advantage of winter growth for more valuable crops like fruits and vegetables, meeting high demand in European and North American markets.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="market-gardening-and-horticulture">Market Gardening and Horticulture</h5> <ul> <li>Market gardening and horticulture focus on cultivating high-value crops like vegetables, fruits, and flowers for urban markets.</li> <li>This type of agriculture is practiced in small farms, near urban centers, and requires both labor and capital intensively.</li> <li>It involves the use of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, greenhouses, and artificial heating in colder regions.</li> <li>The Netherlands is known for specialized flower and horticultural crop production, while truck farming specializes in vegetables only.</li> <li>A modern development in Western Europe and North America is factory farming, which involves raising livestock, particularly poultry and cattle, in stalls and pens, with heavy capital investment in buildings, machinery, veterinary services, and heating and lighting.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="co-operative-farming">Co-operative Farming</h5> <ul> <li> <p>Co-operative farming involves a group of farmers voluntarily pooling their resources for more efficient and profitable farming.</p> </li> <li> <p>Co-operative societies assist farmers in procuring important farming inputs, selling products at favorable terms, and processing quality products at lower costs.</p> </li> <li> <p>The co-operative movement, which began over a century ago, has been successful in many Western European countries, notably Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, and Italy.</p> </li> <li> <p>In Denmark, the movement has been so successful that nearly every farmer is a member of a co-operative.</p> </li> <li> <p>Co-operative farming helps in efficient transportation of farm products, as shown in Figure 4.17 (b).</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="collective-farming">Collective Farming</h5> <ul> <li>Collective farming is based on social ownership of the means of production and collective labor.</li> <li>It was introduced in the former Soviet Union to address agricultural inefficiencies and promote self-sufficiency.</li> <li>Farmers pooled their resources such as land, livestock, and labor, but were permitted to retain small plots for personal cultivation.</li> <li>The Kolkhoz model was a specific form of collective farming in the Soviet Union.</li> <li>The main goal was to improve agricultural productivity and promote community self-sufficiency.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="mining">MINING</h5> <ul> <li>The discovery of minerals has been significant in various stages of human development, such as the Copper Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.</li> <li>In ancient times, minerals were primarily used for the creation of tools, utensils, and weapons.</li> <li>The development of mining began in earnest with the Industrial Revolution.</li> <li>The importance of mining has been consistently increasing.</li> <li>The use of minerals extends beyond tools and utensils to include a wide range of modern applications.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="factors-affecting-mining-activity">Factors Affecting Mining Activity</h5> <ul> <li>The profitability of mining operations is influenced by two primary factors:</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="methods-of-mining">Methods of Mining</h5> <ul> <li>Mining is of two types: surface and underground mining.</li> <li>Surface mining, also known as open-cast mining, is the easiest and cheapest way to extract minerals close to the surface. It has lower overhead costs and results in large, rapid output.</li> <li>Underground mining, or shaft mining, is used when the ore is deep below the surface. This method requires vertical shafts and underground galleries to reach and extract the minerals.</li> <li>Underground mining is riskier, with potential hazards including poisonous gases, fires, floods, and caving in, often leading to fatal accidents.</li> <li>The mining industry is seeing a shift from developed to developing countries, as the latter have a large labor force and lower labor costs, making them more suitable for mining operations.</li> </ul> <p>======</p>