Introduction to Chemistry
- Definition of Chemistry
- Importance of Chemistry in daily life
- Branches of Chemistry
- Organic Chemistry
- Inorganic Chemistry
- Physical Chemistry
- Analytical Chemistry
- Biochemistry
Matter and its Classification
- Definition of Matter
- States of Matter
- Solid
- Liquid
- Gas
- Classification of Matter
- Pure Substances
- Elements
- Compounds
- Mixtures
- Homogeneous
- Heterogeneous
- Pure Substances
Atomic Structure
- Dalton’s Atomic Theory
- Thomson’s Model
- Rutherford’s Model
- Bohr’s Model
- Modern Atomic Theory
- Subatomic Particles
- Protons
- Neutrons
- Electrons
Chemical Bonding
- Types of Chemical Bonds
- Ionic Bond
- Covalent Bond
- Metallic Bond
- Lewis Dot Structure
- Octet Rule
- VSEPR Theory
- Intermolecular Forces
States of Matter
- Kinetic Molecular Theory
- Ideal Gas Law
- Boyle’s Law
- Charles’s Law
- Gay-Lussac’s Law
- Avogadro’s Law
- Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
Chemical Reactions
- Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
- Types of Chemical Reactions
- Combination Reaction
- Decomposition Reaction
- Displacement Reaction
- Double Displacement Reaction
- Redox Reaction
- Stoichiometry
- Mole Concept
- Limiting Reactant
- Percent Yield
Acids, Bases, and Salts
- Definitions of Acids and Bases (Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, Lewis)
- Acid-Base Properties
- pH Scale
- Common Acids and their Uses
- Common Bases and their Uses
- Neutralization Reactions
- Salt Formation
Chemical Equilibrium
- Introduction to Equilibrium
- Reversible Reaction
- Equilibrium Constant
- Le Chatelier’s Principle
- Factors Affecting Equilibrium
- Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
Electrochemistry
- Redox Reactions
- Electrochemical Cells
- Galvanic Cells
- Electrolytic Cells
- Standard Electrode Potential
- Nernst Equation
- Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
Organic Chemistry
- Introduction to Organic Chemistry
- Organic Compounds and Hydrocarbons
- Functional Groups
- Isomerism
- Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
- Organic Reactions
- Substitution
- Addition
- Elimination
- Oxidation
- Reduction
Slide 11: Chemical Equilibrium
- Introduction to Equilibrium
- Definition of equilibrium
- Dynamic nature of equilibrium
- Reversible Reaction
- Definition of a reversible reaction
- Importance of double-headed arrow in chemical equations
- Equilibrium Constant
- Definition of equilibrium constant (K)
- Equilibrium constant expression
- Calculation of equilibrium constant
- Le Chatelier’s Principle
- Le Chatelier’s Principle statement
- Explanation of how equilibrium shifts with changes in concentration, pressure, and temperature
- Factors Affecting Equilibrium
- Concentration changes
- Pressure changes (for gaseous reactions)
- Temperature changes
Slide 12: Electrochemistry
- Redox Reactions
- Definition of redox reactions
- Oxidation and reduction half-reactions
- Balancing redox reactions using the half-reaction method
- Electrochemical Cells
- Galvanic Cells
- Structure and working of galvanic cells
- Difference between anode and cathode
- Electrolytic Cells
- Structure and working of electrolytic cells
- Difference between anode and cathode
- Galvanic Cells
- Standard Electrode Potential
- Definition of standard electrode potential (Eº)
- Importance of standard hydrogen electrode (SHE)
- Calculation of cell potential using standard electrode potentials
- Nernst Equation
- Nernst equation formula
- Calculation of cell potential under non-standard conditions
- Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
- Explanation of Faraday’s First and Second Laws
- Relationship between amount of substance and electric current during electrolysis
Slide 13: Organic Chemistry
- Introduction to Organic Chemistry
- Definition of organic chemistry
- Importance of carbon in organic compounds
- Organic Compounds and Hydrocarbons
- Definition of organic compounds
- Classification of hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes)
- Explanation of structural formulas and molecular formulas
- Functional Groups
- Definition of functional groups (alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, etc.)
- Importance of functional groups in determining chemical properties
- Isomerism
- Definition of isomerism
- Types of isomerism (structural isomerism, stereoisomerism)
- Examples of isomers
- Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
- Rules for IUPAC nomenclature
- Naming alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes
- Naming compounds with functional groups
Slide 14: Organic Reactions (Substitution)
- Substitution Reaction
- Definition of substitution reaction
- Examples of substitution reactions (halogenation, hydroxylation)
- Mechanism of Substitution Reactions
- Explanation of SN1 and SN2 mechanisms
- Factors influencing the mechanism (nature of substrate, nucleophile, and solvent)
- Examples of Substitution Reactions
- Substitution of halogens in alkanes
- Nucleophilic substitution reactions in alkyl halides
Slide 15: Organic Reactions (Addition)
- Addition Reaction
- Definition of addition reaction
- Examples of addition reactions (hydrogenation, hydration)
- Mechanism of Addition Reactions
- Explanation of the addition mechanism
- Importance of the double bond in alkene or triple bond in alkyne
- Examples of Addition Reactions
- Hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes
- Hydration of alkenes
Slide 16: Organic Reactions (Elimination)
- Elimination Reaction
- Definition of elimination reaction
- Examples of elimination reactions (dehydrohalogenation, dehydration)
- Mechanism of Elimination Reactions
- Explanation of the elimination mechanism
- Importance of the leaving group and base
- Examples of Elimination Reactions
- Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides
- Dehydration of alcohols
Slide 17: Organic Reactions (Oxidation)
- Oxidation Reaction
- Definition of oxidation reaction
- Examples of oxidation reactions
- Oxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents
- Definition of oxidizing and reducing agents
- Examples of common oxidizing and reducing agents
- Examples of Oxidation Reactions
- Oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes or ketones
- Oxidation of aldehydes to carboxylic acids
Slide 18: Organic Reactions (Reduction)
- Reduction Reaction
- Definition of reduction reaction
- Examples of reduction reactions
- Oxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents
- Definition of oxidizing and reducing agents
- Examples of common oxidizing and reducing agents
- Examples of Reduction Reactions
- Reduction of alkenes to alkanes
- Reduction of ketones to secondary alcohols ==
Problems with Solution - Elevation of Boiling Point
- Define elevation of boiling point.
- Discuss the formula used for calculating the elevation of boiling point.
- Example problem 1: Calculate the elevation of boiling point when 10 g of a non-volatile solute is dissolved in 200 g of water. The boiling point constant for water is 0.512 °C/m.
- Example problem 2: A solution contains 0.5 moles of a non-volatile solute dissolved in 500 g of water. Calculate the elevation of boiling point. The boiling point constant for water is 0.512 °C/m.
- Example problem 3: Calculate the molar mass of a non-volatile solute if 2.5 g of the solute dissolved in 250 g of water causes the boiling point to be elevated by 1.023 °C. The boiling point constant for water is 0.512 °C/m.
Slide 21: Organic Reactions (Substitution)
- Substitution Reaction
- Definition of substitution reaction
- Examples of substitution reactions (e.g., halogenation of alkanes: CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl)
- Mechanism of Substitution Reactions
- Explanation of SN1 and SN2 mechanisms (e.g., SN1: nucleophilic substitution - unimolecular)
- Factors influencing the mechanism (nature of substrate, nucleophile, and solvent)
- Stereochemistry in Organic Substitution Reactions
- Explanation of retention and inversion of stereochemistry
- Role of reaction conditions on stereochemistry
- Examples of Substitution Reactions
- Substitution of halogens in alkanes (e.g., chlorination of methane)
- Nucleophilic substitution reactions in alkyl halides (e.g., SN1 and SN2 reactions)
Slide 22: Organic Reactions (Addition)
- Addition Reaction
- Definition of addition reaction
- Examples of addition reactions (e.g., hydrogenation of alkenes: C2H4 + H2 → C2H6)
- Mechanism of Addition Reactions
- Explanation of the addition mechanism (electrophilic addition)
- Importance of the double bond in alkenes or triple bond in alkynes
- Stereochemistry in Organic Addition Reactions
- Explanation of syn and anti addition
- Role of reaction conditions on stereochemistry
- Examples of Addition Reactions
- Hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes
- Hydration of alkenes
Slide 23: Organic Reactions (Elimination)
- Elimination Reaction
- Definition of elimination reaction
- Examples of elimination reactions (e.g., dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides: CH3CH2CH2Cl → CH2=CHCH3 + HCl)
- Mechanism of Elimination Reactions
- Explanation of the elimination mechanism (E1 and E2 mechanisms)
- Importance of the leaving group and base
- Stereochemistry in Organic Elimination Reactions
- Explanation of syn and anti elimination
- Role of reaction conditions on stereochemistry
- Examples of Elimination Reactions
- Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides
- Dehydration of alcohols
Slide 24: Organic Reactions (Oxidation)
- Oxidation Reaction
- Definition of oxidation reaction
- Examples of oxidation reactions (e.g., oxidation of alcohols: CH3CH2CH2OH → CH3CH2COOH)
- Oxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents
- Definition of oxidizing and reducing agents
- Examples of common oxidizing and reducing agents (e.g., KMnO4, NaBH4)
- Oxidation States in Organic Compounds
- Explanation of oxidation states in organic compounds
- Determination of changes in oxidation states during reactions
- Examples of Oxidation Reactions
- Oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes or ketones
- Oxidation of aldehydes to carboxylic acids
Slide 25: Organic Reactions (Reduction)
- Reduction Reaction
- Definition of reduction reaction
- Examples of reduction reactions (e.g., reduction of alkenes: CH2=CH2 + H2 → CH3CH3)
- Oxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents
- Definition of oxidizing and reducing agents
- Examples of common oxidizing and reducing agents (e.g., LiAlH4, H2/Pd)
- Reduction of Functional Groups
- Reduction of carbonyl compounds (aldehydes, ketones) to alcohols
- Reduction of nitro compounds to amines
- Examples of Reduction Reactions
- Reduction of alkenes to alkanes
- Reduction of ketones to secondary alcohols
Slide 26: Elevation of Boiling Point - Example Problem 1
- Example Problem 1: Calculate the elevation of boiling point when 10 g of a non-volatile solute is dissolved in 200 g of water. The boiling point constant for water is 0.512 °C/m.
- Solution:
- Calculate the molality of the solution:
- Molality (m) = (moles of solute / mass of solvent in kg)
- Calculate the change in boiling point using the formula:
- ΔTb = Kbp * m, where Kbp is the boiling point constant of the solvent and m is the molality of the solution.
- Add the change in boiling point to the boiling point of the pure solvent to obtain the elevated boiling point.
- Calculate the molality of the solution:
Slide 27: Elevation of Boiling Point - Example Problem 2
- Example Problem 2: A solution contains 0.5 moles of a non-volatile solute dissolved in 500 g of water. Calculate the elevation of the boiling point. The boiling point constant for water is 0.512 °C/m.
- Solution:
- Convert the mass of the solvent to kg.
- Calculate the molality of the solution:
- Molality (m) = (moles of solute / mass of solvent in kg)
- Calculate the change in boiling point using the formula:
- ΔTb = Kbp * m, where Kbp is the boiling point constant of the solvent and m is the molality of the solution.
- Add the change in boiling point to the boiling point of the pure solvent to obtain the elevated boiling point.
Slide 28: Elevation of Boiling Point - Example Problem 3
- Example Problem 3: Calculate the molar mass of a non-volatile solute if 2.5 g of the solute dissolved in 250 g of water causes the boiling point to be elevated by 1.023 °C. The boiling point constant for water is 0.512 °C/m.
- Solution:
- Convert the mass of the solvent to kg.
- Calculate the molality of the solution:
- Molality (m) = (moles of solute / mass of solvent in kg)
- Calculate the change in boiling point using the formula:
- ΔTb = Kbp * m, where Kbp is the boiling point constant of the solvent and m is the molality of the solution.
- Solve for moles of solute using the change in boiling point and the molality of the solution.
- Calculate the molar mass of the solute using the moles of solute and the mass of solute used.
Introduction to Chemistry Definition of Chemistry Importance of Chemistry in daily life Branches of Chemistry Organic Chemistry Inorganic Chemistry Physical Chemistry Analytical Chemistry Biochemistry