Introduction to Chemistry
- Definition of Chemistry
- Importance of Chemistry in daily life
- Branches of Chemistry
- Organic Chemistry
- Inorganic Chemistry
- Physical Chemistry
- Analytical Chemistry
- Biochemistry
Matter and its Classification
- Definition of Matter
- States of Matter
- Classification of Matter
- Pure Substances
- Mixtures
- Homogeneous
- Heterogeneous
Atomic Structure
- Dalton’s Atomic Theory
- Thomson’s Model
- Rutherford’s Model
- Bohr’s Model
- Modern Atomic Theory
- Subatomic Particles
- Protons
- Neutrons
- Electrons
Chemical Bonding
- Types of Chemical Bonds
- Ionic Bond
- Covalent Bond
- Metallic Bond
- Lewis Dot Structure
- Octet Rule
- VSEPR Theory
- Intermolecular Forces
States of Matter
- Kinetic Molecular Theory
- Ideal Gas Law
- Boyle’s Law
- Charles’s Law
- Gay-Lussac’s Law
- Avogadro’s Law
- Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
Chemical Reactions
- Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
- Types of Chemical Reactions
- Combination Reaction
- Decomposition Reaction
- Displacement Reaction
- Double Displacement Reaction
- Redox Reaction
- Stoichiometry
- Mole Concept
- Limiting Reactant
- Percent Yield
Acids, Bases, and Salts
- Definitions of Acids and Bases (Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, Lewis)
- Acid-Base Properties
- pH Scale
- Common Acids and their Uses
- Common Bases and their Uses
- Neutralization Reactions
- Salt Formation
Chemical Equilibrium
- Introduction to Equilibrium
- Reversible Reaction
- Equilibrium Constant
- Le Chatelier’s Principle
- Factors Affecting Equilibrium
- Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
Electrochemistry
- Redox Reactions
- Electrochemical Cells
- Galvanic Cells
- Electrolytic Cells
- Standard Electrode Potential
- Nernst Equation
- Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
Organic Chemistry
- Introduction to Organic Chemistry
- Organic Compounds and Hydrocarbons
- Functional Groups
- Isomerism
- Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
- Organic Reactions
- Substitution
- Addition
- Elimination
- Oxidation
- Reduction
Slide 11: Chemical Equilibrium
- Introduction to Equilibrium
- Definition of equilibrium
- Dynamic nature of equilibrium
- Reversible Reaction
- Definition of a reversible reaction
- Importance of double-headed arrow in chemical equations
- Equilibrium Constant
- Definition of equilibrium constant (K)
- Equilibrium constant expression
- Calculation of equilibrium constant
- Le Chatelier’s Principle
- Le Chatelier’s Principle statement
- Explanation of how equilibrium shifts with changes in concentration, pressure, and temperature
- Factors Affecting Equilibrium
- Concentration changes
- Pressure changes (for gaseous reactions)
- Temperature changes
Slide 12: Electrochemistry
- Redox Reactions
- Definition of redox reactions
- Oxidation and reduction half-reactions
- Balancing redox reactions using the half-reaction method
- Electrochemical Cells
- Galvanic Cells
- Structure and working of galvanic cells
- Difference between anode and cathode
- Electrolytic Cells
- Structure and working of electrolytic cells
- Difference between anode and cathode
- Standard Electrode Potential
- Definition of standard electrode potential (Eº)
- Importance of standard hydrogen electrode (SHE)
- Calculation of cell potential using standard electrode potentials
- Nernst Equation
- Nernst equation formula
- Calculation of cell potential under non-standard conditions
- Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
- Explanation of Faraday’s First and Second Laws
- Relationship between amount of substance and electric current during electrolysis
Slide 13: Organic Chemistry
- Introduction to Organic Chemistry
- Definition of organic chemistry
- Importance of carbon in organic compounds
- Organic Compounds and Hydrocarbons
- Definition of organic compounds
- Classification of hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes)
- Explanation of structural formulas and molecular formulas
- Functional Groups
- Definition of functional groups (alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, etc.)
- Importance of functional groups in determining chemical properties
- Isomerism
- Definition of isomerism
- Types of isomerism (structural isomerism, stereoisomerism)
- Examples of isomers
- Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
- Rules for IUPAC nomenclature
- Naming alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes
- Naming compounds with functional groups
Slide 14: Organic Reactions (Substitution)
- Substitution Reaction
- Definition of substitution reaction
- Examples of substitution reactions (halogenation, hydroxylation)
- Mechanism of Substitution Reactions
- Explanation of SN1 and SN2 mechanisms
- Factors influencing the mechanism (nature of substrate, nucleophile, and solvent)
- Examples of Substitution Reactions
- Substitution of halogens in alkanes
- Nucleophilic substitution reactions in alkyl halides
Slide 15: Organic Reactions (Addition)
- Addition Reaction
- Definition of addition reaction
- Examples of addition reactions (hydrogenation, hydration)
- Mechanism of Addition Reactions
- Explanation of the addition mechanism
- Importance of the double bond in alkene or triple bond in alkyne
- Examples of Addition Reactions
- Hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes
- Hydration of alkenes
Slide 16: Organic Reactions (Elimination)
- Elimination Reaction
- Definition of elimination reaction
- Examples of elimination reactions (dehydrohalogenation, dehydration)
- Mechanism of Elimination Reactions
- Explanation of the elimination mechanism
- Importance of the leaving group and base
- Examples of Elimination Reactions
- Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides
- Dehydration of alcohols
Slide 17: Organic Reactions (Oxidation)
- Oxidation Reaction
- Definition of oxidation reaction
- Examples of oxidation reactions
- Oxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents
- Definition of oxidizing and reducing agents
- Examples of common oxidizing and reducing agents
- Examples of Oxidation Reactions
- Oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes or ketones
- Oxidation of aldehydes to carboxylic acids
Slide 18: Organic Reactions (Reduction)
- Reduction Reaction
- Definition of reduction reaction
- Examples of reduction reactions
- Oxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents
- Definition of oxidizing and reducing agents
- Examples of common oxidizing and reducing agents
- Examples of Reduction Reactions
- Reduction of alkenes to alkanes
- Reduction of ketones to secondary alcohols
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Problems with Solution - Elevation of Boiling Point
- Define elevation of boiling point.
- Discuss the formula used for calculating the elevation of boiling point.
- Example problem 1: Calculate the elevation of boiling point when 10 g of a non-volatile solute is dissolved in 200 g of water. The boiling point constant for water is 0.512 °C/m.
- Example problem 2: A solution contains 0.5 moles of a non-volatile solute dissolved in 500 g of water. Calculate the elevation of boiling point. The boiling point constant for water is 0.512 °C/m.
- Example problem 3: Calculate the molar mass of a non-volatile solute if 2.5 g of the solute dissolved in 250 g of water causes the boiling point to be elevated by 1.023 °C. The boiling point constant for water is 0.512 °C/m.
Slide 21: Organic Reactions (Substitution)
- Substitution Reaction
- Definition of substitution reaction
- Examples of substitution reactions (e.g., halogenation of alkanes: CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl)
- Mechanism of Substitution Reactions
- Explanation of SN1 and SN2 mechanisms (e.g., SN1: nucleophilic substitution - unimolecular)
- Factors influencing the mechanism (nature of substrate, nucleophile, and solvent)
- Stereochemistry in Organic Substitution Reactions
- Explanation of retention and inversion of stereochemistry
- Role of reaction conditions on stereochemistry
- Examples of Substitution Reactions
- Substitution of halogens in alkanes (e.g., chlorination of methane)
- Nucleophilic substitution reactions in alkyl halides (e.g., SN1 and SN2 reactions)
Slide 22: Organic Reactions (Addition)
- Addition Reaction
- Definition of addition reaction
- Examples of addition reactions (e.g., hydrogenation of alkenes: C2H4 + H2 → C2H6)
- Mechanism of Addition Reactions
- Explanation of the addition mechanism (electrophilic addition)
- Importance of the double bond in alkenes or triple bond in alkynes
- Stereochemistry in Organic Addition Reactions
- Explanation of syn and anti addition
- Role of reaction conditions on stereochemistry
- Examples of Addition Reactions
- Hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes
- Hydration of alkenes
Slide 23: Organic Reactions (Elimination)
- Elimination Reaction
- Definition of elimination reaction
- Examples of elimination reactions (e.g., dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides: CH3CH2CH2Cl → CH2=CHCH3 + HCl)
- Mechanism of Elimination Reactions
- Explanation of the elimination mechanism (E1 and E2 mechanisms)
- Importance of the leaving group and base
- Stereochemistry in Organic Elimination Reactions
- Explanation of syn and anti elimination
- Role of reaction conditions on stereochemistry
- Examples of Elimination Reactions
- Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides
- Dehydration of alcohols
Slide 24: Organic Reactions (Oxidation)
- Oxidation Reaction
- Definition of oxidation reaction
- Examples of oxidation reactions (e.g., oxidation of alcohols: CH3CH2CH2OH → CH3CH2COOH)
- Oxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents
- Definition of oxidizing and reducing agents
- Examples of common oxidizing and reducing agents (e.g., KMnO4, NaBH4)
- Oxidation States in Organic Compounds
- Explanation of oxidation states in organic compounds
- Determination of changes in oxidation states during reactions
- Examples of Oxidation Reactions
- Oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes or ketones
- Oxidation of aldehydes to carboxylic acids
Slide 25: Organic Reactions (Reduction)
- Reduction Reaction
- Definition of reduction reaction
- Examples of reduction reactions (e.g., reduction of alkenes: CH2=CH2 + H2 → CH3CH3)
- Oxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents
- Definition of oxidizing and reducing agents
- Examples of common oxidizing and reducing agents (e.g., LiAlH4, H2/Pd)
- Reduction of Functional Groups
- Reduction of carbonyl compounds (aldehydes, ketones) to alcohols
- Reduction of nitro compounds to amines
- Examples of Reduction Reactions
- Reduction of alkenes to alkanes
- Reduction of ketones to secondary alcohols
Slide 26: Elevation of Boiling Point - Example Problem 1
- Example Problem 1: Calculate the elevation of boiling point when 10 g of a non-volatile solute is dissolved in 200 g of water. The boiling point constant for water is 0.512 °C/m.
- Solution:
- Calculate the molality of the solution:
- Molality (m) = (moles of solute / mass of solvent in kg)
- Calculate the change in boiling point using the formula:
- ΔTb = Kbp * m, where Kbp is the boiling point constant of the solvent and m is the molality of the solution.
- Add the change in boiling point to the boiling point of the pure solvent to obtain the elevated boiling point.
Slide 27: Elevation of Boiling Point - Example Problem 2
- Example Problem 2: A solution contains 0.5 moles of a non-volatile solute dissolved in 500 g of water. Calculate the elevation of the boiling point. The boiling point constant for water is 0.512 °C/m.
- Solution:
- Convert the mass of the solvent to kg.
- Calculate the molality of the solution:
- Molality (m) = (moles of solute / mass of solvent in kg)
- Calculate the change in boiling point using the formula:
- ΔTb = Kbp * m, where Kbp is the boiling point constant of the solvent and m is the molality of the solution.
- Add the change in boiling point to the boiling point of the pure solvent to obtain the elevated boiling point.
Slide 28: Elevation of Boiling Point - Example Problem 3
- Example Problem 3: Calculate the molar mass of a non-volatile solute if 2.5 g of the solute dissolved in 250 g of water causes the boiling point to be elevated by 1.023 °C. The boiling point constant for water is 0.512 °C/m.
- Solution:
- Convert the mass of the solvent to kg.
- Calculate the molality of the solution:
- Molality (m) = (moles of solute / mass of solvent in kg)
- Calculate the change in boiling point using the formula:
- ΔTb = Kbp * m, where Kbp is the boiling point constant of the solvent and m is the molality of the solution.
- Solve for moles of solute using the change in boiling point and the molality of the solution.
- Calculate the molar mass of the solute using the moles of solute and the mass of solute used.