Slide 1: Chemistry in Everyday life - Naming of Drugs

  • Definition and importance of drug nomenclature
  • Classification and naming of drugs
  • Rules and guidelines for drug nomenclature
  • Examples of commonly used drugs and their systematic names
  • Importance of drug nomenclature in communication and medication safety

Slide 2: Classification of Drugs

  • Classification based on therapeutic effects:

    • Analgesics
    • Antibiotics
    • Antipyretics
    • Antacids
    • Antihistamines

  • Classification based on chemical structure:

    • Alcohols
    • Amines
    • Carboxylic acids
    • Esters
    • Amides

  • Examples and functional groups of each classification

Slide 3: Drug Nomenclature - Importance and Purpose

  • Drug names provide important information about the drug:

    • Chemical composition
    • Therapeutic application
    • Mechanism of action
    • Physical properties
    • Dosage

  • Helps to maintain consistency in drug identification globally

  • Facilitates effective communication and understanding among healthcare professionals

  • Supports medication safety and reduces medication errors

  • Promotes accurate recording and reporting of drug-related information

Slide 4: Drug Nomenclature - Classification

  • Chemical names: Describes the chemical structure of the drug
  • Generic names: Non-proprietary names assigned to drugs by health authorities
  • Trade names: Proprietary names given by pharmaceutical companies
  • Systematic names: IUPAC nomenclature for organic compounds
  • Official names: Accepted and recognized by international pharmacopeias

Slide 5: Drug Nomenclature - Rules and Guidelines

  • IUPAC nomenclature rules:
    • Priority rules for functional groups
    • Suffixes and prefixes for different types of compounds
    • Locants, if necessary, to specify positions of substituents
  • Guidelines for generic names:
    • Should be concise and easy to pronounce and remember
    • Should not resemble or sound similar to existing drug names
    • Should be globally unique to avoid confusion

Slide 6: Examples of Drug Nomenclature

  • Aspirin (Generic name: Acetylsalicylic acid)
  • Paracetamol (Generic name: Acetaminophen)
  • Ibuprofen (Generic name: 2-(4-isobutylphenyl)propanoic acid)
  • Ciprofloxacin (Generic name: 1-cyclopropyl-6-fluoro-4-oxoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid)
  • Metoprolol (Generic name: (RS)-1-[4-(2-methoxyethyl)phenoxy]-3-(propan-2-ylamino)propan-2-ol)

Slide 7: Importance of Drug Naming in Communication

  • Effective communication among healthcare professionals:
    • Accurate prescription and drug administration
    • Clear documentation in medical records
    • Safe and efficient transfer of medication-related information
  • Prevention of medication errors:
    • Confusion between drugs with similar names
    • Incorrect dosing and administration due to unclear drug identification
  • Compatibility and interchangeability of drugs in various healthcare settings

Slide 8: Example of Medication Error due to Naming

  • Vincristine (an anticancer drug) and Vinblastine (also an anticancer drug)
  • Similar names can create confusion during prescription or administration
  • Different doses and side effects for each drug
  • Strict precautions needed to avoid mix-ups and ensure patient safety

Slide 9: Importance of Drug Naming in Medication Safety

  • Reducing medication errors:
    • Look-alike and sound-alike drugs (LASA) are a common cause of errors
    • Unique and distinguishable generic names prevent confusion
    • Clear labeling and packaging of drugs
  • Avoiding drug interactions and contraindications based on generic names
  • Standardizing drug identification and prescribing practices globally

Slide 10: Summary

  • Drug nomenclature is essential for accurate identification and communication of drugs
  • Different types of drug names - chemical, generic, trade, systematic, and official names
  • Rules and guidelines for drug nomenclature ensure consistency and safety
  • Examples of drugs and their generic names
  • Importance of drug naming in communication and medication safety
  1. Drug Classification based on Therapeutic Effects:
  • Analgesics: Drugs that relieve pain without causing loss of consciousness (e.g., acetaminophen, ibuprofen)
  • Antibiotics: Drugs that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria (e.g., penicillin, erythromycin)
  • Antipyretics: Drugs that reduce fever (e.g., aspirin, paracetamol)
  • Antacids: Drugs that neutralize excess stomach acid (e.g., calcium carbonate, aluminum hydroxide)
  • Antihistamines: Drugs that counteract the effects of histamine and are used to treat allergies (e.g., loratadine, cetirizine)
  1. Drug Classification based on Chemical Structure:
  • Alcohols: Organic compounds containing the hydroxyl functional group (-OH) (e.g., ethanol, methanol)
  • Amines: Organic compounds containing the amino (-NH2) functional group (e.g., methylamine, ethylamine)
  • Carboxylic acids: Organic compounds containing the carboxyl (-COOH) functional group (e.g., acetic acid, formic acid)
  • Esters: Organic compounds formed from the reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid (e.g., ethyl acetate, methyl salicylate)
  • Amides: Organic compounds formed from the reaction between an amine and a carboxylic acid (e.g., acetamide, benzamide)
  1. Chemical Names of Drugs:
  • Chemical names describe the exact chemical composition of the drug (e.g., (R)-2-(4-isobutylphenyl)propanoic acid for ibuprofen)
  • They follow IUPAC nomenclature rules and can be quite complex
  • Knowledge of chemical names helps to understand the structure and properties of drugs
  1. Generic Names of Drugs:
  • Generic names are non-proprietary names assigned to drugs by health authorities (e.g., acetaminophen for paracetamol)
  • They are generally simpler and easier to remember than chemical names
  • Generic names provide a common reference point for healthcare professionals worldwide
  1. Trade Names of Drugs:
  • Trade names are proprietary names given by pharmaceutical companies to market a particular drug (e.g., Tylenol for acetaminophen)
  • They are often catchy and memorable, helping with brand recognition and marketing
  • Same drug can have different trade names marketed by different companies
  1. Guidelines for Generic Names:
  • Generic names should be concise, meaningful, and easy to pronounce and remember
  • They should not resemble or sound similar to existing drug names to avoid confusion and medication errors
  • Generic names should be globally unique, ensuring consistency and clarity in drug identification
  1. Examples of Drug Nomenclature:
  • Aspirin (Generic name: Acetylsalicylic acid)
  • Paracetamol (Generic name: Acetaminophen)
  • Ibuprofen (Generic name: 2-(4-isobutylphenyl)propanoic acid)
  • Ciprofloxacin (Generic name: 1-cyclopropyl-6-fluoro-4-oxoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid)
  • Metoprolol (Generic name: (RS)-1-[4-(2-methoxyethyl)phenoxy]-3-(propan-2-ylamino)propan-2-ol)
  1. Importance of Drug Naming in Communication:
  • Accurate drug naming facilitates effective communication among healthcare professionals
  • It ensures precise prescription and documentation in medical records
  • Clear drug identification and naming prevent medication errors and improve patient safety
  1. Example of Medication Error due to Naming:
  • Vincristine (an anticancer drug) and Vinblastine (also an anticancer drug)
  • Similar names can lead to confusion during prescription or administration
  • Strict precautions are necessary to prevent mix-ups and ensure the correct use of these medications
  1. Importance of Drug Naming in Medication Safety:
  • Drug naming plays a crucial role in reducing medication errors and promoting patient safety
  • Unique and distinguishable generic names help prevent confusion between similar-looking or similar-sounding drugs
  • Standardization of drug naming globally ensures compatibility and interchangeability of drugs in different healthcare settings. ``markdown

Slide 21: Principle of Le Chatelier’s

  • Le Chatelier’s principle states that when a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in concentration, temperature, pressure, or volume, the system will adjust to minimize the effect of the change and restore equilibrium.

  • Increase in concentration of reactants:

    • The system will shift towards the product side to consume the excess of reactants and restore equilibrium.

  • Decrease in concentration of reactants:

    • The system will shift towards the reactant side to compensate for the decrease and restore equilibrium.

  • Increase in concentration of products:

    • The system will shift towards the reactant side to produce more reactants and restore equilibrium.

  • Decrease in concentration of products:

    • The system will shift towards the product side to produce more products and restore equilibrium.

  • This principle is also applicable to changes in temperature, pressure, and volume.

Slide 22: Equilibrium Shift due to Temperature Change

  • Endothermic reactions:

    • Increasing temperature shifts the equilibrium towards the products, absorbing excess heat.
    • Decreasing temperature shifts the equilibrium towards the reactants, releasing heat.

  • Exothermic reactions:

    • Increasing temperature shifts the equilibrium towards the reactants, absorbing excess heat.
    • Decreasing temperature shifts the equilibrium towards the products, releasing heat.

  • The equilibrium constant (K) remains unchanged with a temperature change, but the concentrations of reactants and products change to restore equilibrium.

  • Examples:

    • N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) (∆H = -92.22 kJ/mol)
    • 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) (∆H = -197.8 kJ/mol)

  • Note: Catalysts do not cause a shift in the equilibrium position, only increase the rate of reaction.

Slide 23: Equilibrium Shift due to Pressure and Volume Change

  • Equilibrium involving gases can be affected by changes in pressure and volume.

  • Increase in pressure:

    • The equilibrium shifts towards the side with fewer moles of gas to reduce the pressure.

  • Decrease in pressure:

    • The equilibrium shifts towards the side with more moles of gas to increase the pressure.

  • Rules to determine the effect on equilibrium:

    • Count moles of gas molecules on each side of the reaction.
    • If the number of moles is the same, pressure change has no effect.
    • If the number of moles is different, the side with more moles will shift to reduce the pressure.

  • Examples:

    • N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) (2 moles of gas on both sides)
    • CO(g) + H2O(g) ⇌ CO2(g) + H2(g) (2 moles of gas on both sides)
    • 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) (3 moles of gas on the left, 2 moles on the right)

Slide 24: Equilibrium Shift due to Catalysts

  • Catalysts increase the rate of reaction by providing an alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy.
  • Catalysts do not affect the equilibrium constant or the position of equilibrium.
  • They increase the rate at which equilibrium is achieved, but do not shift the equilibrium position.
  • Catalysts provide an alternative reaction pathway that allows more particles to have sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy barrier.
  • Examples of catalysts:
    • Enzymes in biological systems
    • Transition metals like platinum in chemical reactions
  • Note: Catalysts do not get consumed in the reaction and can be used in multiple reactions.

Slide 25: Acid-Base Equilibrium

  • Acid-base equilibrium involves the transfer of protons (H+ ions) between acids and bases.
  • Acid: A substance that donates a proton (H+).
  • Base: A substance that accepts a proton.
  • Strong acids:
    • Completely ionize in water and donate all their protons.
    • Example: HCl, H2SO4, HNO3
  • Weak acids:
    • Partially ionize in water and donate only a fraction of their protons.
    • Example: Acetic acid (CH3COOH), Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
  • Strong bases:
    • Completely dissociate in water and accept all the protons.
    • Example: NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
  • Weak bases:
    • Partially accept protons in water.
    • Example: Ammonia (NH3), Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
  • Equilibrium constant (Ka) expresses the strength of the acid. markdown

Slide 26: Equilibrium Expression for Acid-Base Reactions

  • For a generic acid dissociation reaction:

    • HA <–> H+ + A-

  • The equilibrium constant expression (Ka) is given by:

    • Ka = [H+][A-] / [HA]

  • The larger the Ka value, the stronger the acid.

  • Example: Dissociation of acetic acid (CH3COOH)

    • CH3COOH <–> CH3COO- + H+
    • Ka = [CH3COO-][H+] / [CH3COOH]

  • pKa is defined as the negative logarithm of Ka and is used to compare the acidity of different compounds.

  • Example:

    • Acetic acid (CH3COOH) has a pKa of around 4.8, indicating its weak acidity.

Slide 27: Acid-Base Equilibrium - pH Scale

  • pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution.
  • pH scale ranges from 0 to 14:
    • pH < 7: Acidic solution
    • pH = 7: Neutral solution (e.g., pure water)
    • pH > 7: Basic solution (alkaline)
  • The pH is calculated using the formula:
    • pH = -log[H+]
  • [H+] represents the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution.
  • Lower pH values indicate higher [H+] concentration and stronger acidity.

Slide 28: Common Acid-Base Indicators

  • Acid-base indicators are organic compounds that change color depending on the pH of the solution.
  • Phenolphthalein:
    • Colorless in acidic solution (pH < 8.2)
    • Pink or red in basic solution (pH > 8.2)
  • Methyl orange:
    • Red in acidic solution (pH < 4.4)
    • Yellow in neutral or basic solution (pH > 4.4)
  • Litmus paper:
    • Blue in basic solution (pH > 7)
    • Red in acidic solution (pH < 7)
    • Purple in neutral solution (pH = 7)
  • Universal indicator:
    • A mixture of different indicators that produces a full range of colors corresponding to different pH values.

Slide 29: Buffer Solutions

  • Buffer solutions are solutions that resist changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added.
  • Buffer solutions contain a weak acid and its conjugate base (or a weak base and its conjugate acid).
  • The equilibrium between the weak acid and its conjugate base helps maintain the pH of the solution.
  • Buffer capacity:
    • The ability of a buffer solution to resist changes in pH.
    • Depends on the concentration of the weak acid and its conjugate base.
  • Examples of buffer systems:
    • Acetic acid (CH3COOH) and sodium acetate (CH3COONa)
    • Carbonic acid (H2CO3) and bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)

Slide 30: Applications of Acid-Base Equilibrium

  • Acid-base equilibrium is central to various processes and industries:

  • Pharmaceutical industry:

    • Understanding the effect of pH on drug solubility and stability
    • Development and optimization of drug formulations

  • Environmental science:

    • pH regulation in water bodies and soil
    • Acid rain and its impact on the environment

  • Biological systems:

    • Acid-base balance in the human body (pH homeostasis)
    • Enzymatic reactions and regulation

  • Chemical industry:

    • Acid-catalyzed and base-catalyzed reactions
    • Development of new catalysts and processes ``