Chemistry in Everyday Life - How to Make Drugs
- Introduction to the topic
- Importance and relevance of the topic in everyday life
- Overview of the drug-making process
- Briefly mention the different types of drugs that will be discussed in the lecture
Types of Drugs
- Pharmaceuticals
- Recreational drugs
- Over-the-counter drugs
- Natural remedies
- Herbal medicines
Drug Classifications
- Analgesics
- Antibiotics
- Antidepressants
- Antihistamines
- Antipyretics
- Post-marketing surveillance
Drug Discovery
- Identification of drug targets
- Lead compound identification
- Lead optimization
- Structure-activity relationship studies
Preclinical Studies
- In vitro studies
- In vivo studies
- Toxicity testing
- Pharmacokinetics
- Formulation development
Clinical Trials
- Phase 1: Safety and dosage
- Phase 2: Effectiveness and side effects
- Phase 3: Large-scale testing
- Phase 4: Post-approval monitoring
Approval Process
- Regulatory authorities
- Evaluating safety and efficacy
- Labeling and package insert requirements
- Drug scheduling and control measures
Post-marketing Surveillance
- Adverse drug reaction monitoring
- Pharmacovigilance
- Risk assessment and management
- Labeling updates and warnings
Examples of Drug Development
- Aspirin: Synthesis and uses
- Paracetamol: Structure and mechanism of action
- Penicillin: Discovery and production
- Prozac: Development and side effects
- Cannabis: Medicinal properties and controversies
Aspirin - Synthesis and Uses
- Acetylsalicylic acid
- Reaction between salicylic acid and acetic anhydride
- Uses: pain relief, reducing inflammation, preventing blood clots
Paracetamol - Structure and Mechanism of Action
- Chemical name: N-acetyl-para-aminophenol
- Analgesic and antipyretic properties
- Mechanism of action: inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis
Penicillin - Discovery and Production
- Discovery by Alexander Fleming
- Natural production by Penicillium fungi
- Commercial production through fermentation
- Importance in treating bacterial infections
Prozac - Development and Side Effects
- Fluoxetine hydrochloride
- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)
- Used for treating depression and anxiety disorders
- Side effects: nausea, insomnia, sexual dysfunction
Cannabis - Medicinal Properties and Controversies
- Chemical compounds: THC and CBD
- Medicinal properties: pain relief, appetite stimulation, muscle relaxation
- Controversies surrounding its legalization and use as a recreational drug
Principles of Chemical Equilibrium
- Definition of chemical equilibrium
- Equilibrium constant (Kc)
- Le Chatelier’s principle
- Factors affecting equilibrium
Equilibrium Constant Expression
- General form: aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD
- Expression: Kc = [C]^c[D]^d / [A]^a[B]^b
- Relationship between Kc and the balanced chemical equation
Le Chatelier’s Principle
- Reacting system’s response to change
- Shift in equilibrium position
- Examples of common disturbances and their effects on equilibrium
Factors Affecting Equilibrium
- Temperature change
- Pressure/volume change
- Concentration change
- Catalyst presence
Applications of Equilibrium in Real Life
- Haber process: Production of ammonia
- Solubility equilibrium: Precipitation and dissolution reactions
- Acid-base equilibrium: Buffer systems
- Industrial applications of equilibrium reactions
Equilibrium Constants and Reaction Quotients
- Relationship between equilibrium constants and reaction quotients
- Qc and Kc expressions
- Calculating Qc and comparing it to Kc to determine the direction of the reaction
- Examples of calculating equilibrium constants and reaction quotients
Equilibrium Constants and Temperature
- Effect of temperature on equilibrium constants
- Exothermic and endothermic reactions
- Le Chatelier’s principle and temperature changes
- The relationship between equilibrium constants and temperature using Van’t Hoff equation
Changes to Equilibrium: Concentration and Pressure
- Effect of concentration changes on equilibrium position
- Le Chatelier’s principle and concentration changes
- Effect of pressure changes on equilibrium position (for gases)
- Relationship between pressure and volume using the ideal gas law equation
Equilibrium in Acid-Base Systems
- Acid dissociation constant (Ka) and base dissociation constant (Kb)
- Relationship between Ka and Kb using the ionization constant for water (Kw)
- Calculating pH and pOH using equilibrium constants
- Acidic, basic, and neutral solutions
Common Ion Effect
- Effect of the presence of a common ion on solubility equilibrium
- Shift in equilibrium position due to the Le Chatelier’s principle
- Calculating the solubility of a sparingly soluble salt in the presence of a common ion
Acid-Base Titrations
- Definition and purpose of titrations
- Acid-base titrations and neutralization reactions
- Calculation of concentrations and volumes in titration reactions using balanced equations
- Examples of acid-base titrations and their applications
Redox Reactions
- Definition and examples of redox reactions
- Oxidation and reduction half-reactions
- Balancing redox equations using the half-reaction method
- Electrochemical cell notation and standard electrode potentials
Electrochemical Cells
- Galvanic cells and electrolytic cells
- Redox reactions and electron transfer
- Cell potential and cell voltage
- Nernst equation and its role in calculating cell potential
Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
- Faraday’s first law: relationship between the quantity of substance produced/deposited and the quantity of electric charge
- Faraday’s second law: relationship between the quantities of different substances produced/deposited and the quantities of electric charge
- Industrial applications of electrolysis
Nuclear Chemistry
- Radioactivity and radioactive decay
- Types of radioactive decay: alpha decay, beta decay, gamma decay
- Balancing nuclear equations
- Half-life and its role in radioactive decay and radiometric dating
Note to presenter: This concludes the lecture on chemistry for the 12th Boards exam. Ensure students have understood the presented material and answer any questions they may have.