- Definition: The biological process by which new individuals of the same species are produced.
- Types of reproduction:
    - Asexual reproduction
    - Sexual reproduction

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- Definition: Reproduction involving only one parent, resulting in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent.
- Types of asexual reproduction:
    - Binary fission
    - Budding
    - Fragmentation
    - Spore formation
- Examples:
    - Bacteria reproducing by binary fission
    - Hydra reproducing by budding

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- Definition: Parent organism divides into two equal-sized daughter cells.
- Examples:
    - Bacteria like Escherichia coli
    - Amoeba
- Process:
    1. DNA replication
    2. Elongation of cell
    3. Division of cytoplasm and cell membrane
    4. Formation of two daughter cells

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- Definition: Small outgrowth forms on the parent organism, which grows and detaches to become a separate individual.
- Examples:
    - Hydra
    - Yeast
- Process:
    1. Formation of bud
    2. Growth and development of bud
    3. Detachment of bud from the parent organism

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- Definition: Parent organism breaks into several fragments, with each fragment capable of developing into a new individual.
- Examples:
    - Spirogyra
    - Flatworms
- Process:
    1. Breaking of parent organism into fragments
    2. Development of each fragment into a new individual

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- Definition: Single-celled reproductive structure capable of giving rise to a new individual.
- Examples:
    - Fungi (bread mold)
    - Ferns
- Process:
    1. Production of spores
    2. Dispersal of spores
    3. Germination of spores into new individuals

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- Definition: Reproduction involving fusion of gametes (sex cells) from two parents, resulting in genetically diverse offspring.
- Example:
    - Humans
- Process:
    - Gametogenesis (formation of male and female gametes)
    - Fertilization (fusion of gametes to form zygote)
    - Development of zygote into an embryo

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- Reproduction in angiosperms (flowering plants) involves the formation of specialized reproductive structures.
- Parts of a flower:
    1. Sepals: Protect the flower bud
    2. Petals: Attract pollinators
    3. Stamen: Male reproductive structure
    4. Pistil: Female reproductive structure

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- After fertilization, the zygote develops into an embryo, which is enclosed within a seed.
- The seed consists of:
    - Seed coat: protects the embryo
    - Embryo: the young plant
    - Endosperm: provides nutrients for the developing embryo
- Seed germination is the process of the seed developing into a new plant.

- Seed germination requires specific conditions for growth to occur.
- The process of seed germination includes the following steps:
  1. Imbibition: The seed absorbs water, causing it to swell and activate metabolic processes.
  2. Activation: Enzymes within the seed become active, initiating growth.
  3. Respiration: Energy is produced through cellular respiration to support growth.
  4. Growth: The radicle (embryonic root) emerges from the seed, followed by the shoot.
  5. Seedling development: Leaves develop, and the seedling undergoes photosynthesis.

- The germination of seeds is influenced by various factors:
  - Water: Seeds need an adequate water supply to initiate the germination process.
  - Temperature: Optimal temperatures promote better and faster germination.
  - Oxygen: Oxygen is necessary for the respiration process during seed germination.
  - Light: Some seeds require light (photoblastic) for germination, while others don't.
  - Dormancy: Some seeds remain dormant until specific conditions trigger germination.

- Seed dormancy is a state in which seeds are prevented from germinating under unfavorable conditions.
- Different types of seed dormancy include:
  1. Physiological dormancy: Caused by the presence of inhibitors or growth-promoting factors.
  2. Physical dormancy: Seed coat impermeability prevents water absorption.
  3. Morphological dormancy: Embryo immaturity inhibits germination.
  4. Morphophysiological dormancy: Combination of physiological and morphological dormancy.

- Various methods can be used to overcome seed dormancy:
  1. Scarification: Mechanical or chemical treatment to break seed coat dormancy.
  2. Stratification: Exposing seeds to cold temperatures to simulate natural conditions.
  3. Gibberellin treatment: Applying plant growth hormones to promote germination.
  4. Smoke treatment: Some seeds require smoke exposure for germination stimulation.
  5. Seed-soaking: Pre-soaking seeds in water before sowing can enhance germination.

- Seed dormancy has several advantages for plant survival:
  1. Ensures the availability of germinating seeds over extended periods.
  2. Allows seeds to disperse over wide areas by wind, water, or animals.
  3. Protects seeds from unfavorable environmental conditions until optimal for growth.
  4. Promotes genetic diversity as germination occurs in different habitats and seasons.

- Seed germination is a crucial process for plant reproduction and survival.
- Proper environmental conditions, including water, temperature, oxygen, and light, are essential for successful germination.
- Seed dormancy allows plants to delay germination until favorable conditions are met, promoting survival and dispersal.

- Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower.
- Types of pollination:
    - Self-pollination
    - Cross-pollination
- Methods of pollination:
    - Wind pollination
    - Insect pollination
    - Bird pollination
    - Bat pollination
    - Water pollination

- Definition: The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or a genetically identical flower.
- Benefits:
    - Ensures successful reproduction even in the absence of pollinators.
    - Allows plants to maintain genetic traits that are advantageous in their environment.
- Examples:
    - Pea plants
    - Wheat plants
    - Rice plants

- Definition: The transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower.
- Benefits:
    - Promotes genetic diversity by combining traits from different plants.
    - Increases the chances of successful reproduction due to varied genetic combinations.
- Examples:
    - Apple trees
    - Sunflowers
    - Roses

- Definition: Pollination carried out by the wind.
- Characteristics of wind-pollinated flowers:
    - Small and inconspicuous flowers
    - Lack of nectar or fragrance
    - Production of a large amount of lightweight, dry pollen
- Examples:
    - Grasses (wheat, corn, rice)
    - Trees (oak, pine, birch)
    - Weeds (ragweed, dandelion)

- Definition: Pollination carried out by insects.
- Characteristics of insect-pollinated flowers:
    - Brightly colored and scented flowers
    - Production of nectar as a reward for pollinators
    - Sticky pollen grains that adhere to insects' body parts
- Examples:
    - Roses
    - Sunflowers
    - Orchids

- Definition: Pollination carried out by birds.
- Characteristics of bird-pollinated flowers:
    - Large and brightly colored flowers
    - Production of copious amounts of nectar
    - Long and tubular flower shape to accommodate bird beaks
- Examples:
    - Hummingbird-pollinated flowers (red hot poker, fuchsia)
    - Bird-of-paradise flower

- Definition: Pollination carried out by bats.
- Characteristics of bat-pollinated flowers:
    - Large and pale flowers
    - Strong and fruity fragrance
    - Nectar-producing flowers open at night
- Examples:
    - Night-blooming cereus
    - Agave plants
    - Banana flowers

- Definition: Pollination carried out by water.
- Characteristics of water-pollinated flowers:
    - Small and inconspicuous flowers with no need for bright colors or fragrance
    - Long, feathery stigma to trap floating pollen
    - Abundance of pollen grains that can float on water
- Examples:
    - Seagrasses
    - Water lilies
    - Vallisneria (eelgrass)

- Double fertilization is a unique reproductive process in flowering plants.
- It involves the fusion of two male gametes with two female gametes, resulting in the formation of a zygote and endosperm.
- Process of double fertilization:
    1. Pollen grain lands on the stigma of the flower.
    2. The pollen grain germinates and produces a pollen tube.
    3. One male gamete fuses with the egg cell to form a zygote (2n).
    4. The other male gamete fuses with the polar nuclei to form the endosperm (3n).

- Definition: A nutritive tissue formed during double fertilization.
- Function: Provides nourishment to the developing embryo.
- Composition: Endosperm can be triploid (3n) or haploid (n) in different plant species.
- Importance: Endosperm is a significant source of nutrients for human consumption in many crops (e.g., rice, wheat, corn, and barley).

- After fertilization, the zygote develops into an embryo.
- The zygote undergoes several divisions and differentiations to form specialized tissues.
- The embryo consists of:
    - Embryonic root (radicle)
    - Embryonic shoot (plumule)
    - Cotyledons (seed leaves)
- The embryo develops within the seed, protected by the seed coat.

- Germination is the process by which a seed develops into a new plant.
- Conditions required for germination:
    - Adequate moisture
    - Suitable temperature
    - Sufficient oxygen supply
- Steps in seed germination:
    1. Imbibition: The absorption of water by the seed.
    2. Activation of enzymes: Enzymes become active, initiating metabolic processes.
    3. Respiration: Release of energy through cellular respiration.
    4. Seedling growth: Emergence of the radicle and plumule, leading to the development of the seedling.

- Factors influencing seed germination include:
    - Temperature: Optimal temperature range for germination varies among plant species.
    - Light: Some seeds require light for germination, while others are inhibited by light.
    - Water availability: Seeds must absorb water to initiate germination.
    - Oxygen: Adequate oxygen supply is necessary for cellular respiration.
    - Seed coat: Impermeable seed coats can inhibit germination and may require scarification.

- Internal factors that influence germination include:
    - Dormancy: Some seeds have built-in mechanisms that delay germination until favorable conditions are met.
    - Hormones: Plant growth regulators, such as gibberellins, can promote or inhibit germination.
    - Genetic factors: Seed germination characteristics may vary among plant species and even within populations.

- Seed germination research has several applications, including:
    - Agriculture: Enhancing crop germination rates and improving seed storage methods.
    - Ecological studies: Understanding species distribution and plant population dynamics.
    - Conservation: Preserving endangered plant species through seed bank programs.
    - Horticulture: Seed germination protocols for efficient plant propagation.

- Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves pollination, double fertilization, and seed development.
- Pollination can occur through various vectors, including wind, insects, birds, bats, or water.
- Double fertilization results in the formation of a zygote and endosperm in the seed.
- Germination is the process by which a seed develops into a new plant, influenced by both external and internal factors.
- Understanding seed germination is crucial for plant propagation, agriculture, conservation, and ecological studies.