Genetics and Evolution

Molecular Basis of Inheritance - Streptococcus pneumonia

Introduction to Genetics and Evolution

• Genetics: The study of heredity and variation
• Evolution: The change in heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations

Molecular Basis of Inheritance

• DNA, the molecule of heredity
• Structure of DNA
  • Double helix
  • Complementary base pairing
  • Sugar-phosphate backbone

DNA Replication

• Semi-conservative replication
• Enzymes involved
  • DNA helicase
  • DNA polymerase
  • DNA ligase
• Steps of DNA replication

Transcription

• Process of making RNA from DNA template
• RNA polymerase and its role
• Three steps of transcription
  • Initiation
  • Elongation
  • Termination

Genetic Code

• The language of DNA
• Triplet codons
• Start and stop codons
• Degeneracy of the genetic code

Translation

• Process of protein synthesis
• Role of ribosomes
• Initiation, elongation, and termination of translation
• tRNA and its role

Mutations

• Types of mutations
  • Point mutations
    • Silent mutations
    • Missense mutations
    • Nonsense mutations
  • Frameshift mutations
• Effects of mutations on protein structure and function

Genes and Alleles

• Genes: Units of heredity
• Alleles: Different versions of a gene
• Dominant and recessive alleles
• Genotype and phenotype

Inheritance Patterns

• Mendelian inheritance
  • Law of segregation
  • Law of independent assortment
• Non-Mendelian inheritance
  • Incomplete dominance
  • Co-dominance
  • Multiple alleles

Mendelian Genetics

• Laws of Mendelian genetics
• Monohybrid and dihybrid crosses
• Punnett squares
• Phenotypic and genotypic ratios
• Examples: Mendel’s pea plant experiments

Non-Mendelian Inheritance

• Incomplete dominance
  • Example: Snapdragon flower color
• Co-dominance
  • Example: Blood type
• Multiple alleles
  • Example: ABO blood group system

Sex-Linked Inheritance

• Sex chromosomes and sex determination
• X-linked inheritance
  • Examples: Color blindness and hemophilia
• Y-linked inheritance
  • Examples: Male pattern baldness

Polygenic Inheritance

• Traits controlled by multiple genes
• Phenotypic variation and continuous traits
• Examples: Height, skin color, and eye color

Genetic Disorders

• Autosomal dominant disorders
  • Examples: Huntington’s disease, Marfan syndrome
• Autosomal recessive disorders
  • Examples: Cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia
• X-linked disorders
  • Examples: Duchenne muscular dystrophy, hemophilia

Population Genetics

• Gene pool and allele frequencies
• Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
• Factors that disrupt equilibrium
  • Genetic drift
  • Gene flow
  • Mutations
  • Natural selection

Evolution by Natural Selection

• Darwin’s theory of evolution
• Process of natural selection
• Evidence for evolution
  • Fossil record
  • Comparative anatomy
  • Molecular biology
  • Biogeography

Speciation

• Definition of species
• What causes speciation?
  • Geographic isolation
  • Reproductive isolation
• Types of speciation
  • Allopatric speciation
  • Sympatric speciation

Evolutionary Mechanisms

• Genetic drift
• Gene flow
• Mutation
• Natural selection
• Non-random mating

Human Evolution

• Timeline of human evolution
• Hominids and hominins
• Fossil evidence of human evolution
• Molecular evidence of human evolution
• Theories on modern human origins

Genetic Engineering

• Definition and applications of genetic engineering
• Recombinant DNA technology
• Techniques used in genetic engineering
  • Restriction enzymes
  • DNA ligase
  • Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
  • Gel electrophoresis

Cloning

• Definition and types of cloning
  • Reproductive cloning
  • Therapeutic cloning
• Process of cloning
  • Somatic cell nuclear transfer
  • Ethical concerns related to cloning

Biotechnology

• Applications of biotechnology
  • Agricultural biotechnology
  • Medical biotechnology
  • Environmental biotechnology
  • Industrial biotechnology
• Examples of biotechnological products
  • Genetically modified crops
  • Biopharmaceuticals

Gene Therapy

• Definition and goals of gene therapy
• Approaches to gene therapy
  • In vivo gene therapy
  • Ex vivo gene therapy
• Challenges and ethical concerns in gene therapy

Vaccines

• Definition and types of vaccines
  • Live attenuated vaccines
  • Inactivated vaccines
  • Subunit vaccines
• How vaccines work
• Importance of vaccines in preventing infectious diseases

Immune System

• Components of the immune system
  • Innate immunity
  • Adaptive immunity
• Modes of action of the immune system
  • Humoral immune response
  • Cell-mediated immune response

Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance

• Definition of antibiotics
• Mechanisms of action of antibiotics
• Antibiotic resistance
  • Causes of antibiotic resistance
  • Consequences of antibiotic resistance
• Strategies to combat antibiotic resistance

Human Reproduction

• Anatomy of the male reproductive system
• Anatomy of the female reproductive system
• Menstrual cycle
• Fertilization and implantation
• Pregnancy and childbirth

Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART)

• Definition and types of ART
  • In vitro fertilization (IVF)
  • Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)
  • Surrogacy
• Ethical concerns related to ART

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

• Common types of STIs
  • Chlamydia
  • Gonorrhea
  • Syphilis
  • Human papillomavirus (HPV)
  • Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
• Methods of prevention and treatment for STIs