Genetics And Evolution- Molecular Basis Of Inheritance

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-characteristics-of-genetic-code-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Characteristics of Genetic Code </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li><strong>Universal</strong>: Common to all organisms</li>
<li><strong>Triplet Code</strong>: Three nucleotides (codon) encode one amino acid</li>
<li><strong>Non-overlapping</strong>: No overlapping between codons</li>
<li><strong>Degenerate</strong>: Multiple codons can code for the same amino acid</li>
<li><strong>Start and Stop Codons</strong>: Initiates and terminates protein synthesis</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Genetics Study of Genes, Heredity, and Variation $\rightarrow$ Molecular Basis of Inheritance $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Characteristics of Genetic Code </span> $\rightarrow$ Universal Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ Triplet Code </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-genetic-code-and-protein-synthesis-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Genetic code is transcribed into mRNA</li>
<li>mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids</li>
<li>Amino acids combine to form polypeptides/proteins</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>:</li>
<li><strong>DNA</strong>: ATGCGCTAA</li>
<li><strong>Transcription (mRNA)</strong>: AUGCGCUAA</li>
<li><strong>Translation (Amino Acids)</strong>: Methionine, Arginine, Stop</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Start and Stop Codons $\rightarrow$ Recap $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis </span> $\rightarrow$ Significance of the Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ Effects of Mutations on the Genetic Code </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-significance-of-the-genetic-code-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Significance of the Genetic Code </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Essential for the synthesis of proteins and enzymes</li>
<li>Determines the structure and function of proteins</li>
<li>Genetic variations and mutations can alter the code</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>:</li>
<li>Sickle cell anemia caused by a mutation in the beta-globin gene</li>
<li>Single base change leads to abnormal hemoglobin protein</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Recap $\rightarrow$ Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Significance of the Genetic Code </span> $\rightarrow$ Effects of Mutations on the Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ Examples of EFFECTS OF MUTATIONS ON THE GENETIC CODE </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-effects-of-mutations-on-the-genetic-code-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Effects of Mutations on the Genetic Code </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li><strong>Silent Mutations</strong>: No change in amino acid sequence</li>
<li><strong>Missense Mutations</strong>: One amino acid is replaced by another</li>
<li><strong>Nonsense Mutations</strong>: Premature termination of protein synthesis</li>
<li><strong>Frameshift Mutations</strong>: Insertion or deletion of nucleotides alters the reading frame</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis $\rightarrow$ Significance of the Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Effects of Mutations on the Genetic Code </span> $\rightarrow$ Examples of EFFECTS OF MUTATIONS ON THE GENETIC CODE $\rightarrow$ Genetic Code and Evolution </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-examples-of-effects-of-mutations-on-the-genetic-code-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Examples of EFFECTS OF MUTATIONS ON THE GENETIC CODE </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li><strong>Silent Mutation</strong>: GCU (Ala) changed to GCC (Ala)</li>
<li><strong>Missense Mutation</strong>: GGC (Gly) changed to GAC (Asp)</li>
<li><strong>Nonsense Mutation</strong>: UGA (Stop) changed to UGG (Trp)</li>
<li><strong>Frameshift Mutation</strong>: CGA (Arg) changed to CGGA (Arg)</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Significance of the Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ Effects of Mutations on the Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Examples of EFFECTS OF MUTATIONS ON THE GENETIC CODE </span> $\rightarrow$ Genetic Code and Evolution $\rightarrow$ Regulation of Gene Expression </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-genetic-code-and-evolution-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Genetic Code and Evolution </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Mutations can lead to genetic variation</li>
<li>Variations contribute to natural selection and evolution</li>
<li>Evolution driven by changes in the genetic code over time</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>:</li>
<li><strong>Peppered moth</strong>: Industrial melanism and camouflage</li>
<li>Mutations in moth genes led to changes in wing coloration</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Effects of Mutations on the Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ Examples of EFFECTS OF MUTATIONS ON THE GENETIC CODE $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Genetic Code and Evolution </span> $\rightarrow$ Regulation of Gene Expression $\rightarrow$ Epigenetics and Genetic Code </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-regulation-of-gene-expression-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Regulation of Gene Expression </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Genetic code controls the expression of genes</li>
<li>Regulatory elements determine when and where genes are expressed</li>
<li>Transcription factors and epigenetic modifications play a role</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>:</li>
<li>Homeobox genes regulate the development and patterning of body structures</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Examples of EFFECTS OF MUTATIONS ON THE GENETIC CODE $\rightarrow$ Genetic Code and Evolution $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Regulation of Gene Expression </span> $\rightarrow$ Epigenetics and Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ Genetic Code and Mutagens </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-epigenetics-and-genetic-code-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Epigenetics and Genetic Code </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Epigenetic modifications can alter gene expression without changing the genetic code</li>
<li>DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNA influence gene activity</li>
<li>Epigenetic changes can be inherited and impact evolution</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>:</li>
<li>DNA methylation can silence genes during embryonic development</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Genetic Code and Evolution $\rightarrow$ Regulation of Gene Expression $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Epigenetics and Genetic Code </span> $\rightarrow$ Genetic Code and Mutagens $\rightarrow$ Reprogramming the Genetic Code </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-genetic-code-and-mutagens-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Genetic Code and Mutagens </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Mutagens are agents that induce mutations in the genetic code</li>
<li>Chemical mutagens, radiation, and certain viruses can cause mutations</li>
<li>Mutagen exposure can lead to genetic disorders and increased genetic variation</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>:</li>
<li>UV radiation from the sun can cause damage to DNA and increase the risk of skin cancer</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Regulation of Gene Expression $\rightarrow$ Epigenetics and Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Genetic Code and Mutagens </span> $\rightarrow$ Reprogramming the Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ The Human Genome Project </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-reprogramming-the-genetic-code-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Reprogramming the Genetic Code </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Genetic engineering allows modification of the genetic code</li>
<li>Recombinant DNA technology and gene editing tools like CRISPR-Cas9</li>
<li>Can be used for medical applications, agriculture, and research</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>:</li>
<li>Insulin production using genetically modified bacteria</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Epigenetics and Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ Genetic Code and Mutagens $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Reprogramming the Genetic Code </span> $\rightarrow$ The Human Genome Project $\rightarrow$ Conclusion </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-the-human-genome-project-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> The Human Genome Project </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>International research effort to sequence the entire human genome</li>
<li>Completed in 2003 and provided a foundation for personalized medicine</li>
<li>Enabled the study of genetic variations and complex diseases</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>:</li>
<li>Identification of genes associated with cancer and the development of targeted therapies</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Genetic Code and Mutagens $\rightarrow$ Reprogramming the Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> The Human Genome Project </span> $\rightarrow$ Conclusion $\rightarrow$ Importance of Genetic Code </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-gene-expression-and-genetic-code-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Gene Expression and Genetic Code </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Gene expression is the process by which genetic information is used to create a functional protein</li>
<li>Transcription and translation are involved in gene expression</li>
<li>Genetic code guides the sequence of amino acids during translation</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Impact of Genetic Code on Evolution $\rightarrow$ Proteins and Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Gene Expression and Genetic Code </span> $\rightarrow$ Implications of Genetic Code Variations $\rightarrow$ Factors Affecting Genetic Code </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-factors-affecting-genetic-code-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Factors Affecting Genetic Code </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Environmental factors can affect gene expression and genetic code</li>
<li>Epigenetic modifications can alter gene expression without changing the code</li>
<li>Mutagens and DNA damage can lead to changes in the code</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Gene Expression and Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ Implications of Genetic Code Variations $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Factors Affecting Genetic Code </span> $\rightarrow$ Examples of Genetic Code Variations $\rightarrow$ Genetic Code Variations in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-examples-of-genetic-code-variations-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Examples of Genetic Code Variations </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Mycoplasma, a bacterial species, has a smaller genetic code with fewer codons</li>
<li>Some codon reassignments have been observed in certain organisms</li>
<li>Stop codons can be reassigned to code for specific amino acids</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Implications of Genetic Code Variations $\rightarrow$ Factors Affecting Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Examples of Genetic Code Variations </span> $\rightarrow$ Genetic Code Variations in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts $\rightarrow$ Genetic Code and Biotechnology </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-genetic-code-variations-in-mitochondria-and-chloroplasts-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Genetic Code Variations in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own genetic codes</li>
<li>These organelles have their own DNA and protein synthesis machinery</li>
<li>Their genetic codes show variations compared to the nuclear genetic code</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Factors Affecting Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ Examples of Genetic Code Variations $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Genetic Code Variations in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts </span> $\rightarrow$ Genetic Code and Biotechnology $\rightarrow$ Recap and Summary </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-recap-and-summary-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Recap and Summary </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>The genetic code is universal, triplet, non-overlapping, and degenerate</li>
<li>Start and stop codons initiate and terminate protein synthesis</li>
<li>Genetic variations, mutations, and epigenetic modifications can affect the genetic code</li>
<li>The genetic code is essential for gene expression, evolution, and biotechnology applications</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Genetic Code Variations in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts $\rightarrow$ Genetic Code and Biotechnology $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Recap and Summary </span> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$  </footer>