Genetics And Evolution- Molecular Basis Of Inheritance

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-termination-of-dna-replication-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Termination of DNA replication </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>DNA replication machinery reaches the termination site</li>
<li>DNA polymerase synthesizes to the end of the template strand</li>
<li>RNA primers are removed and replaced with DNA</li>
<li>Two DNA molecules are formed, each consisting of an original strand and a newly synthesized strand</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Initiation of DNA replication $\rightarrow$ Elongation of DNA strand $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Termination of DNA replication </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA replication in eukaryotes $\rightarrow$ Replication forks </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-effects-of-mutations-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Effects of mutations </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li><strong>Silent mutations</strong>: no change in the amino acid sequence</li>
<li><strong>Missense mutations</strong>: change in the amino acid sequence</li>
<li><strong>Nonsense mutations</strong>: premature stop codon formation</li>
<li><strong>Frameshift mutations</strong>: insertion or deletion of nucleotides, altering the reading frame</li>
<li>Mutations can have different effects on an organism depending on their location and impact on protein function</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Examples of mutations $\rightarrow$ Mutagens $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Effects of mutations </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA repair mechanisms $\rightarrow$ DNA replication errors </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-repair-mechanisms-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA repair mechanisms </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li><strong>Base excision repair (BER)</strong>: repairs single-base lesions</li>
<li><strong>Nucleotide excision repair (NER)</strong>: repairs larger DNA lesions</li>
<li><strong>Mismatch repair (MMR)</strong>: corrects mispaired bases that escape proofreading</li>
<li><strong>Homologous recombination repair (HRR)</strong>: repairs double-strand breaks</li>
<li>Importance of DNA repair in maintaining genetic stability and preventing diseases</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Mutagens $\rightarrow$ Effects of mutations $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA repair mechanisms </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA replication errors $\rightarrow$ Replicative DNA damage </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-replication-errors-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA replication errors </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Can occur naturally due to the inherent imperfections of DNA replication</li>
<li>Environmental factors can increase the error rate</li>
<li><strong>Consequences of DNA replication errors</strong>:</li>
<li>Changes in DNA sequence</li>
<li>Mutations</li>
<li>Genetic diseases</li>
<li>Role of DNA repair mechanisms in minimizing the impact of replication errors</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Effects of mutations $\rightarrow$ DNA repair mechanisms $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA replication errors </span> $\rightarrow$ Replicative DNA damage $\rightarrow$ Variations in DNA repair mechanisms can contribute to genetic diversity </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-replicative-dna-damage-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Replicative DNA damage </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Errors that occur during normal DNA replication</li>
<li>Can result in base mispairings</li>
<li>Can be corrected by DNA repair mechanisms</li>
<li><strong>Non-replicative DNA damage</strong>:</li>
<li>Caused by environmental factors and chemical agents</li>
<li>Examples include oxidative damage, UV radiation, and chemical modifications</li>
<li>DNA repair mechanisms are important for maintaining the integrity of the genome and preventing diseases</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA repair mechanisms $\rightarrow$ DNA replication errors $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Replicative DNA damage </span> $\rightarrow$ Variations in DNA repair mechanisms can contribute to genetic diversity $\rightarrow$ Recombinant DNA technology </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-variations-in-dna-repair-mechanisms-can-contribute-to-genetic-diversity-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Variations in DNA repair mechanisms can contribute to genetic diversity </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Different DNA repair pathways exist to address different types of DNA damage</li>
<li>Genetic variations in DNA repair genes can affect an individual’s susceptibility to certain diseases</li>
<li>Importance of studying DNA repair mechanisms in understanding genetic diseases and developing targeted therapies</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA replication errors $\rightarrow$ Replicative DNA damage $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Variations in DNA repair mechanisms can contribute to genetic diversity </span> $\rightarrow$ Recombinant DNA technology $\rightarrow$ Recombinant DNA technology </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-recombinant-dna-technology-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Recombinant DNA technology </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)</li>
<li>DNA sequencing</li>
<li>DNA fingerprinting</li>
<li><strong>Applications of recombinant DNA technology</strong>:</li>
<li>Production of recombinant proteins</li>
<li>Genetic modification of organisms</li>
<li>Gene therapy</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Variations in DNA repair mechanisms can contribute to genetic diversity $\rightarrow$ Recombinant DNA technology $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Recombinant DNA technology </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA cloning $\rightarrow$ Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-fingerprinting-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA fingerprinting </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Analyzing unique patterns in an individual’s DNA to identify them</li>
<li>Uses regions of the genome that vary between individuals (such as microsatellites)</li>
<li><strong>Applications</strong>: forensic science, paternity testing, identifying genetic diseases</li>
<li><strong>Ethical considerations in the use of recombinant DNA technology</strong>:</li>
<li>Safety precautions</li>
<li>Potential misuse</li>
<li>Regulation and oversight</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) $\rightarrow$ DNA sequencing $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA fingerprinting </span> $\rightarrow$ Role of DNA replication in inheritance and passing of genetic information to offspring $\rightarrow$ Importance of fidelity in DNA replication </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-role-of-dna-replication-in-inheritance-and-passing-of-genetic-information-to-offspring-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Role of DNA replication in inheritance and passing of genetic information to offspring </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Replication of DNA ensures that each new cell or organism receives an identical copy of the genetic material</li>
<li>Without accurate DNA replication, genetic information may be lost or altered</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA sequencing $\rightarrow$ DNA fingerprinting $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Role of DNA replication in inheritance and passing of genetic information to offspring </span> $\rightarrow$ Importance of fidelity in DNA replication $\rightarrow$ Replication of DNA in prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-importance-of-fidelity-in-dna-replication-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Importance of fidelity in DNA replication </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>High degree of accuracy is maintained during replication due to the proofreading ability of DNA polymerase</li>
<li>DNA polymerase can detect and correct errors in base pairing</li>
<li>Fidelity in DNA replication ensures that genetic information is faithfully transmitted from one generation to the next</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA fingerprinting $\rightarrow$ Role of DNA replication in inheritance and passing of genetic information to offspring $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Importance of fidelity in DNA replication </span> $\rightarrow$ Replication of DNA in prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes $\rightarrow$ Replication bubbles and replication forks </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-replication-of-dna-in-prokaryotes-vs-eukaryotes-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Replication of DNA in prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Prokaryotes have a single circular chromosome, whereas eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes</li>
<li>Replication in prokaryotes occurs in the cytoplasm, while in eukaryotes, it occurs in the nucleus</li>
<li>Differences in the mechanisms and regulation of DNA replication between prokaryotes and eukaryotes</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Role of DNA replication in inheritance and passing of genetic information to offspring $\rightarrow$ Importance of fidelity in DNA replication $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Replication of DNA in prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes </span> $\rightarrow$ Replication bubbles and replication forks $\rightarrow$ Leading and lagging strands in DNA replication </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-replication-bubbles-and-replication-forks-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Replication bubbles and replication forks </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Replication bubbles form at the origin of replication, where DNA replication initiates</li>
<li>Replication forks are the Y-shaped structures formed at the ends of replication bubbles</li>
<li>Two replication forks move in opposite directions, synthesizing new DNA strands</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Importance of fidelity in DNA replication $\rightarrow$ Replication of DNA in prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Replication bubbles and replication forks </span> $\rightarrow$ Leading and lagging strands in DNA replication $\rightarrow$ Okazaki fragments and their synthesis </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-leading-and-lagging-strands-in-dna-replication-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Leading and lagging strands in DNA replication </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Leading strand is synthesized continuously in the 5’ to 3’ direction</li>
<li>Lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously as Okazaki fragments in the 5’ to 3’ direction away from the replication fork</li>
<li>Primase synthesizes RNA primers on the lagging strand, serving as starting points for DNA synthesis</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Replication of DNA in prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes $\rightarrow$ Replication bubbles and replication forks $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Leading and lagging strands in DNA replication </span> $\rightarrow$ Okazaki fragments and their synthesis $\rightarrow$ Telomeres and their role in DNA replication </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-okazaki-fragments-and-their-synthesis-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Okazaki fragments and their synthesis </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Okazaki fragments are short DNA strands on the lagging strand</li>
<li>Primase synthesizes RNA primers on the lagging strand, which are later replaced by DNA</li>
<li>DNA polymerase III extends the leading strand and synthesizes Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand</li>
<li>DNA ligase joins the Okazaki fragments together to create a continuous DNA strand</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Replication bubbles and replication forks $\rightarrow$ Leading and lagging strands in DNA replication $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Okazaki fragments and their synthesis </span> $\rightarrow$ Telomeres and their role in DNA replication $\rightarrow$ Replication errors and mutations </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-telomeres-and-their-role-in-dna-replication-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Telomeres and their role in DNA replication </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Telomeres are repeated nucleotide sequences at the ends of linear chromosomes</li>
<li>They prevent the loss of genetic information during DNA replication</li>
<li>Telomerase enzyme adds telomeric DNA sequences to the ends of chromosomes to counteract their shortening during replication</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Leading and lagging strands in DNA replication $\rightarrow$ Okazaki fragments and their synthesis $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Telomeres and their role in DNA replication </span> $\rightarrow$ Replication errors and mutations $\rightarrow$ DNA repair mechanisms </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-replication-errors-and-mutations-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Replication errors and mutations </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Replication errors can lead to mutations in the DNA sequence</li>
<li>Mutations can have different effects on an organism, such as changes in protein structure or function</li>
<li>Mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful, depending on the context</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Okazaki fragments and their synthesis $\rightarrow$ Telomeres and their role in DNA replication $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Replication errors and mutations </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA repair mechanisms $\rightarrow$ Importance of DNA replication and repair in maintaining genetic stability </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-repair-mechanisms-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA repair mechanisms </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Cells have various DNA repair mechanisms to correct errors and damage in the DNA sequence</li>
<li>These mechanisms include base excision repair, nucleotide excision repair, mismatch repair, and homologous recombination repair</li>
<li>Failure to repair DNA damage can lead to genetic disorders and diseases</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Telomeres and their role in DNA replication $\rightarrow$ Replication errors and mutations $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA repair mechanisms </span> $\rightarrow$ Importance of DNA replication and repair in maintaining genetic stability $\rightarrow$  </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-importance-of-dna-replication-and-repair-in-maintaining-genetic-stability-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Importance of DNA replication and repair in maintaining genetic stability </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Accurate DNA replication ensures that genetic information is transmitted faithfully from one generation to the next</li>
<li>DNA repair mechanisms prevent the accumulation of DNA damage and maintain the integrity of the genome</li>
<li>Understanding the molecular basis of DNA replication and repair is crucial for various fields, including medicine and biotechnology</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Replication errors and mutations $\rightarrow$ DNA repair mechanisms $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Importance of DNA replication and repair in maintaining genetic stability </span> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$  </footer>