Genetics And Evolution- Evolution - Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-what-is-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> What is the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium? </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>A mathematical model in population genetics</li>
<li>Describes the genetic equilibrium in a non-evolving population</li>
<li><strong>Key assumptions of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium</strong>:</li>
<li>Large population size</li>
<li>Random mating</li>
<li>No migration</li>
<li>No selection</li>
<li>No mutation</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px"> $\rightarrow$ Introduction to the concept of genetics and evolution $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> What is the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium? </span> $\rightarrow$ The Hardy-Weinberg Equation $\rightarrow$ Example Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Calculation </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-the-hardy-weinberg-equation-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> The Hardy-Weinberg Equation </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1</li>
<li><strong>p</strong>: frequency of the dominant allele in a population</li>
<li><strong>q</strong>: frequency of the recessive allele in a population</li>
<li><strong>p^2</strong>: proportion of homozygous dominant individuals</li>
<li><strong>2pq</strong>: proportion of heterozygous individuals</li>
<li><strong>q^2</strong>: proportion of homozygous recessive individuals</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Introduction to the concept of genetics and evolution $\rightarrow$ What is the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium? $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> The Hardy-Weinberg Equation </span> $\rightarrow$ Example Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Calculation $\rightarrow$ The significance of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-example-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-calculation-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Example Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Calculation </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Let’s consider a population with two alleles (A and a)</li>
<li>The frequency of A = 0.6, the frequency of a = 0.4</li>
<li>p^2 = (0.6)^2 = 0.36</li>
<li>2pq = 2(0.6)(0.4) = 0.48</li>
<li>q^2 = (0.4)^2 = 0.16</li>
<li>Sum of these proportions is 1, indicating the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">What is the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium? $\rightarrow$ The Hardy-Weinberg Equation $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Example Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Calculation </span> $\rightarrow$ The significance of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Conditions that can disturb the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-the-significance-of-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> The significance of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Helps to identify factors influencing genetic variation</li>
<li>Provides a baseline for understanding genetic drift and natural selection</li>
<li>Indicates the absence of evolutionary forces in a population</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">The Hardy-Weinberg Equation $\rightarrow$ Example Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Calculation $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> The significance of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </span> $\rightarrow$ Conditions that can disturb the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Impact of non-random mating on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-conditions-that-can-disturb-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Conditions that can disturb the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Non-random mating</li>
<li>Genetic drift</li>
<li>Gene flow (migration)</li>
<li>Natural selection</li>
<li>Mutation</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Example Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Calculation $\rightarrow$ The significance of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Conditions that can disturb the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </span> $\rightarrow$ Impact of non-random mating on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Genetic drift and its effect on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-impact-of-non-random-mating-on-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Impact of non-random mating on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Assortative mating</strong>: individuals preferentially mate with partners showing similar traits</li>
<li><strong>Disassortative mating</strong>: individuals preferentially mate with partners showing dissimilar traits</li>
<li><strong>Inbreeding</strong>: mating between close relatives</li>
<li><strong>Outbreeding</strong>: mating between genetically diverse individuals</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">The significance of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Conditions that can disturb the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Impact of non-random mating on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </span> $\rightarrow$ Genetic drift and its effect on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Gene flow and its impact on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-genetic-drift-and-its-effect-on-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Genetic drift and its effect on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Random fluctuations in allele frequencies due to chance events</li>
<li>More pronounced in small populations</li>
<li>May lead to the loss of certain alleles, reducing genetic variation</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Conditions that can disturb the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Impact of non-random mating on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Genetic drift and its effect on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </span> $\rightarrow$ Gene flow and its impact on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Natural selection and its influence on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-genetics-and-evolution-evolution-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-success-8"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Genetics And Evolution Evolution Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-gene-flow-and-its-impact-on-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Gene flow and its impact on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Movement of genes between populations due to migration</li>
<li>Can introduce new genetic variations or alter existing allele frequencies</li>
<li>Can prevent populations from achieving Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Impact of non-random mating on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Genetic drift and its effect on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Gene flow and its impact on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </span> $\rightarrow$ Natural selection and its influence on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Mutation and its impact on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-genetics-and-evolution-evolution-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-success-9"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Genetics And Evolution Evolution Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-natural-selection-and-its-influence-on-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Natural selection and its influence on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Differential survival and reproduction of individuals based on their phenotypic traits</li>
<li>Can lead to changes in allele frequencies over generations</li>
<li>Selection pressures can disrupt the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Genetic drift and its effect on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Gene flow and its impact on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Natural selection and its influence on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </span> $\rightarrow$ Mutation and its impact on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Factors promoting genetic equilibrium in a population </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-mutation-and-its-impact-on-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Mutation and its impact on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Introduction of new genetic variations through changes in DNA sequence</li>
<li>Can lead to the formation of new alleles or alter allele frequencies</li>
<li>Rarely has a significant effect on large populations</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Gene flow and its impact on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Natural selection and its influence on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Mutation and its impact on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </span> $\rightarrow$ Factors promoting genetic equilibrium in a population $\rightarrow$ Applications of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-factors-promoting-genetic-equilibrium-in-a-population-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Factors promoting genetic equilibrium in a population </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Large population size helps to prevent genetic drift</li>
<li>Random mating ensures no preference for certain genotypes</li>
<li>Absence of migration limits gene flow</li>
<li>No selection pressure allows all genotypes to survive and reproduce equally</li>
<li>No mutation maintains stable allele frequencies</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Natural selection and its influence on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Mutation and its impact on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Factors promoting genetic equilibrium in a population </span> $\rightarrow$ Applications of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Limitations of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-applications-of-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Applications of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Studying genetic diseases</strong>: allows determination of carrier frequencies</li>
<li><strong>Assessing evolutionary changes</strong>: provides a baseline for comparison</li>
<li><strong>Conservation biology</strong>: understanding genetic diversity and population health</li>
<li><strong>Forensic genetics</strong>: estimating allele frequencies in crime investigations</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Mutation and its impact on the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Factors promoting genetic equilibrium in a population $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Applications of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </span> $\rightarrow$ Limitations of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Genetic Drift </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-genetics-and-evolution-evolution-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-success-13"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Genetics And Evolution Evolution Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-limitations-of-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Limitations of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>The model assumes ideal conditions, which rarely exist in natural populations</li>
<li>Violation of any of the assumptions can lead to inaccurate predictions</li>
<li>Real-world populations usually experience some form of deviation from equilibrium</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Factors promoting genetic equilibrium in a population $\rightarrow$ Applications of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Limitations of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </span> $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Genetic Drift $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Migration </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-deviations-from-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium---genetic-drift-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Genetic Drift </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Small population size can lead to significant fluctuations in allele frequencies</li>
<li><strong>Bottleneck effect</strong>: reduction in population size due to a catastrophic event</li>
<li><strong>Founder effect</strong>: when a small group colonizes a new area, leading to reduced genetic variation</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Applications of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Limitations of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Genetic Drift </span> $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Migration $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Natural Selection </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-deviations-from-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium---migration-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Migration </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Gene flow between populations can introduce or remove alleles</li>
<li>Immigration and emigration can alter allele frequencies within a population</li>
<li>Non-random migration patterns can lead to genetic differentiation</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Limitations of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Genetic Drift $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Migration </span> $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Natural Selection $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Mutation </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-genetics-and-evolution-evolution-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-success-16"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Genetics And Evolution Evolution Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-deviations-from-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium---natural-selection-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Natural Selection </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Differential survival and reproduction of individuals based on their traits</li>
<li>Favorable traits become more common, while less advantageous traits decrease</li>
<li>Can lead to adaptations and speciation</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Genetic Drift $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Migration $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Natural Selection </span> $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Mutation $\rightarrow$ Calculation using the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-deviations-from-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium---mutation-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Mutation </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>New mutations introduced into a population can alter allele frequencies</li>
<li>Rate of mutation is generally low, and its effect is most pronounced in small populations</li>
<li>Mutations can introduce new alleles or modify existing ones</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Migration $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Natural Selection $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Mutation </span> $\rightarrow$ Calculation using the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Non-Random Mating </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-genetics-and-evolution-evolution-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-success-18"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Genetics And Evolution Evolution Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-calculation-using-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Calculation using the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: In a population of 1000 individuals, the frequency of the dominant A allele is 0.6. What is the frequency of the recessive a allele?
<ul>
<li>p = frequency of A = 0.6</li>
<li>q = frequency of a = 1 - 0.6 = 0.4</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: What proportion of individuals are expected to be homozygous dominant (AA)?
<ul>
<li>p^2 = (0.6)^2 = 0.36</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>What proportion of individuals are expected to be heterozygous (Aa)?
<ul>
<li>2pq = 2(0.6)(0.4) = 0.48</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>What proportion of individuals are expected to be homozygous recessive (aa)?
<ul>
<li>q^2 = (0.4)^2 = 0.16</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Natural Selection $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Mutation $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Calculation using the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium </span> $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Non-Random Mating $\rightarrow$ Factors influencing genetic equilibrium in a population </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-deviations-from-the-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium---non-random-mating-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Non-Random Mating </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Assortative mating</strong>: individuals preferentially mate with similar phenotypes</li>
<li><strong>Disassortative mating</strong>: individuals preferentially mate with dissimilar phenotypes</li>
<li><strong>Inbreeding</strong>: mating between close relatives, increases homozygosity</li>
<li><strong>Outbreeding</strong>: mating between genetically diverse individuals, increases heterozygosity</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Mutation $\rightarrow$ Calculation using the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Non-Random Mating </span> $\rightarrow$ Factors influencing genetic equilibrium in a population $\rightarrow$ Genetic equilibrium in real populations </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-factors-influencing-genetic-equilibrium-in-a-population-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Factors influencing genetic equilibrium in a population </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Genetic equilibrium can be maintained through various mechanisms</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Natural selection: stabilizing selection, balanced polymorphism</li>
<li>Genetic drift: genetic bottleneck, founder effect</li>
<li>Migration: gene flow between populations</li>
<li>Mutation: introducing new alleles into the gene pool</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Calculation using the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium $\rightarrow$ Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Non-Random Mating $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Factors influencing genetic equilibrium in a population </span> $\rightarrow$ Genetic equilibrium in real populations $\rightarrow$ Application Genetic Equilibrium in Genetic Diseases </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-genetic-equilibrium-in-real-populations-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Genetic equilibrium in real populations </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>In real populations, genetic equilibrium is rarely achieved due to</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Natural selection: adaptive changes in allele frequencies</li>
<li>Genetic drift: significant impact on small populations</li>
<li>Migration: gene flow can introduce or remove alleles</li>
<li>Mutation: introduces new genetic variations</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - Non-Random Mating $\rightarrow$ Factors influencing genetic equilibrium in a population $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Genetic equilibrium in real populations </span> $\rightarrow$ Application Genetic Equilibrium in Genetic Diseases $\rightarrow$ Application Genetic Equilibrium in Genetic Diseases (contd.) </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-genetics-and-evolution-evolution-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-success-22"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Genetics And Evolution Evolution Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-application-genetic-equilibrium-in-genetic-diseases-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Application Genetic Equilibrium in Genetic Diseases </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Calculation of carrier frequencies using the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: If a rare genetic disorder affects 1 in 10,000 individuals, what is the carrier frequency in the population?
<ul>
<li>Let frequency of the disorder allele (q) be 1/10,000 = 0.0001</li>
<li>q^2 = frequency of individuals with the disorder</li>
<li>2pq = frequency of carriers</li>
<li>p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Factors influencing genetic equilibrium in a population $\rightarrow$ Genetic equilibrium in real populations $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Application Genetic Equilibrium in Genetic Diseases </span> $\rightarrow$ Application Genetic Equilibrium in Genetic Diseases (contd.) $\rightarrow$ Application Evolutionary Changes </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-application-genetic-equilibrium-in-genetic-diseases-contd-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Application Genetic Equilibrium in Genetic Diseases (contd.) </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Example (contd.)</strong>: Calculation of carrier frequencies
<ul>
<li>q^2 = 0.0001 (given)</li>
<li>p^2 = 1 - q^2</li>
<li>p^2 = 1 - 0.0001 = 0.9999</li>
<li>p = √0.9999 ≈ 0.9999</li>
<li>2pq = 2(0.9999)(0.0001) ≈ 0.0002 (carrier frequency)</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Genetic equilibrium in real populations $\rightarrow$ Application Genetic Equilibrium in Genetic Diseases $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Application Genetic Equilibrium in Genetic Diseases (contd.) </span> $\rightarrow$ Application Evolutionary Changes $\rightarrow$ Application Evolutionary Changes (contd.) </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-application-evolutionary-changes-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Application Evolutionary Changes </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Comparing allele frequencies across generations to measure evolutionary changes</li>
<li><strong>Example: A population of beetles has two alleles for body color</strong>: A population of beetles has two alleles for body color: B (dominant) and b (recessive). In the initial generation, the frequency of b is 0.4. In the next generation, b increases to 0.6. Has evolution occurred?
<ul>
<li>Compare initial and final allele frequencies to determine if there has been a change in the population</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Application Genetic Equilibrium in Genetic Diseases $\rightarrow$ Application Genetic Equilibrium in Genetic Diseases (contd.) $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Application Evolutionary Changes </span> $\rightarrow$ Application Evolutionary Changes (contd.) $\rightarrow$ Application Conservation Biology </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-genetics-and-evolution-evolution-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-success-25"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Genetics And Evolution Evolution Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-application-evolutionary-changes-contd-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Application Evolutionary Changes (contd.) </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li><strong>Example (contd.)</strong>: Calculation of allele frequencies
<ul>
<li>Initial generation: frequency of b = 0.4</li>
<li>Final generation: frequency of b = 0.6</li>
<li>Change in frequency = 0.6 - 0.4 = 0.2</li>
<li>Evolution has occurred since there has been a change in allele frequencies</li>
</ul>
</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Application Genetic Equilibrium in Genetic Diseases (contd.) $\rightarrow$ Application Evolutionary Changes $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Application Evolutionary Changes (contd.) </span> $\rightarrow$ Application Conservation Biology $\rightarrow$ Application Forensic Genetics </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-genetics-and-evolution-evolution-hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-success-28"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Genetics And Evolution Evolution Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-summary-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Summary </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium is a mathematical model in population genetics</li>
<li>It describes the genetic equilibrium in a non-evolving population</li>
<li>Key assumptions include random mating, large population size, no migration, no mutation, and no selection</li>
<li>Deviations from equilibrium can result from non-random mating, genetic drift, gene flow, natural selection, and mutation</li>
<li>The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium is used in various applications, including studying genetic diseases, assessing evolutionary changes, conservation biology, and forensic genetics.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Application Conservation Biology $\rightarrow$ Application Forensic Genetics $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Summary </span> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$  </footer>