Biomolecules - Stabilizing Interactions

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-biomolecules---stabilizing-interactions-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Biomolecules - Stabilizing Interactions </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Biomolecules are the organic molecules essential for life processes.</li>
<li>Stabilizing interactions play a crucial role in maintaining the structure and function of biomolecules.</li>
<li>These interactions involve different types of forces that hold biomolecules together.</li>
<li>Understanding stabilizing interactions is important to comprehend the structure and behavior of biomolecules.</li>
<li>Let’s explore different types of stabilizing interactions in biomolecules.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px"> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Biomolecules - Stabilizing Interactions </span> $\rightarrow$ Electronegativity and Polar Covalent Bonds $\rightarrow$ Hydrogen Bonds </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-electronegativity-and-polar-covalent-bonds-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Electronegativity and Polar Covalent Bonds </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons towards itself.</li>
<li>In a polar covalent bond, electrons are shared unequally between two atoms, causing partial charges.</li>
<li>Unequal sharing of electrons creates a dipole moment.</li>
<li>Polar covalent bonds contribute to stabilizing interactions in biomolecules.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: The oxygen atom in water (H2O) attracts the shared electrons more strongly, creating a polar bond.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px"> $\rightarrow$ Biomolecules - Stabilizing Interactions $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Electronegativity and Polar Covalent Bonds </span> $\rightarrow$ Hydrogen Bonds $\rightarrow$ Van der Waals Interactions </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-hydrogen-bonds-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Hydrogen Bonds </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Hydrogen bonds are weak electrostatic attractions between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom.</li>
<li>They usually involve hydrogen bonded to nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine.</li>
<li>Hydrogen bonds are important in stabilizing the three-dimensional structures of proteins and DNA.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: Hydrogen bonding between water molecules gives water its unique properties, like high boiling point and surface tension.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Biomolecules - Stabilizing Interactions $\rightarrow$ Electronegativity and Polar Covalent Bonds $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Hydrogen Bonds </span> $\rightarrow$ Van der Waals Interactions $\rightarrow$ Ionic Interactions </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-van-der-waals-interactions-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Van der Waals Interactions </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Van der Waals interactions are weak attractive forces between non-polar molecules or parts of molecules.</li>
<li>These interactions arise due to temporary fluctuations in electron density, resulting in induced dipoles.</li>
<li>Van der Waals forces include London dispersion forces and dipole-dipole interactions.</li>
<li>They play a significant role in protein folding and molecular recognition.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: van der Waals forces between lipid tails in cell membranes contribute to membrane stability.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Electronegativity and Polar Covalent Bonds $\rightarrow$ Hydrogen Bonds $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Van der Waals Interactions </span> $\rightarrow$ Ionic Interactions $\rightarrow$ Hydrophobic Interactions </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-ionic-interactions-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Ionic Interactions </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Ionic interactions occur between charged molecules or atoms, called ions.</li>
<li>These interactions involve the attraction between positively and negatively charged species.</li>
<li>Ionic interactions are important in stabilizing the structure and function of biomolecules like enzymes.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: The interaction between positively charged arginine residue and negatively charged DNA stabilizes DNA-protein complexes.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Hydrogen Bonds $\rightarrow$ Van der Waals Interactions $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Ionic Interactions </span> $\rightarrow$ Hydrophobic Interactions $\rightarrow$ Disulfide Bonds </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-5"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-hydrophobic-interactions-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Hydrophobic Interactions </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Hydrophobic interactions are stabilizing forces between non-polar molecules in a polar solvent like water.</li>
<li>Non-polar molecules tend to cluster together to minimize their exposure to water.</li>
<li>Hydrophobic interactions play a crucial role in protein folding and the formation of lipid bilayers.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: The hydrophobic effect drives the folding of proteins into their native three-dimensional structures.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Van der Waals Interactions $\rightarrow$ Ionic Interactions $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Hydrophobic Interactions </span> $\rightarrow$ Disulfide Bonds $\rightarrow$ Salt Bridges </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-salt-bridges-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Salt Bridges </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Salt bridges result from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged amino acid residues.</li>
<li>They occur when a positively charged group of one amino acid interacts with a negatively charged group of another amino acid.</li>
<li>Salt bridges contribute to stabilizing the tertiary structures of proteins.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: Salt bridges between positively charged lysine and negatively charged glutamic acid residues stabilize the structure of an enzyme.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Hydrophobic Interactions $\rightarrow$ Disulfide Bonds $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Salt Bridges </span> $\rightarrow$ Pi-Stacking Interactions $\rightarrow$ Summary </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-8"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-pi-stacking-interactions-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Pi-Stacking Interactions </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Pi-stacking interactions occur between aromatic rings in molecules or biomolecules.</li>
<li>They involve a parallel or nearly parallel alignment of aromatic rings, maximizing the pi-pi electron interaction.</li>
<li>Pi-stacking interactions are vital for DNA structure, drug-receptor interactions, and protein-ligand complexes.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: The stacking of adjacent nucleotide bases in DNA stabilizes the double helical structure.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Disulfide Bonds $\rightarrow$ Salt Bridges $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Pi-Stacking Interactions </span> $\rightarrow$ Summary $\rightarrow$ Macromolecules in Living Systems </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-summary-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Summary </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Biomolecules rely on different types of stabilizing interactions to maintain their structure and function.</li>
<li>Electronegativity and polar covalent bonds contribute to partial charges in molecules.</li>
<li>Hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions, and ionic interactions play significant roles in stabilizing biomolecules.</li>
<li>Hydrophobic interactions, disulfide bonds, salt bridges, and pi-stacking interactions are also vital for stabilizing biomolecular structures.</li>
<li>Understanding these stabilizing interactions helps in comprehending the behavior and properties of biomolecules.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Salt Bridges $\rightarrow$ Pi-Stacking Interactions $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Summary </span> $\rightarrow$ Macromolecules in Living Systems $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-10"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-macromolecules-in-living-systems-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Macromolecules in Living Systems </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Macromolecules are large molecules essential for life processes.</li>
<li>They include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.</li>
<li>These macromolecules are formed by polymerization of monomers.</li>
<li><strong>Examples</strong>: Glucose is a monomer of carbohydrates, while amino acids are the monomers of proteins.</li>
<li>Macromolecules have unique structures and functions vital for living organisms.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Pi-Stacking Interactions $\rightarrow$ Summary $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Macromolecules in Living Systems </span> $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Lipids </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-carbohydrates-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Carbohydrates </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates are biomolecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.</li>
<li>They serve as a major energy source and provide structural support.</li>
<li>Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, fructose).</li>
<li>Disaccharides (e.g., sucrose, lactose) and polysaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose) are formed by linking monosaccharides through glycosidic bonds.</li>
<li>Carbohydrates play essential roles in cellular processes and provide energy for metabolism.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Summary $\rightarrow$ Macromolecules in Living Systems $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Carbohydrates </span> $\rightarrow$ Lipids $\rightarrow$ Proteins </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-12"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-lipids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Lipids </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Lipids are diverse biomolecules that include fats, oils, waxes, and steroids.</li>
<li>They are hydrophobic (insoluble in water) due to their nonpolar nature.</li>
<li>Lipids serve as energy storage, insulation, and components of cell membranes.</li>
<li>Triglycerides are the most abundant lipid and consist of glycerol and fatty acids.</li>
<li><strong>Examples</strong>: Phospholipids are the main components of cell membranes, while cholesterol is essential for cell membrane stability.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Macromolecules in Living Systems $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Lipids </span> $\rightarrow$ Proteins $\rightarrow$ Amino Acids </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-proteins-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Proteins </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Proteins are complex macromolecules made up of amino acids.</li>
<li>They perform various functions in living organisms, such as enzymes, antibodies, and structural support.</li>
<li>The sequence of amino acids determines the protein’s structure and function.</li>
<li><strong>Proteins have four levels of structural organization</strong>: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.</li>
<li><strong>Examples</strong>: Hemoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen, while enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Lipids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Proteins </span> $\rightarrow$ Amino Acids $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acids </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-nucleic-acids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Nucleic Acids </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information.</li>
<li>DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are two types of nucleic acids.</li>
<li>Nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids and consist of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.</li>
<li>DNA contains the genetic code, while RNA is involved in protein synthesis.</li>
<li>The complementary base pairing in DNA (A-T, G-C) ensures accurate replication and gene expression.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Proteins $\rightarrow$ Amino Acids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Nucleic Acids </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ Protein Synthesis </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-protein-synthesis-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Protein Synthesis </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Protein synthesis is the process of making proteins from the genetic information stored in DNA.</li>
<li><strong>It involves two main steps</strong>: transcription and translation.</li>
<li>During transcription, DNA is transcribed into RNA by RNA polymerase.</li>
<li>The RNA molecule (mRNA) carries the genetic code to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.</li>
<li>During translation, the ribosomes read the mRNA and synthesize proteins according to the genetic code.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nucleic Acids $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Protein Synthesis </span> $\rightarrow$ Enzymes $\rightarrow$ Summary </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-18"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-enzymes-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Enzymes </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Enzymes are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions in living organisms.</li>
<li>They lower the activation energy required for a chemical reaction to occur.</li>
<li>Enzymes are highly specific and often named after the reaction they catalyze.</li>
<li>Factors such as temperature, pH, and substrate concentration affect enzyme activity.</li>
<li><strong>Examples</strong>: Amylase breaks down starch into sugars, while DNA polymerase synthesizes DNA during replication.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ Protein Synthesis $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Enzymes </span> $\rightarrow$ Summary $\rightarrow$ Saccharides and Carbohydrates </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-20"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-saccharides-and-carbohydrates-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Saccharides and Carbohydrates </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Saccharides are a class of carbohydrates that can be classified based on their size and structure.</li>
<li>Monosaccharides are the simplest saccharides, consisting of a single sugar unit.</li>
<li>Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose.</li>
<li>Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond.</li>
<li>Examples of disaccharides include sucrose (glucose + fructose) and lactose (glucose + galactose).</li>
<li>Polysaccharides consist of multiple monosaccharide units linked together.</li>
<li>Examples of polysaccharides include starch (plant storage), glycogen (animal storage), and cellulose (plant structural component).</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Enzymes $\rightarrow$ Summary $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Saccharides and Carbohydrates </span> $\rightarrow$ Fatty Acids and Lipids $\rightarrow$ Proteins Structure and Function </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-21"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-fatty-acids-and-lipids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Fatty Acids and Lipids </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with a long hydrocarbon chain.</li>
<li>They can be classified as saturated or unsaturated based on the presence of double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain.</li>
<li>Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds and are solid at room temperature (e.g., butter).</li>
<li>Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds and are liquid at room temperature (e.g., olive oil).</li>
<li>Lipids are a diverse group of molecules that are insoluble in water.</li>
<li>They include triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.</li>
<li>Triglycerides are composed of three fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone.</li>
<li>Phospholipids have a hydrophilic head (phosphate group) and hydrophobic tails (fatty acid chains), making them excellent building blocks for cell membranes.</li>
<li>Steroids have a characteristic four-ring structure and serve as hormones and structural components.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Summary $\rightarrow$ Saccharides and Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Fatty Acids and Lipids </span> $\rightarrow$ Proteins Structure and Function $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-22"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-proteins-structure-and-function-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Proteins Structure and Function </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Proteins are macromolecules composed of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.</li>
<li>The primary structure of a protein refers to the linear sequence of amino acids.</li>
<li>The secondary structure involves the spatial arrangement of amino acids, forming alpha-helices or beta-sheets.</li>
<li>The tertiary structure describes the 3D folding of a protein due to interactions between side chains (R-groups).</li>
<li>The quaternary structure involves the assembly of multiple polypeptide chains.</li>
<li>Proteins have diverse functions, including enzymatic catalysis, transport, and structural support.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: Hemoglobin is a protein that transports oxygen in red blood cells.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Saccharides and Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Fatty Acids and Lipids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Proteins Structure and Function </span> $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-23"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-nucleic-acids-dna-and-rna-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information.</li>
<li>Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a double-stranded molecule found in the nucleus of cells.</li>
<li>Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is usually single-stranded and exists in various forms.</li>
<li>DNA contains the instructions for building and maintaining an organism’s structures and functions.</li>
<li>RNA plays a role in protein synthesis and gene regulation.</li>
<li>Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine/uracil).</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Fatty Acids and Lipids $\rightarrow$ Proteins Structure and Function $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ Transcription From DNA to RNA </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-24"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-replication-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA Replication </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>DNA replication is a semi-conservative process that ensures accurate transmission of genetic information during cell division.</li>
<li>The process begins with the unwinding and separation of the double-stranded DNA molecule.</li>
<li>DNA polymerase catalyzes the addition of complementary nucleotides to each template strand.</li>
<li>Complementary base pairing (A-T, G-C) guides the accurate replication of DNA.</li>
<li>Two identical DNA molecules are produced, each with one original and one newly synthesized strand.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Proteins Structure and Function $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA Replication </span> $\rightarrow$ Transcription From DNA to RNA $\rightarrow$ Translation From RNA to Protein </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-25"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-transcription-from-dna-to-rna-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Transcription From DNA to RNA </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.</li>
<li>RNA polymerase binds to a specific region of DNA called the promoter and begins transcription.</li>
<li>The DNA template strand is used to synthesize a complementary RNA molecule.</li>
<li>RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the growing RNA chain according to the DNA template.</li>
<li>Transcription is terminated by specific signals on the DNA template.</li>
<li>The resulting RNA is then processed and can be used for protein synthesis.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Transcription From DNA to RNA </span> $\rightarrow$ Translation From RNA to Protein $\rightarrow$ Enzymes Catalysts of Biochemical Reactions </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-26"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-translation-from-rna-to-protein-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Translation From RNA to Protein </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from an mRNA template.</li>
<li>It occurs in the ribosomes, which are complexes of rRNA and proteins.</li>
<li>The mRNA is read by the ribosome in codons (three nucleotides) that correspond to specific amino acids.</li>
<li>Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules bring the corresponding amino acids to the ribosome.</li>
<li>The ribosome catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids, resulting in a polypeptide chain.</li>
<li>The process continues until a stop codon is reached, and the polypeptide is released.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ Transcription From DNA to RNA $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Translation From RNA to Protein </span> $\rightarrow$ Enzymes Catalysts of Biochemical Reactions $\rightarrow$ Cofactors and Coenzymes </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-27"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-enzymes-catalysts-of-biochemical-reactions-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Enzymes Catalysts of Biochemical Reactions </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Enzymes are biological catalysts that increase the rate of biochemical reactions.</li>
<li>They lower the activation energy required for a reaction to occur.</li>
<li>Enzymes are highly specific, catalyzing a particular reaction or group of related reactions.</li>
<li>Enzymes can be affected by factors such as temperature, pH, and substrate concentration.</li>
<li>Enzymes are usually named after the reaction they catalyze, such as protease, lipase, or amylase.</li>
<li><strong>Examples</strong>: DNA polymerase catalyzes the synthesis of DNA during DNA replication, and lactase catalyzes the hydrolysis of lactose.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Transcription From DNA to RNA $\rightarrow$ Translation From RNA to Protein $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Enzymes Catalysts of Biochemical Reactions </span> $\rightarrow$ Cofactors and Coenzymes $\rightarrow$ Regulation of Enzyme Activity </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-28"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-cofactors-and-coenzymes-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Cofactors and Coenzymes </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Cofactors are non-protein molecules that aid in enzyme catalysis.</li>
<li>They can be inorganic ions (e.g., magnesium, zinc) or small organic molecules (coenzymes).</li>
<li>Coenzymes are organic molecules that often function as carriers of specific functional groups or small molecules.</li>
<li>Examples of coenzymes include NAD+, FAD, and coenzyme A.</li>
<li>Coenzymes are often derived from vitamins and play crucial roles in various metabolic pathways.</li>
<li>Their presence is essential for proper enzyme function.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Translation From RNA to Protein $\rightarrow$ Enzymes Catalysts of Biochemical Reactions $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Cofactors and Coenzymes </span> $\rightarrow$ Regulation of Enzyme Activity $\rightarrow$  </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-stabilizing-interactions-success-29"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Stabilizing Interactions </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-regulation-of-enzyme-activity-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Regulation of Enzyme Activity </primary></h3>
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<li>Enzyme activity can be regulated to fulfill specific cellular needs.</li>
<li>Enzyme regulation can occur through various mechanisms, including allosteric regulation, competitive and non-competitive inhibition, and covalent modification.</li>
<li>Allosteric regulation involves the binding of an effector molecule at a site other than the active site, leading to a conformational change in the enzyme.</li>
<li>Competitive inhibition occurs when a molecule competes with the substrate for binding at the active site.</li>
<li>Non-competitive inhibition occurs when an inhibitor binds to a site other than the active site, altering the enzyme’s shape and reducing its activity.</li>
<li>Covalent modification involves the addition or removal of a chemical group to modify enzyme activity.</li>
<li>These mechanisms help regulate enzyme activity and maintain metabolic homeostasis.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Enzymes Catalysts of Biochemical Reactions $\rightarrow$ Cofactors and Coenzymes $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Regulation of Enzyme Activity </span> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$  </footer>