Slide 1: Biomolecules

  • Definition: Biomolecules are the organic compounds that are essential for the structure and functioning of living organisms.
  • There are four main classes of biomolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
  • The study of biomolecules helps us understand the processes occurring in living organisms.

Slide 2: Carbohydrates

  • Definition: Carbohydrates are organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio of 1:2:1.
  • Classification: Carbohydrates can be classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
  • Example: Glucose, fructose, sucrose, cellulose, starch.

Slide 3: Lipids

  • Definition: Lipids are hydrophobic organic compounds that include fats, oils, waxes, and steroids.
  • Functions: Lipids act as energy storage molecules, structural components of cell membranes, and signaling molecules.
  • Classification: Lipids can be classified into fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.

Slide 4: Proteins

  • Definition: Proteins are complex macromolecules composed of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
  • Functions: Proteins play a vital role in cell structure, enzymatic functions, immune response, and transportation.
  • Structure: Proteins have a primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure.

Slide 5: Amino Acids

  • Definition: Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.
  • Structure: Amino acids consist of an amino group, a carboxyl group, a central carbon, and a side chain.
  • Classification: Amino acids can be classified as essential and non-essential based on the body’s ability to synthesize them.

Slide 6: Nucleic Acids

  • Definition: Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information.
  • Types: There are two types of nucleic acids, namely DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
  • Structure: Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Slide 7: DNA Structure

  • DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid, and it is a double-stranded helical structure.
  • DNA consists of nucleotides arranged in a specific sequence.
  • Base pairing: Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine.

Slide 8: RNA Structure

  • RNA stands for ribonucleic acid, and it is a single-stranded structure.
  • RNA also consists of nucleotides with sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous bases.
  • Base pairing: Adenine pairs with uracil, and guanine pairs with cytosine.

Slide 9: Biomolecule Functions

  • Carbohydrate functions: Provide energy, serve as structural components.
  • Lipid functions: Energy storage, insulation, hormones, cell membrane structure.
  • Protein functions: Enzymes, antibodies, transport molecules, structural components.
  • Nucleic acid functions: Storage and transmission of genetic information.

Slide 10: Biomolecule Examples

  • Carbohydrate examples: Glucose (energy source), cellulose (plant cell walls), glycogen (animal energy storage).
  • Lipid examples: Triglycerides (energy storage), cholesterol (component of cell membranes), steroid hormones.
  • Protein examples: Enzymes (catalysts), antibodies (immune response), hemoglobin (oxygen transportation).
  • Nucleic acid examples: DNA (genetic material), RNA (protein synthesis). Sure! Here are slides 11 to 20 in markdown format: ``

Slide 11: Properties of Biomolecules

  • Carbohydrates:
    • Soluble in water
    • Can form crystals
    • Can be sweet in taste
    • Give a positive Benedict’s test
    • Non-reducing sugars give a negative Fehling’s test
  • Lipids:
    • Insoluble in water
    • Can form nonpolar micelles
    • Can be hydrophobic or amphipathic
    • Give a positive Sudan test for fats and oils
    • Can be saturated or unsaturated
  • Proteins:
    • Soluble in water to varying extents
    • Can form coagulated masses when heated
    • Have varying isoelectric points
    • Can be classified as fibrous or globular
    • Can denature due to temperature or pH changes
  • Nucleic acids:
    • Acidic in nature
    • Made up of nucleotides
    • Exhibit absorbance at 260 nm
    • Can form double-stranded helices
    • Can undergo replication and transcription

Slide 12: Carbohydrate Metabolism

  • Carbohydrate metabolism refers to the biochemical processes involved in the breakdown, synthesis, and conversion of carbohydrates.
  • Glycolysis: The process by which glucose is converted into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.
  • Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs cycle): The further breakdown of pyruvate to produce ATP and other energy-rich molecules.
  • Gluconeogenesis: The synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources like amino acids and glycerol.
  • Glycogenesis: The conversion of glucose into glycogen for storage.
  • Glycogenolysis: The breakdown of glycogen into glucose to meet energy demands.

Slide 13: Lipid Metabolism

  • Lipid metabolism refers to the processes involved in the breakdown, synthesis, and conversion of lipids.
  • Beta-oxidation: The process by which fatty acids are broken down into acetyl-CoA molecules.
  • Fatty acid synthesis: The synthesis of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA in the cytoplasm.
  • Cholesterol synthesis: The synthesis of cholesterol from acetyl-CoA in the liver.
  • Lipolysis: The breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids for energy.
  • Ketogenesis: The synthesis of ketone bodies from acetyl-CoA during prolonged fasting or low carbohydrate intake.

Slide 14: Protein Structure

  • Primary structure: The linear sequence of amino acids in a protein.
  • Secondary structure: The folding of the polypeptide chain into alpha helices or beta sheets.
  • Tertiary structure: The overall 3D folding of the protein due to interactions between amino acid side chains.
  • Quaternary structure: The arrangement of multiple polypeptide subunits in a functional protein.
  • Protein conformation: The specific 3D shape of a protein, which determines its function.

Slide 15: Protein Synthesis

  • Transcription: The synthesis of mRNA from DNA in the nucleus.
  • mRNA processing: The modification of pre-mRNA into mature mRNA, including splicing and addition of a 5’ cap and 3’ poly(A) tail.
  • Translation: The synthesis of proteins from mRNA instructions on ribosomes.
  • Codons: Triplets of nucleotides on mRNA that code for specific amino acids.
  • tRNA: Transfer RNA molecules that carry specific amino acids to the ribosome during translation.

Slide 16: DNA Replication

  • DNA replication is a process by which DNA molecules are copied to generate new DNA molecules.
  • Semiconservative replication: Each newly replicated DNA molecule consists of one original strand and one newly synthesized strand.
  • DNA helicase: Enzyme that unwinds the double helix to expose the template strands.
  • DNA polymerase: Enzyme that adds complementary nucleotides to the growing DNA strand.
  • Leading strand: The DNA strand synthesized continuously in the 5’ to 3’ direction.
  • Lagging strand: The DNA strand synthesized discontinuously in the 3’ to 5’ direction, forming Okazaki fragments.

Slide 17: RNA Transcription

  • RNA transcription is the process by which an RNA molecule is synthesized from a DNA template.
  • RNA polymerase: Enzyme responsible for synthesizing RNA from DNA.
  • Promoter region: DNA sequence that signals the start of transcription.
  • Transcription factors: Proteins that bind to the promoter region and determine the rate of transcription.
  • RNA processing: Modifications made to pre-mRNA, including the removal of introns and addition of a 5’ cap and 3’ poly(A) tail.

Slide 18: Enzymes

  • Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.
  • Active site: The region of the enzyme where the substrate binds.
  • Enzyme-substrate complex: The temporary complex formed when the enzyme binds to the substrate.
  • Lock and key model: The enzyme and substrate have complementary shapes that fit together like a lock and key.
  • Induced fit model: The enzyme undergoes a conformational change upon substrate binding to achieve a better fit.
  • Factors affecting enzyme activity: pH, temperature, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, and presence of inhibitors.

Slide 19: Chemical Reactions in Biomolecules

  • Dehydration synthesis: The process by which biomolecules are synthesized by removing a water molecule.
  • Hydrolysis: The process by which biomolecules are broken down by adding a water molecule.
  • Reduction: The gain of electrons in a reaction.
  • Oxidation: The loss of electrons in a reaction.
  • Redox reactions: Reactions that involve both reduction and oxidation.

Slide 20: Bioenergetics

  • Bioenergetics is the study of how energy flows through living organisms.
  • ATP (adenosine triphosphate): The molecule used to store and transfer energy in cells.
  • ADP + Pi → ATP: The reaction that occurs during ATP synthesis.
  • ATP hydrolysis: The breakdown of ATP to ADP and inorganic phosphate, releasing energy.
  • Metabolic pathways: Series of interconnected chemical reactions that occur in living organisms.
  • Energy currency of the cell: ATP is often referred to as the energy currency of cells. Note: Slide 20 only has 4 bullet points, but the rest of the slides have 5 or more bullet points. Certainly! Here are slides 21 to 30 in markdown format:

Slide 21: Biomolecule Applications

  • Carbohydrate applications: Provide energy for the body, dietary fiber for digestion, and serve as building blocks for larger biomolecules.
  • Lipid applications: Energy storage, insulation, protection of organs, and synthesis of hormones.
  • Protein applications: Enzymes for biochemical reactions, structural components, antibodies for immune response, and transport molecules.
  • Nucleic acid applications: Storage and transmission of genetic information, synthesis of proteins, and inheritance of traits.

Slide 22: Carbohydrate Disorders

  • Diabetes mellitus: Inability to regulate blood sugar levels due to insufficient insulin production or insulin resistance.
  • Glycogen storage diseases: Genetic disorders that affect the metabolism of glycogen, leading to abnormal storage and structure.
  • Lactose intolerance: Inability to digest lactose due to a deficiency of the enzyme lactase.
  • Starch digestion disorders: Problems breaking down starch due to enzyme deficiencies, leading to malabsorption and digestive issues.

Slide 23: Lipid Disorders

  • Hypercholesterolemia: High levels of cholesterol in the blood, increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
  • Hyperlipidemia: High levels of lipids, such as triglycerides, in the blood, contributing to the development of atherosclerosis.
  • Familial hypercholesterolemia: Genetic disorder resulting in high cholesterol levels due to impaired clearance of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol.
  • Lipid storage disorders: Disorders characterized by the abnormal accumulation of lipids in various tissues, leading to organ dysfunction.

Slide 24: Protein Disorders

  • Protein-energy malnutrition: Inadequate intake of dietary protein and energy, leading to impaired growth, weakened immune system, and organ dysfunction.
  • Celiac disease: Autoimmune disorder triggered by gluten ingestion, causing damage to the small intestine and preventing proper nutrient absorption.
  • Phenylketonuria (PKU): Genetic disorder resulting in the inability to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine, leading to intellectual disability if left untreated.
  • Hemoglobinopathies: Genetic disorders affecting the production or structure of hemoglobin, leading to conditions such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.

Slide 25: Nucleic Acid Disorders

  • Genetic disorders: Various inherited conditions caused by mutations in the DNA sequence, such as cystic fibrosis, Huntington’s disease, and muscular dystrophy.
  • Cancer: Abnormal cell growth and division caused by mutations in DNA, leading to the uncontrolled proliferation of cells.
  • Replication errors: Mistakes during DNA replication, resulting in mutations and genetic variability.
  • Genetic testing: Techniques to identify mutations and genetic disorders, helping in diagnosis, prevention, and treatment.

Slide 26: Enzyme Kinetics

  • Activation energy: Energy required to initiate a chemical reaction.
  • Enzyme-substrate complex: The temporary complex formed when the enzyme binds to the substrate.
  • Substrate concentration: Higher substrate concentrations increase the rate of the reaction until saturation is reached.
  • Enzyme concentration: Increased enzyme concentration generally increases the reaction rate until the substrate becomes limiting.
  • Enzyme inhibitors: Substances that decrease enzyme activity by interfering with the enzyme-substrate interaction.

Slide 27: Acid-Base Chemistry

  • Acids: Substances that donate protons (H+) or accept pairs of electrons.
  • Bases: Substances that donate pairs of electrons or accept protons (H+).
  • pH scale: A scale that measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.
  • Acid-base reactions: Reactions in which protons (H+) are transferred from an acid to a base.
  • Buffers: Solutions that resist changes in pH by accepting or donating protons.

Slide 28: Solution Chemistry

  • Solvent: The substance in which solutes are dissolved to form a solution.
  • Solute: The substance that is dissolved in a solvent to form a solution.
  • Concentration: The amount of solute present in a given amount of solvent or solution.
  • Molarity: The concentration of a solution expressed as moles of solute per liter of solution (mol/L).
  • Solubility: The maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent at a given temperature and pressure.

Slide 29: Redox Reactions

  • Oxidation: The loss of electrons by a species.
  • Reduction: The gain of electrons by a species.
  • Reducing agent: The species that undergoes oxidation and donates electrons.
  • Oxidizing agent: The species that undergoes reduction and accepts electrons.
  • Redox reactions: Reactions that involve the transfer of electrons between species.

Slide 30: Organic Chemistry

  • Organic compounds: Compounds containing carbon atoms bonded to other carbon atoms and various other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.
  • Functional groups: Groups of atoms that give organic compounds their characteristic properties and reactions.
  • Isomerism: The existence of different compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms.
  • Hydrocarbons: Organic compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms.
  • Alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters are examples of functional groups commonly encountered in organic chemistry. `` Please note that the requested equations were not included in these slides as they were not mentioned in the instructions.