Biomolecules - Primary Structure Of Nucleic Acid

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-biomolecules---primary-structure-of-nucleic-acid-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Biomolecules - Primary structure of nucleic acid </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Nucleic acids are macromolecules composed of nucleotides.</li>
<li>Nucleotides consist of a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.</li>
<li>The primary structure of nucleic acid refers to the sequence of nucleotides along the DNA or RNA strand.</li>
<li>DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are the two types of nucleic acids found in living organisms.</li>
<li>The primary structure of DNA is crucial for genetic information storage and transfer.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px"> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Biomolecules - Primary structure of nucleic acid </span> $\rightarrow$ Nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids $\rightarrow$ Watson-Crick base-pairing rules </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-nitrogenous-bases-in-nucleic-acids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Nitrogenous bases are the building blocks of nucleic acids.</li>
<li><strong>DNA contains four nitrogenous bases</strong>: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).</li>
<li><strong>RNA contains four nitrogenous bases</strong>: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U).</li>
<li>Adenine and guanine are purine bases, while cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyrimidine bases.</li>
<li>The specific pairing of nitrogenous bases forms the basis of the double helix structure of DNA.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px"> $\rightarrow$ Biomolecules - Primary structure of nucleic acid $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids </span> $\rightarrow$ Watson-Crick base-pairing rules $\rightarrow$ Complementary base pairing in RNA </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-watson-crick-base-pairing-rules-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Watson-Crick base-pairing rules </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Watson and Crick proposed the base-pairing rules for DNA in 1953.</li>
<li>Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T) through two hydrogen bonds.</li>
<li>Cytosine (C) always pairs with guanine (G) through three hydrogen bonds.</li>
<li>These base-pairing rules determine the complementary nature of DNA strands.</li>
<li>The base pairing allows for DNA replication and transcription.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Biomolecules - Primary structure of nucleic acid $\rightarrow$ Nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Watson-Crick base-pairing rules </span> $\rightarrow$ Complementary base pairing in RNA $\rightarrow$ Primary structure of DNA </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-complementary-base-pairing-in-rna-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Complementary base pairing in RNA </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>RNA uses the same base-pairing rules as DNA, except thymine (T) is replaced by uracil (U).</li>
<li>Adenine (A) always pairs with uracil (U) through two hydrogen bonds.</li>
<li>Cytosine (C) always pairs with guanine (G) through three hydrogen bonds.</li>
<li>The complementary base pairing allows mRNA to be transcribed from DNA during protein synthesis.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids $\rightarrow$ Watson-Crick base-pairing rules $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Complementary base pairing in RNA </span> $\rightarrow$ Primary structure of DNA $\rightarrow$ Primary structure of RNA </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-primary-structure-of-dna-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Primary structure of DNA </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>The primary structure of DNA is the sequence of nucleotides that make up the DNA molecule.</li>
<li>It follows the Watson-Crick base-pairing rules.</li>
<li><strong>For example, a DNA sequence may be</strong>: 5’-ATGCTAGC-3'.</li>
<li>Each nucleotide in the sequence is connected to the adjacent nucleotide by a phosphodiester bond.</li>
<li>The primary structure plays a crucial role in determining the genetic information carried by DNA.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Watson-Crick base-pairing rules $\rightarrow$ Complementary base pairing in RNA $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Primary structure of DNA </span> $\rightarrow$ Primary structure of RNA $\rightarrow$ Role of primary structure in protein synthesis </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-primary-structure-of-rna-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Primary structure of RNA </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>The primary structure of RNA is similar to that of DNA but can vary in sequence and length.</li>
<li>RNA can be single-stranded or folded into secondary structures (e.g., hairpins or loops).</li>
<li>The primary structure of RNA determines its role in various cellular processes, such as transcription and translation.</li>
<li><strong>For example, an mRNA sequence may be</strong>: 5’-AUGCUAGC-3'.</li>
<li>The nucleotides in the primary structure are connected by phosphodiester bonds.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Complementary base pairing in RNA $\rightarrow$ Primary structure of DNA $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Primary structure of RNA </span> $\rightarrow$ Role of primary structure in protein synthesis $\rightarrow$ Importance of DNA primary structure in genetics </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-role-of-primary-structure-in-protein-synthesis-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Role of primary structure in protein synthesis </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>The primary structure of nucleic acids is crucial for protein synthesis.</li>
<li>DNA serves as a template for mRNA synthesis during transcription.</li>
<li>The mRNA molecule carries the genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.</li>
<li>The ribosomes read the mRNA sequence and synthesize proteins based on the codons present.</li>
<li>The primary structure of mRNA determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Primary structure of DNA $\rightarrow$ Primary structure of RNA $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Role of primary structure in protein synthesis </span> $\rightarrow$ Importance of DNA primary structure in genetics $\rightarrow$ Importance of RNA primary structure in gene expression </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-importance-of-dna-primary-structure-in-genetics-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Importance of DNA primary structure in genetics </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>The primary structure of DNA carries the genetic information encoded in the sequence of nucleotides.</li>
<li>DNA sequencing techniques allow scientists to determine the exact order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule.</li>
<li>The primary structure of DNA determines an individual’s unique genetic identity and inheritance of traits.</li>
<li>Changes or mutations in the DNA sequence can lead to genetic disorders or variations.</li>
<li>Studying the primary structure of DNA helps in understanding genetic diseases and evolutionary relationships.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Primary structure of RNA $\rightarrow$ Role of primary structure in protein synthesis $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Importance of DNA primary structure in genetics </span> $\rightarrow$ Importance of RNA primary structure in gene expression $\rightarrow$ Conclusion </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-importance-of-rna-primary-structure-in-gene-expression-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Importance of RNA primary structure in gene expression </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>The primary structure of RNA plays a crucial role in gene expression.</li>
<li>Various types of RNA molecules, such as mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA, have distinct primary structures.</li>
<li>The primary structure of mRNA determines which proteins are synthesized within a cell.</li>
<li>tRNA molecules bring specific amino acids to the ribosome based on the mRNA sequence.</li>
<li>rRNA molecules are essential components of ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Role of primary structure in protein synthesis $\rightarrow$ Importance of DNA primary structure in genetics $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Importance of RNA primary structure in gene expression </span> $\rightarrow$ Conclusion $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-conclusion-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Conclusion </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>The primary structure of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, refers to the sequence of nucleotides.</li>
<li>Base-pairing rules determine the complementary nature of DNA and RNA strands.</li>
<li>The primary structure of DNA carries genetic information, while the primary structure of RNA is involved in gene expression.</li>
<li>Understanding the primary structure of nucleic acids is essential for studying genetics and molecular biology.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Importance of DNA primary structure in genetics $\rightarrow$ Importance of RNA primary structure in gene expression $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Conclusion </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ Steps of DNA Replication </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-replication-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA Replication </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>DNA replication is the process of copying the entire DNA sequence.</li>
<li>It occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle.</li>
<li>The replication process is semi-conservative, meaning that each new DNA molecule consists of one original strand and one newly synthesized strand.</li>
<li>Enzymes involved in DNA replication include DNA helicase, DNA polymerase, and DNA ligase.</li>
<li>The replication fork is the point where the DNA strands separate and replication occurs.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Importance of RNA primary structure in gene expression $\rightarrow$ Conclusion $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA Replication </span> $\rightarrow$ Steps of DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ Transcription </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-steps-of-dna-replication-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Steps of DNA Replication </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li><strong>Initiation</strong>: DNA helicase unwinds the double helix, creating a replication fork.</li>
<li><strong>Elongation</strong>: DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to each separated strand, synthesizing new DNA strands.</li>
<li><strong>Leading strand</strong>: Synthesized continuously.</li>
<li><strong>Lagging strand</strong>: Synthesized in small fragments called Okazaki fragments.</li>
<li>Okazaki fragments are later joined by DNA ligase.</li>
<li><strong>Termination</strong>: The replication process ends when the entire DNA sequence has been replicated.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Conclusion $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Steps of DNA Replication </span> $\rightarrow$ Transcription $\rightarrow$ Steps of Transcription </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-transcription-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Transcription </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Transcription is the process of synthesizing an RNA molecule from a DNA template.</li>
<li>It occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.</li>
<li>RNA polymerase is the enzyme responsible for RNA synthesis.</li>
<li>The DNA sequence is transcribed into mRNA, which carries the genetic information to the ribosomes for protein synthesis.</li>
<li><strong>Transcription involves three steps</strong>: initiation, elongation, and termination.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ Steps of DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Transcription </span> $\rightarrow$ Steps of Transcription $\rightarrow$ Translation </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-steps-of-transcription-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Steps of Transcription </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li><strong>Initiation</strong>: RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of the DNA strand, signaling the start of transcription.</li>
<li><strong>Elongation</strong>: RNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides (A, U, G, C) to the growing mRNA strand, following the base pairing rules.</li>
<li><strong>Termination</strong>: RNA polymerase reaches the termination sequence, causing the mRNA strand and RNA polymerase to detach from the DNA template.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Steps of DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ Transcription $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Steps of Transcription </span> $\rightarrow$ Translation $\rightarrow$ Steps of Translation </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-steps-of-translation-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Steps of Translation </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Initiation</strong>: The small ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA molecule, and the start codon (AUG) signals the start of translation.</li>
<li><strong>Elongation</strong>: The ribosome moves along the mRNA, reading the codons and facilitating the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids, creating a polypeptide chain.</li>
<li><strong>Termination</strong>: A stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) signals the end of translation, and the polypeptide chain is released.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Steps of Transcription $\rightarrow$ Translation $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Steps of Translation </span> $\rightarrow$ Codons and Anticodons $\rightarrow$ Genetic Code </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-gene-expression-regulation-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Gene Expression Regulation </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Gene expression can be regulated at various levels, such as transcription, translation, and post-translational modifications.</li>
<li>Regulatory proteins, enhancers, promoters, and repressors control gene expression.</li>
<li>Gene expression regulation plays a crucial role in cell differentiation, development, and response to environmental stimuli.</li>
<li>Mutations or dysregulation in gene expression can lead to diseases, including cancer.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Codons and Anticodons $\rightarrow$ Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Gene Expression Regulation </span> $\rightarrow$ Conclusion $\rightarrow$ Types of Biomolecules </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-conclusion-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Conclusion </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Understanding the primary structure of nucleic acids and the processes involved in DNA replication, transcription, and translation is essential for studying genetics and molecular biology.</li>
<li>These processes ensure the transfer of genetic information and the synthesis of proteins.</li>
<li>The genetic code and regulatory mechanisms control gene expression, leading to the diversification and specialization of cells in multicellular organisms.</li>
<li>By studying these topics, we can gain insights into the molecular basis of life and the inheritance of traits.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Genetic Code $\rightarrow$ Gene Expression Regulation $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Conclusion </span> $\rightarrow$ Types of Biomolecules $\rightarrow$ Proteins </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-types-of-biomolecules-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Types of Biomolecules </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Biomolecules are organic compounds essential for the structure and function of living organisms.</li>
<li><strong>There are four main types of biomolecules</strong>: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.</li>
<li>Each biomolecule has a unique structure and plays a specific role in cellular processes.</li>
<li>Proteins are involved in enzymatic reactions, cell signaling, and structural support.</li>
<li>Carbohydrates are a source of energy and serve as structural components.</li>
<li>Lipids are important for energy storage and as components of cell membranes.</li>
<li>Nucleic acids store and transfer genetic information.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Gene Expression Regulation $\rightarrow$ Conclusion $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Types of Biomolecules </span> $\rightarrow$ Proteins $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-proteins-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Proteins </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Proteins are polymers made up of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.</li>
<li>There are 20 different amino acids that can be combined in various sequences to form proteins.</li>
<li>The primary structure of a protein is the sequence of amino acids.</li>
<li>The secondary structure refers to the folding of the protein chain into alpha helix or beta sheet.</li>
<li>The tertiary structure indicates the overall 3D shape of the protein.</li>
<li>The quaternary structure is the arrangement of multiple protein subunits.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Conclusion $\rightarrow$ Types of Biomolecules $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Proteins </span> $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Lipids </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-nucleic-acids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Nucleic Acids </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, are responsible for storing and transferring genetic information.</li>
<li>DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is found in the nucleus and forms a double helix structure.</li>
<li>RNA (ribonucleic acid) is involved in protein synthesis and can be single-stranded or form secondary structures.</li>
<li>The primary structure of nucleic acids is the sequence of nucleotides.</li>
<li>Nucleotides consist of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Lipids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Nucleic Acids </span> $\rightarrow$ Importance of Nucleic Acids $\rightarrow$ Examples of Proteins </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-importance-of-nucleic-acids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Importance of Nucleic Acids </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Nucleic acids are essential for genetic information storage and transfer.</li>
<li>DNA contains the instructions for the synthesis of proteins and determines an organism’s traits.</li>
<li>RNA helps in decoding DNA and carries the genetic information to the ribosomes for protein synthesis.</li>
<li>Understanding the primary structure of nucleic acids is crucial for studying genetics and molecular biology.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Lipids $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Importance of Nucleic Acids </span> $\rightarrow$ Examples of Proteins $\rightarrow$ Examples of Carbohydrates </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-examples-of-proteins-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Examples of Proteins </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that transports oxygen throughout the body.</li>
<li>Enzymes, such as amylase and lactase, are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions.</li>
<li>Collagen is a structural protein that provides strength and support to connective tissues.</li>
<li>Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system to recognize and neutralize foreign substances.</li>
<li>Actin and myosin are proteins responsible for muscle contraction.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nucleic Acids $\rightarrow$ Importance of Nucleic Acids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Examples of Proteins </span> $\rightarrow$ Examples of Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Examples of Lipids </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-examples-of-carbohydrates-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Examples of Carbohydrates </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Glucose is a monosaccharide and the primary source of energy for cellular processes.</li>
<li>Starch is a polysaccharide found in plants and serves as a storage form of glucose.</li>
<li>Cellulose is a polysaccharide that provides structural support to plant cell walls.</li>
<li>Glycogen is a highly branched polysaccharide that serves as a storage form of glucose in animals.</li>
<li>Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk, consisting of glucose and galactose.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Importance of Nucleic Acids $\rightarrow$ Examples of Proteins $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Examples of Carbohydrates </span> $\rightarrow$ Examples of Lipids $\rightarrow$ Summary </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-examples-of-lipids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Examples of Lipids </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Triglycerides, such as vegetable oils and fats, are a major source of energy in the diet.</li>
<li>Phospholipids are important components of cell membranes, maintaining their integrity and fluidity.</li>
<li>Cholesterol is a lipid involved in hormone synthesis and is found in cell membranes.</li>
<li>Steroids, such as estrogen and testosterone, are lipid-based hormones involved in various physiological processes.</li>
<li>Waxes are lipids that provide waterproofing and protection to plants and animals.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Examples of Proteins $\rightarrow$ Examples of Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Examples of Lipids </span> $\rightarrow$ Summary $\rightarrow$  </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-summary-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Summary </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Biomolecules are organic compounds essential for living organisms.</li>
<li>Proteins are polymers of amino acids, with primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.</li>
<li>Carbohydrates are composed of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides, serving as energy sources and structural molecules.</li>
<li>Lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and steroids, playing roles in energy storage and membrane structure.</li>
<li>Nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, store and transfer genetic information.</li>
<li>Understanding the primary structure of biomolecules is crucial for studying their functions and their importance in biological processes.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Examples of Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Examples of Lipids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Summary </span> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$  </footer>