Biomolecules - Nucleotides

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<li>Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids, namely DNA and RNA.</li>
<li><strong>Each nucleotide consists of three components</strong>: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.</li>
<li><strong>There are five types of nitrogenous bases in nucleotides</strong>: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U).</li>
<li>The sugar component in DNA nucleotides is deoxyribose, while in RNA nucleotides, it is ribose.</li>
<li>The phosphate group is attached to the sugar molecule at the 5’ carbon position.</li>
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<li>Nucleotides are linked together through phosphodiester bonds between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the sugar of the next nucleotide.</li>
<li>The sequence of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule is essential for genetic information storage and expression.</li>
<li>The double-stranded DNA molecule consists of two complementary strands connected through hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases.</li>
<li>Adenine always pairs with thymine (A-T) in DNA or uracil (A-U) in RNA through two hydrogen bonds.</li>
<li>Guanine always pairs with cytosine (G-C) through three hydrogen bonds.</li>
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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-roles-of-nucleotides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Roles of Nucleotides </primary></h3>
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<li>Nucleotides play crucial roles in various biological processes, apart from their function in DNA and RNA.</li>
<li>Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide that serves as the primary energy currency in cells.</li>
<li>ATP is hydrolyzed to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi) to release energy for cellular activities.</li>
<li>Other important nucleotides include cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and guanosine triphosphate (GTP), which act as secondary messengers in signal transduction pathways.</li>
<li>Nucleotides also participate in the synthesis of coenzymes, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD+).</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Biomolecules - Nucleotides $\rightarrow$ Nucleotides Linkage $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Roles of Nucleotides </span> $\rightarrow$ Nucleotide analogs $\rightarrow$ structure of nucleotides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-nucleotide-analogs-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Nucleotide analogs </primary></h3>
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<li>Nucleotide analogs are used as therapeutic agents in the treatment of various diseases.</li>
<li>Antiviral drugs like acyclovir and AZT (azidothymidine) are nucleoside analogs that inhibit viral DNA synthesis.</li>
<li>Methotrexate, a folate analog, is used in cancer chemotherapy to inhibit nucleotide synthesis.</li>
<li>Nucleotide analogs can also be used as molecular probes to study DNA and RNA structure and function.</li>
<li>For example, fluorescently labeled nucleotides are used in DNA sequencing techniques.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nucleotides Linkage $\rightarrow$ Roles of Nucleotides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Nucleotide analogs </span> $\rightarrow$ structure of nucleotides $\rightarrow$ synthesis of nucleotides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-structure-of-nucleotides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> structure of nucleotides </primary></h3>
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<li>The structure of nucleotides can be modified to alter their properties or functions.</li>
<li>Chemical modifications of nucleotides can affect their base pairing, stability, and enzymatic recognition.</li>
<li>Modified nucleotides are commonly found in transfer RNA (tRNA) and play critical roles in protein synthesis.</li>
<li>For instance, pseudouridine and 5-methylcytosine are commonly found in tRNAs and help to stabilize their structure.</li>
<li>Modified nucleotides can also act as markers for epigenetic regulation, influencing gene expression patterns.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Roles of Nucleotides $\rightarrow$ Nucleotide analogs $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> structure of nucleotides </span> $\rightarrow$ synthesis of nucleotides $\rightarrow$ nucleotide synthesis </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-synthesis-of-nucleotides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> synthesis of nucleotides </primary></h3>
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<li>The synthesis of nucleotides can occur through de novo pathways or salvage pathways.</li>
<li>De novo synthesis involves the stepwise assembly of nucleotides from simple precursors such as amino acids and sugars.</li>
<li>Salvage pathways utilize pre-formed nucleobases and nucleosides to synthesize nucleotides.</li>
<li>The balance between de novo synthesis and salvage pathways is crucial for maintaining nucleotide pools in cells.</li>
<li>Imbalances in nucleotide metabolism can lead to diseases like gout or certain immune deficiencies.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nucleotide analogs $\rightarrow$ structure of nucleotides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> synthesis of nucleotides </span> $\rightarrow$ nucleotide synthesis $\rightarrow$ Disorders related to nucleotide metabolism </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-nucleotide-synthesis-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> nucleotide synthesis </primary></h3>
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<li>The key enzymes involved in nucleotide synthesis include ribonucleotide reductase, which converts ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucleotides.</li>
<li>Other enzymes like kinases and phosphatases regulate the phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of nucleotides.</li>
<li>Salvage pathways rely on enzymes such as nucleoside kinases and nucleotidases to convert nucleosides back into nucleotides.</li>
<li>Feedback inhibition and allosteric regulation play important roles in controlling the activity of these enzymes.</li>
<li>For example, ATP and dATP act as negative regulators of ribonucleotide reductase.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">structure of nucleotides $\rightarrow$ synthesis of nucleotides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> nucleotide synthesis </span> $\rightarrow$ Disorders related to nucleotide metabolism $\rightarrow$ Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-disorders-related-to-nucleotide-metabolism-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Disorders related to nucleotide metabolism </primary></h3>
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<li>Disorders related to nucleotide metabolism can have severe consequences.</li>
<li>Lesch-Nyhan syndrome is caused by a deficiency of the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT).</li>
<li>This leads to the accumulation of uric acid and neurological symptoms like self-mutilation and developmental delays.</li>
<li>Adenosine deaminase deficiency results in severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), a condition that severely impairs the immune system.</li>
<li>These disorders highlight the importance of nucleotide metabolism for normal cellular function.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">synthesis of nucleotides $\rightarrow$ nucleotide synthesis $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Disorders related to nucleotide metabolism </span> $\rightarrow$ Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) $\rightarrow$ Conclusion </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) </primary></h3>
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<li>Nucleotides are involved in various diagnostic techniques in molecular biology and medicine.</li>
<li>Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) relies on the use of nucleotide primers and nucleotide triphosphates for DNA amplification.</li>
<li>DNA sequencing methods, such as Sanger sequencing or Next Generation Sequencing (NGS), utilize labeled nucleotides for sequence determination.</li>
<li>Genetic testing and screening for specific mutations often involve the use of nucleotide probes or hybridization techniques.</li>
<li>Nucleotides also play a crucial role in gene therapy, where modified nucleotides can be used to correct genetic mutations.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">nucleotide synthesis $\rightarrow$ Disorders related to nucleotide metabolism $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) </span> $\rightarrow$ Conclusion $\rightarrow$ categories of Nucleotides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-conclusion-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Conclusion </primary></h3>
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<li>In conclusion, nucleotides are essential biomolecules that play crucial roles in genetic information storage, energy metabolism, and cellular signaling.</li>
<li>Understanding the structure, function, and metabolism of nucleotides is vital for comprehending various biological processes and developing therapeutics.</li>
<li>Further studies on nucleotides and their interactions with enzymes and other biomolecules will continue to uncover new insights in the field of biochemistry.</li>
<li>Stay curious and keep exploring the fascinating world of nucleotides and biomolecules!</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Disorders related to nucleotide metabolism $\rightarrow$ Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Conclusion </span> $\rightarrow$ categories of Nucleotides $\rightarrow$ DNA replication and cell division </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-participation-of-nucleotides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> participation of Nucleotides </primary></h3>
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<li><strong>Nucleotides are involved in various metabolic pathways and synthesis of essential biomolecules</strong>:</li>
<li>Nucleotides provide the building blocks for the synthesis of DNA and RNA.</li>
<li>They are also utilized in the synthesis of coenzymes, such as NAD+ and FAD+, involved in redox reactions.</li>
<li>Nucleotides participate in the synthesis of certain amino acids, like histidine and tryptophan.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) $\rightarrow$ study of nucleotides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> participation of Nucleotides </span> $\rightarrow$ Nucleotide metabolism $\rightarrow$ Nucleotide salvage </footer>