Biomolecules - Nucleotide Subunits

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<li><strong>Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids</strong>: DNA and RNA.</li>
<li><strong>They are composed of three main parts</strong>: a nitrogenous base, a sugar, and one or more phosphate groups.</li>
<li>The nitrogenous base can be adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), or uracil (U) in RNA.</li>
<li>The sugar molecule is either ribose in RNA or deoxyribose in DNA.</li>
<li>The phosphate group(s) are responsible for the acidity of nucleotides.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px"> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Biomolecules - Nucleotide Subunits </span> $\rightarrow$ Structure of Nucleotides $\rightarrow$ Examples of Nucleotide Structures </footer>

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<li>Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide that plays a crucial role in cellular energy transfer.</li>
<li>It consists of the adenine base, ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups.</li>
<li>Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is another nucleotide involved in energy transfer reactions.</li>
<li>It has the guanine base, ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Biomolecules - Nucleotide Subunits $\rightarrow$ Structure of Nucleotides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Examples of Nucleotide Structures </span> $\rightarrow$ Nucleotide Function in DNA $\rightarrow$ Nucleotide Function in RNA </footer>

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<li>Nucleotides are the monomers that make up nucleic acids.</li>
<li>They are linked together through phosphodiester bonds.</li>
<li>ATP is a nucleotide that serves as the primary energy currency of cells.</li>
<li>GTP is another nucleotide that plays a role in protein synthesis.</li>
<li>Nucleotides can be synthesized de novo or salvaged from degradation pathways.</li>
<li>Examples of nucleotide degradation products include xanthine and hypoxanthine.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nucleotide Modification $\rightarrow$ Summary $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Nucleotides </span> $\rightarrow$ Nucleotide biosynthesis $\rightarrow$ Pyrimidine nucleotides </footer>

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<li>Nucleotide biosynthesis pathways are highly regulated.</li>
<li>Purine nucleotides are synthesized from simple precursors such as amino acids, ribose-5-phosphate, and carbon dioxide.</li>
<li>Adenine synthesis requires the enzyme adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT).</li>
<li>Guanine synthesis involves the enzymes hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT) and guanosine monophosphate synthetase (GMPS).</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Summary $\rightarrow$ Nucleotides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Nucleotide biosynthesis </span> $\rightarrow$ Pyrimidine nucleotides $\rightarrow$ Examples of Nucleotide Biosynthesis Inhibitors </footer>

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<li>Pyrimidine nucleotides are synthesized from aspartate and carbamoyl phosphate.</li>
<li>Thymine is synthesized from uracil through the action of the enzyme thymidylate synthase.</li>
<li>The enzyme ribonucleotide reductase converts ribonucleotides into deoxyribonucleotides for DNA synthesis.</li>
<li>Each nucleotide biosynthesis pathway has multiple regulation points to maintain proper cellular balance.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nucleotides $\rightarrow$ Nucleotide biosynthesis $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Pyrimidine nucleotides </span> $\rightarrow$ Examples of Nucleotide Biosynthesis Inhibitors $\rightarrow$ Nucleotide metabolism </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-examples-of-nucleotide-biosynthesis-inhibitors-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Examples of Nucleotide Biosynthesis Inhibitors </primary></h3>
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<li>Methotrexate is a drug that inhibits dihydrofolate reductase, an enzyme critical for purine and pyrimidine synthesis.</li>
<li>5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is an antimetabolite that inhibits thymidylate synthase, reducing the availability of thymine nucleotides.</li>
<li>Azathioprine is an immunosuppressive drug that interferes with nucleotide biosynthesis, leading to cytotoxic effects on dividing cells.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nucleotide biosynthesis $\rightarrow$ Pyrimidine nucleotides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Examples of Nucleotide Biosynthesis Inhibitors </span> $\rightarrow$ Nucleotide metabolism $\rightarrow$ Nucleotide excision repair </footer>

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<li>Nucleotide analogs can be used as antimetabolites in cancer therapy.</li>
<li>For example, 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP) is a purine analog that inhibits nucleotide biosynthesis in cancer cells.</li>
<li>Cytarabine is a pyrimidine analog used to treat leukemia.</li>
<li>These analogs interfere with DNA or RNA synthesis, inhibiting cell division and growth.</li>
<li>Nucleotide analogs can also be used as tools in molecular biology and research.</li>
<li>2’,3’-dideoxyribonucleotides are used in DNA sequencing by chain termination.</li>
<li>Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) analogs labeled with fluorescent dyes are used in ATP detection assays.</li>
<li>Nucleotide analogs can be modified to incorporate fluorescent or radioactive labels for visualization or tracking purposes.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nucleotide metabolism $\rightarrow$ Nucleotide excision repair $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Nucleotide analogs </span> $\rightarrow$ polymerase chain reaction (PCR) $\rightarrow$ Conclusion </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-conclusion-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Conclusion </primary></h3>
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<li>In conclusion, nucleotides are essential building blocks of nucleic acids with diverse functions.</li>
<li>They are involved in genetic information storage, cellular energy transfer, and protein synthesis.</li>
<li>Nucleotide biosynthesis is a highly regulated process, and its disruption can have detrimental effects on cell function.</li>
<li>Nucleotide analogs have applications in medicine, research, and diagnostics, significantly impacting various fields of study.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nucleotide analogs $\rightarrow$ polymerase chain reaction (PCR) $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Conclusion </span> $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Structure and Function of Carbohydrates </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-summary-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Summary </primary></h3>
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<li>Biomolecules, including nucleotides, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, are vital for the structure and function of living organisms.</li>
<li>Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids, DNA, and RNA.</li>
<li>Carbohydrates serve as a source of energy and provide structural support.</li>
<li>Lipids have various functions, including energy storage and serving as structural components of cell membranes.</li>
<li>Proteins are involved in a wide range of cellular functions.</li>
<li>Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Structure of DNA $\rightarrow$ Structure of RNA $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Summary </span> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$  </footer>