Biomolecules - Nuclei Oxides

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-rna-ribonucleic-acid-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> RNA (Ribonucleic acid) </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Single-stranded molecule</li>
<li>Composed of nucleotides</li>
<li><strong>Nucleotides consist of</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Ribose sugar</li>
<li>Phosphate group</li>
<li>Nucleobases (Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine, Guanine)</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Types of RNA
<ul>
<li>Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes</li>
<li>Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfers amino acids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis</li>
<li>Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Forms a major component of ribosomes</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Structure of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> RNA (Ribonucleic acid) </span> $\rightarrow$ Protein Synthesis $\rightarrow$ Types of Nucleic Acid Modifications </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-nuclei-oxides-success-10"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Nuclei Oxides </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-biomolecules-nucleic-acids-continued-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Biomolecules: Nucleic Acids (continued) </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Nucleic Acid Structure
<ul>
<li>DNA double helix structure provides stability and protection for genetic information</li>
<li>RNA is typically single-stranded, which allows for flexibility and versatility</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Nucleic Acid Composition
<ul>
<li>DNA and RNA are composed of nucleotides</li>
<li>Nucleotides consist of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Nucleotide Examples
<ul>
<li>DNA: Deoxyadenosine, Deoxyguanosine, Deoxycytidine, Deoxythymidine</li>
<li>RNA: Adenosine, Guanosine, Cytidine, Uridine</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Applications of Nucleic Acids $\rightarrow$ Summary $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Biomolecules: Nucleic Acids (continued) </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication Process $\rightarrow$ RNA Transcription Process </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-nuclei-oxides-success-11"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Nuclei Oxides </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-replication-process-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA Replication Process </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Initiation</strong>: DNA helicase separates the DNA strands, creating a replication fork</li>
<li><strong>Elongation</strong>: DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to each original strand, creating two new DNA molecules</li>
<li><strong>Termination</strong>: Replication is complete when DNA polymerase reaches the end of the strands</li>
<li>Semi-conservative Replication
<ul>
<li>Each new DNA molecule is composed of one original strand and one newly synthesized strand</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Summary $\rightarrow$ Biomolecules: Nucleic Acids (continued) $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA Replication Process </span> $\rightarrow$ RNA Transcription Process $\rightarrow$ Translation Process </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-rna-transcription-process-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> RNA Transcription Process </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Initiation</strong>: RNA polymerase binds to a specific DNA sequence called the promoter region</li>
<li><strong>Elongation</strong>: RNA polymerase synthesizes a complementary RNA strand using DNA as a template</li>
<li><strong>Termination</strong>: Transcription ends when RNA polymerase reaches a termination sequence</li>
<li>mRNA Processing
<ul>
<li>In eukaryotes, mRNA undergoes modification before leaving the nucleus</li>
<li>Steps include capping, polyadenylation, and splicing</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Biomolecules: Nucleic Acids (continued) $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication Process $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> RNA Transcription Process </span> $\rightarrow$ Translation Process $\rightarrow$ DNA and RNA Structure Comparison </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-translation-process-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Translation Process </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Initiation</strong>: mRNA binds to a ribosome, and the start codon is identified</li>
<li><strong>Elongation</strong>: tRNA molecules with anticodons bring amino acids to the ribosome, forming a growing polypeptide chain</li>
<li><strong>Termination</strong>: Translation stops when a stop codon is reached</li>
<li>Genetic Code
<ul>
<li>The genetic code is a set of rules that determines how the nucleotide sequence in mRNA translates into an amino acid sequence</li>
<li>Triplet codons encode specific amino acids (e.g., AUG codes for methionine)</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Replication Process $\rightarrow$ RNA Transcription Process $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Translation Process </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA and RNA Structure Comparison $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acid Hybridization Applications </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-nuclei-oxides-success-16"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Nuclei Oxides </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-sequencing-techniques-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA Sequencing Techniques </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Sanger Sequencing (Dideoxy Sequencing)</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Traditional method using dideoxynucleotides to terminate DNA strand synthesis at specific bases</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)</strong>:
<ul>
<li>High-throughput sequencing methods that enable faster and cost-effective sequencing of DNA</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Importance of DNA Sequencing
<ul>
<li>Understanding genetic variations and mutations</li>
<li>Identifying disease-causing genes</li>
<li>Evolutionary studies and genome mapping</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA and RNA Structure Comparison $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acid Hybridization Applications $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA Sequencing Techniques </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA Methylation and Gene Expression $\rightarrow$ RNA Editing Mechanisms </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-nuclei-oxides-success-19"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Nuclei Oxides </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-applications-of-nucleic-acids-in-medicine-and-biotechnology-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Applications of Nucleic Acids in Medicine and Biotechnology </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Gene Therapy</strong>: Introduction of normal genes into cells to treat genetic disorders</li>
<li><strong>PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)</strong>: Method to amplify DNA for various applications, such as genetic testing and forensics</li>
<li><strong>DNA Barcoding</strong>: Using unique DNA sequences to identify different species</li>
<li><strong>Genetic Engineering</strong>: Manipulation of DNA to produce desirable traits in organisms</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Methylation and Gene Expression $\rightarrow$ RNA Editing Mechanisms $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Applications of Nucleic Acids in Medicine and Biotechnology </span> $\rightarrow$ Biomolecules - Nucleic Oxides $\rightarrow$ Properties of Peroxides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-biomolecules---nucleic-oxides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Biomolecules - Nucleic Oxides </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Introduction to Nucleic Oxides
<ul>
<li>Definition: Inorganic compounds that contain oxygen and specific numbers of oxygen atoms bonded to other elements</li>
<li>Examples: Peroxides, Superoxides, Ozonides</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Peroxides
<ul>
<li>Definition: Compounds with an oxygen-oxygen single bond</li>
<li>Example: Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Superoxides
<ul>
<li>Definition: Compounds with an oxygen-oxygen bond and one unpaired electron</li>
<li>Example: Potassium Superoxide (KO2)</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Ozonides
<ul>
<li>Definition: Compounds formed by the reaction of ozone with certain substances</li>
<li>Example: Sodium ozonide (NaO3)</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">RNA Editing Mechanisms $\rightarrow$ Applications of Nucleic Acids in Medicine and Biotechnology $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Biomolecules - Nucleic Oxides </span> $\rightarrow$ Properties of Peroxides $\rightarrow$ Properties of Superoxides </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-nuclei-oxides-success-21"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Nuclei Oxides </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-properties-of-peroxides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Properties of Peroxides </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
<ul>
<li>Clear, colorless liquid</li>
<li>Strong oxidizing agent</li>
<li>Used as a disinfectant and in bleaching processes</li>
<li>Decomposes into water and oxygen gas upon exposure to light or in the presence of certain catalysts</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Application of Peroxides
<ul>
<li>Used in hair bleaching products</li>
<li>Used in rocket fuel as an oxidizer</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Applications of Nucleic Acids in Medicine and Biotechnology $\rightarrow$ Biomolecules - Nucleic Oxides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Properties of Peroxides </span> $\rightarrow$ Properties of Superoxides $\rightarrow$ Properties of Ozonides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-properties-of-superoxides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Properties of Superoxides </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Potassium Superoxide (KO2)
<ul>
<li>Violet crystalline solid</li>
<li>Strong oxidizing agent</li>
<li>Reacts with water to produce potassium hydroxide (KOH) and oxygen gas (O2)</li>
<li>Used as a source of oxygen in breathing apparatus</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Application of Superoxides
<ul>
<li>Used in oxygen supply systems for submarines and spacecrafts</li>
<li>Used in self-contained breathing apparatus used by firefighters and rescue workers</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Biomolecules - Nucleic Oxides $\rightarrow$ Properties of Peroxides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Properties of Superoxides </span> $\rightarrow$ Properties of Ozonides $\rightarrow$ Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (Redox Reactions) </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-properties-of-ozonides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Properties of Ozonides </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Sodium Ozonide (NaO3)
<ul>
<li>Highly unstable compound</li>
<li>Reacts explosively upon exposure to heat or shock</li>
<li>Used as a powerful oxidizing agent in certain chemical reactions</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Application of Ozonides
<ul>
<li>Used in organic synthesis to introduce oxygen atoms into compounds</li>
<li>Used in wastewater treatment to eliminate organic contaminants</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Properties of Peroxides $\rightarrow$ Properties of Superoxides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Properties of Ozonides </span> $\rightarrow$ Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (Redox Reactions) $\rightarrow$ Balancing Redox Reactions </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-nuclei-oxides-success-24"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Nuclei Oxides </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-oxidation-reduction-reactions-redox-reactions-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (Redox Reactions) </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Definition</strong>: Chemical reactions in which there is a transfer of electrons from one species to another</li>
<li><strong>Involves two half-reactions</strong>: oxidation and reduction</li>
<li><strong>Reduction</strong>: Gain of electrons by a species</li>
<li><strong>Oxidation</strong>: Loss of electrons by a species</li>
<li>Redox Reactions Examples
<ul>
<li>2Na + Cl2 -> 2NaCl (Sodium is oxidized, chlorine is reduced)</li>
<li>Cu + 2AgNO3 -> Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag (Copper is oxidized, silver is reduced)</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Properties of Superoxides $\rightarrow$ Properties of Ozonides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (Redox Reactions) </span> $\rightarrow$ Balancing Redox Reactions $\rightarrow$ Balancing Redox Reactions Example </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-nuclei-oxides-success-25"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Nuclei Oxides </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-balancing-redox-reactions-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Balancing Redox Reactions </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Steps for Balancing Redox Reactions using the Half-Reaction Method
<ol>
<li>Write separate half-reactions for the oxidation and reduction processes</li>
<li>Balance the elements other than hydrogen and oxygen in each half-reaction</li>
<li>Balance the electrons in each half-reaction</li>
<li>Match the number of electrons transferred in both half-reactions</li>
<li>Combine the balanced half-reactions to get the overall balanced reaction</li>
</ol>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Properties of Ozonides $\rightarrow$ Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (Redox Reactions) $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Balancing Redox Reactions </span> $\rightarrow$ Balancing Redox Reactions Example $\rightarrow$ Electrochemistry </footer>