Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-introduction-to-biomolecules-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Introduction to Biomolecules </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Biomolecules are the organic molecules that are essential for life.</li>
<li>They are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.</li>
<li>Biomolecules include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.</li>
<li>These molecules play vital roles in various biological processes.</li>
<li>They are responsible for storing and transforming energy, providing structure, and carrying out chemical reactions.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px"> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Introduction to Biomolecules </span> $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Lipids </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-carbohydrates-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Carbohydrates </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.</li>
<li>They are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.</li>
<li>Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose.</li>
<li>Disaccharides are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide units, for example, sucrose and lactose.</li>
<li>Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates, like cellulose, starch, and glycogen.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px"> $\rightarrow$ Introduction to Biomolecules $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Carbohydrates </span> $\rightarrow$ Lipids $\rightarrow$ Proteins </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-proteins-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Proteins </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Proteins are large biomolecules composed of amino acids.</li>
<li>They have diverse functions, including enzyme catalysis, structural support, and transport.</li>
<li>Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds to form polypeptide chains.</li>
<li><strong>Proteins have a specific three-dimensional structure</strong>: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.</li>
<li>Examples of proteins include enzymes, antibodies, and structural proteins like collagen.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Lipids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Proteins </span> $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acids $\rightarrow$ Hydrogen Bonding </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-nucleic-acids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Nucleic Acids </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Nucleic acids are the genetic material of living organisms.</li>
<li>They are composed of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.</li>
<li><strong>There are two types of nucleic acids</strong>: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).</li>
<li>DNA carries the genetic information and is double-stranded, while RNA is involved in protein synthesis and is usually single-stranded.</li>
<li>The base pairing between adenine-thymine (DNA) or adenine-uracil (RNA) and cytosine-guanine is essential for their function.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Lipids $\rightarrow$ Proteins $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Nucleic Acids </span> $\rightarrow$ Hydrogen Bonding $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Functions </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-hydrogen-bonding-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Hydrogen Bonding </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Hydrogen bonding is a type of intermolecular force that occurs between molecules containing a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom like oxygen or nitrogen.</li>
<li>In biomolecules, hydrogen bonding plays a crucial role, especially in protein and nucleic acid structures.</li>
<li>It dictates base pairing in DNA and RNA, resulting in the complementary pairing of nucleotides.</li>
<li>Hydrogen bonds are weaker than covalent bonds but important for maintaining the overall structure and stability of biomolecules.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Proteins $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Hydrogen Bonding </span> $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Functions $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Functions </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-carbohydrates---functions-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Carbohydrates - Functions </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates serve as an important energy source for the body.</li>
<li>They provide quick energy to cells through cellular respiration.</li>
<li>Carbohydrates also play a role in cell structure, such as cellulose in plant cell walls and chitin in the exoskeleton of insects.</li>
<li>Some carbohydrates, like glycogen, serve as energy storage molecules in animals.</li>
<li>Blood groups are determined by specific carbohydrate molecules present on red blood cell surfaces.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nucleic Acids $\rightarrow$ Hydrogen Bonding $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Carbohydrates - Functions </span> $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Functions $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Functions </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-lipids---functions-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Lipids - Functions </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Lipids are an efficient long-term energy storage form in the body.</li>
<li>They provide insulation and protection to vital organs.</li>
<li>Lipids are important components of cell membranes, maintaining their structure and fluidity.</li>
<li>Some lipids act as signaling molecules, like hormones.</li>
<li>They also serve as precursors for the synthesis of various biomolecules, including steroids and bile acids.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Hydrogen Bonding $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Functions $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Lipids - Functions </span> $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Functions $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acids - Functions </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-proteins---functions-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Proteins - Functions </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Proteins are involved in enzyme catalysis, speeding up chemical reactions in cells.</li>
<li>They provide structural support to cells, tissues, and organs.</li>
<li>Proteins are responsible for transport, such as the movement of molecules across cell membranes.</li>
<li>Antibodies, a type of protein, help in immune response and defense against pathogens.</li>
<li>Proteins also regulate gene expression and act as molecular switches in signal transduction pathways.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Carbohydrates - Functions $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Functions $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Proteins - Functions </span> $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acids - Functions $\rightarrow$ Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-nucleic-acids---functions-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Nucleic Acids - Functions </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Nucleic acids are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information.</li>
<li>DNA contains the instructions for protein synthesis.</li>
<li>RNA plays a crucial role in translating the genetic code into proteins.</li>
<li>Nucleic acids are involved in the replication and repair of genetic material.</li>
<li>They regulate gene expression and control various cellular processes.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Lipids - Functions $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Functions $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Nucleic Acids - Functions </span> $\rightarrow$ Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-biomolecules---hydrogen-bonding-dictates-base-pairing-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Hydrogen bonding is crucial in determining base pairing in nucleic acids.
<ul>
<li>DNA: Adenine (A) forms two hydrogen bonds with Thymine (T), and Guanine (G) forms three hydrogen bonds with Cytosine (C).</li>
<li>RNA: Adenine (A) forms two hydrogen bonds with Uracil (U), and Guanine (G) forms three hydrogen bonds with Cytosine (C).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Base pairing allows for the complementary sequence of nucleotides in DNA and RNA.</li>
<li>Hydrogen bonds between base pairs hold the two strands of DNA together in a double helix structure.</li>
<li>The specific base pairing is essential for DNA replication, transcription, and translation.</li>
<li>Disruption in base pairing can lead to genetic mutations and diseases.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Proteins - Functions $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acids - Functions $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing </span> $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Disaccharides </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-hydrogen-bonding-dictates-base-pairing-success-11"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-carbohydrates---monosaccharides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar unit.</li>
<li>Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose.</li>
<li>Glucose is the primary energy source for cells and is crucial for cellular respiration.</li>
<li>Fructose is found in fruits and is often used in sweeteners.</li>
<li>Galactose is a component of lactose, the sugar found in milk.</li>
<li>Monosaccharides are easily absorbed and transported in the body.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nucleic Acids - Functions $\rightarrow$ Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides </span> $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Disaccharides $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-carbohydrates---disaccharides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Carbohydrates - Disaccharides </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Disaccharides are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide units.</li>
<li>Examples of disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.</li>
<li>Sucrose is commonly known as table sugar and is composed of glucose and fructose.</li>
<li>Lactose is found in milk and consists of glucose and galactose.</li>
<li>Maltose is a product of starch digestion and is made up of two glucose molecules.</li>
<li>Disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides during digestion.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Carbohydrates - Disaccharides </span> $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Fats and Oils </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-carbohydrates---polysaccharides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of many monosaccharide units.</li>
<li>Examples of polysaccharides include cellulose, starch, and glycogen.</li>
<li>Cellulose is the main component of plant cell walls and provides structural support.</li>
<li>Starch is the storage form of glucose in plants and can be broken down for energy.</li>
<li>Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in animals and is mainly stored in the liver and muscles.</li>
<li>Polysaccharides serve as a long-term energy reserve in organisms.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Disaccharides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides </span> $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Fats and Oils $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Phospholipids </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-lipids---fats-and-oils-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Lipids - Fats and Oils </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Fats and oils are the primary types of lipids.</li>
<li>They are composed of fatty acids and glycerol.</li>
<li>Fats are solid at room temperature, while oils are liquid.</li>
<li>Fats are found in animals, while oils are mainly derived from plants.</li>
<li>Fats and oils serve as a concentrated and long-term energy source for the body.</li>
<li>They provide insulation and cushioning to protect vital organs.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Carbohydrates - Disaccharides $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Lipids - Fats and Oils </span> $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Phospholipids $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Steroids </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-lipids---phospholipids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Lipids - Phospholipids </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes.</li>
<li>They are composed of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group.</li>
<li>Phospholipids have a hydrophilic head (phosphate group) and hydrophobic tails (fatty acid chains).</li>
<li>The hydrophobic tails align together, forming the interior of the lipid bilayer.</li>
<li>The hydrophilic heads face outward and interact with water on both sides of the cell membrane.</li>
<li>Phospholipids play a crucial role in maintaining the structure and integrity of cell membranes.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Fats and Oils $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Lipids - Phospholipids </span> $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Steroids $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Amino Acids </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-lipids---steroids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Lipids - Steroids </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Steroids are a class of lipids with a specific carbon skeleton arrangement.</li>
<li>They have multiple rings fused together, such as cholesterol and hormones like estrogen and testosterone.</li>
<li>Cholesterol is an essential component of cell membranes and is a precursor for steroid hormone synthesis.</li>
<li>Steroid hormones are involved in various physiological processes, including growth, development, and reproduction.</li>
<li>Steroids can have both beneficial and harmful effects on the body depending on their role and level of regulation.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Lipids - Fats and Oils $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Phospholipids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Lipids - Steroids </span> $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Amino Acids $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Primary Structure </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-proteins---amino-acids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Proteins - Amino Acids </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Proteins are composed of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.</li>
<li>Amino acids contain an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain (R-group).</li>
<li>There are 20 different amino acids that can combine in various sequences to form different proteins.</li>
<li>Each amino acid has a unique R-group that determines its chemical properties and function.</li>
<li>The sequence of amino acids in a protein determines its structure and function.</li>
<li>Examples of amino acids include glycine, alanine, and valine.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Lipids - Phospholipids $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Steroids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Proteins - Amino Acids </span> $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Primary Structure $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-proteins---primary-structure-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Proteins - Primary Structure </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>The primary structure of a protein refers to the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.</li>
<li>The sequence is determined by the DNA sequence and is essential for protein folding and function.</li>
<li>Even a slight change in the amino acid sequence can significantly impact protein structure and function.</li>
<li>Genetic mutations can lead to alterations in the primary structure, resulting in diseases and disorders.</li>
<li>The primary structure acts as a foundation for the higher levels of protein organization.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Lipids - Steroids $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Amino Acids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Proteins - Primary Structure </span> $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures $\rightarrow$ Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-proteins---secondary-tertiary-and-quaternary-structures-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Proteins - Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Secondary structure refers to the local folding of the polypeptide chain into specific patterns.
<ul>
<li>Common secondary structures include alpha helix and beta sheet.</li>
<li>These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the amino acid backbone.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional conformation of a single polypeptide chain.
<ul>
<li>It is determined by interactions between amino acid side chains, including hydrogen bonding, disulfide bonds, and hydrophobic interactions.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Quaternary structure refers to the arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains to form a functional protein molecule.
<ul>
<li>Interactions between subunits, such as hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions, stabilize the quaternary structure.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The specific structure of a protein is crucial for its proper function.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Proteins - Amino Acids $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Primary Structure $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Proteins - Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures </span> $\rightarrow$ Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-biomolecules---hydrogen-bonding-dictates-base-pairing-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Hydrogen bonding is crucial in determining base pairing in nucleic acids.</li>
<li>Base pairing allows for the complementary sequence of nucleotides in DNA and RNA.</li>
<li>Disruption in base pairing can lead to genetic mutations and diseases.</li>
<li><strong>Examples</strong>:
<ul>
<li>DNA: Adenine (A) forms two hydrogen bonds with Thymine (T) and Guanine (G) forms three hydrogen bonds with Cytosine (C).</li>
<li>RNA: Adenine (A) forms two hydrogen bonds with Uracil (U) and Guanine (G) forms three hydrogen bonds with Cytosine (C).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Hydrogen bonds between base pairs hold the two strands of DNA together in a double helix structure.</li>
<li>The specific base pairing is essential for DNA replication, transcription, and translation.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Proteins - Primary Structure $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing </span> $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Disaccharides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-carbohydrates---monosaccharides-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar unit.</li>
<li><strong>Examples</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Glucose: Primary energy source for cells, involved in cellular respiration.</li>
<li>Fructose: Found in fruits and used in sweeteners.</li>
<li>Galactose: Component of lactose, the sugar found in milk.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Monosaccharides are easily absorbed and transported in the body.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Proteins - Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures $\rightarrow$ Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides </span> $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Disaccharides $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-carbohydrates---disaccharides-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Carbohydrates - Disaccharides </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Disaccharides are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide units.</li>
<li><strong>Examples</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Sucrose: Table sugar, composed of glucose and fructose.</li>
<li>Lactose: Found in milk, consists of glucose and galactose.</li>
<li>Maltose: Product of starch digestion, made up of two glucose molecules.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides during digestion.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Carbohydrates - Disaccharides </span> $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Fats and Oils </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-carbohydrates---polysaccharides-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of many monosaccharide units.</li>
<li><strong>Examples</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Cellulose: Main component of plant cell walls, provides structural support.</li>
<li>Starch: Storage form of glucose in plants, broken down for energy.</li>
<li>Glycogen: Storage form of glucose in animals, mainly stored in the liver and muscles.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Polysaccharides serve as a long-term energy reserve in organisms.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates - Disaccharides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides </span> $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Fats and Oils $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Phospholipids </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-hydrogen-bonding-dictates-base-pairing-success-25"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-lipids---phospholipids-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Lipids - Phospholipids </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes.</li>
<li>They are composed of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group.</li>
<li>Phospholipids have a hydrophilic head (phosphate group) and hydrophobic tails (fatty acid chains).</li>
<li>The hydrophobic tails align together, forming the interior of the lipid bilayer.</li>
<li>The hydrophilic heads face outward and interact with water on both sides of the cell membrane.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Fats and Oils $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Lipids - Phospholipids </span> $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Steroids $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Amino Acids </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-hydrogen-bonding-dictates-base-pairing-success-26"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-lipids---steroids-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Lipids - Steroids </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Steroids are a class of lipids with a specific carbon skeleton arrangement.</li>
<li>They have multiple rings fused together, such as cholesterol and hormones like estrogen and testosterone.</li>
<li><strong>Cholesterol</strong>: Essential component of cell membranes, precursor for steroid hormone synthesis.</li>
<li><strong>Steroid hormones</strong>: Involved in various physiological processes, including growth, development, and reproduction.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Lipids - Fats and Oils $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Phospholipids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Lipids - Steroids </span> $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Amino Acids $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Primary Structure </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-hydrogen-bonding-dictates-base-pairing-success-27"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-proteins---amino-acids-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Proteins - Amino Acids </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Proteins are composed of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.</li>
<li>Amino acids contain an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain (R-group).</li>
<li>There are 20 different amino acids that can combine in various sequences to form different proteins.</li>
<li>Each amino acid has a unique R-group that determines its chemical properties and function.</li>
<li>The sequence of amino acids in a protein determines its structure and function.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Lipids - Phospholipids $\rightarrow$ Lipids - Steroids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Proteins - Amino Acids </span> $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Primary Structure $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-hydrogen-bonding-dictates-base-pairing-success-28"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-proteins---primary-structure-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Proteins - Primary Structure </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>The primary structure of a protein refers to the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.</li>
<li>The sequence is determined by the DNA sequence and is essential for protein folding and function.</li>
<li>Even a slight change in the amino acid sequence can significantly impact protein structure and function.</li>
<li>Genetic mutations can lead to alterations in the primary structure, resulting in diseases and disorders.</li>
<li>The primary structure acts as a foundation for the higher levels of protein organization.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Lipids - Steroids $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Amino Acids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Proteins - Primary Structure </span> $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures $\rightarrow$  </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-hydrogen-bonding-dictates-base-pairing-success-29"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-proteins---secondary-tertiary-and-quaternary-structures-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Proteins - Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Secondary structure</strong>: Local folding of the polypeptide chain into specific patterns (alpha helix, beta sheet).
<ul>
<li>Stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the amino acid backbone.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Tertiary structure</strong>: Overall three-dimensional conformation of a single polypeptide chain.
<ul>
<li>Determined by interactions between amino acid side chains, including hydrogen bonding, disulfide bonds, and hydrophobic interactions.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Quaternary structure</strong>: Arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains to form a functional protein molecule.
<ul>
<li>Stabilized by interactions between subunits (hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Specific protein structures are crucial for proper function.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Proteins - Amino Acids $\rightarrow$ Proteins - Primary Structure $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Proteins - Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures </span> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$  </footer>