Biomolecules - En-Diol Arrangement

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-examples-of-biomolecules-with-en-diol-arrangement-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Examples of biomolecules with en-diol arrangement: </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>
<p>Glucose:</p>
<ul>
<li>Glucose is a monosaccharide that contains an en-diol arrangement.</li>
<li>The hydroxyl groups on the C2 and C3 carbon atoms can form a double bond, resulting in the en-diol structure.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>Ribose:</p>
<ul>
<li>Ribose, a sugar molecule found in RNA, also exhibits the en-diol arrangement.</li>
<li>The C2 and C3 carbon atoms can form a double bond, creating the en-diol structure.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px"> $\rightarrow$ Biomolecules - EN-DIOL ARRANGEMENT $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Examples of biomolecules with en-diol arrangement: </span> $\rightarrow$ Importance of the en-diol arrangement: $\rightarrow$ Equilibrium between en-form and diol-form: </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-en-diol-arrangement-success-4"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules En Diol Arrangement </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-carbohydrates-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Carbohydrates </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates are essential biomolecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.</li>
<li><strong>They are classified into three main groups</strong>: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.</li>
<li><strong>Monosaccharides</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates.</li>
<li>They cannot be further hydrolyzed into smaller units.</li>
<li>Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Disaccharides</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Disaccharides are formed by the condensation reaction between two monosaccharide units.</li>
<li>Glycosidic bonds connect the monosaccharide units.</li>
<li>Examples include lactose, sucrose, and maltose.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Importance of the en-diol arrangement: $\rightarrow$ Equilibrium between en-form and diol-form: $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Carbohydrates </span> $\rightarrow$ Lipids $\rightarrow$ Types of lipids: </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-types-of-lipids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Types of lipids: </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>Triglycerides</strong>:</p>
<ul>
<li>Triglycerides are the most common type of lipids.</li>
<li>They consist of glycerol and three fatty acid molecules.</li>
<li>Triglycerides function as energy storage molecules.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Phospholipids</strong>:</p>
<ul>
<li>Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes.</li>
<li>They consist of a hydrophilic head (phosphate group) and two hydrophobic tails (fatty acid chains).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Steroids</strong>:</p>
<ul>
<li>Steroids, such as cholesterol, are crucial for maintaining cellular structure and functions.</li>
<li>They also serve as hormones and precursors for the synthesis of other important molecules.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Lipids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Types of lipids: </span> $\rightarrow$ Functions of lipids $\rightarrow$ Proteins </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-en-diol-arrangement-success-9"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules En Diol Arrangement </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-proteins-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Proteins </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Proteins are essential biomolecules composed of amino acids.</li>
<li>They perform various critical functions in the body, such as providing structural support, catalyzing reactions, and transporting molecules.</li>
<li><strong>Structure of proteins</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Proteins have a complex hierarchical structure.</li>
<li>Primary structure: The sequence of amino acids in a protein chain determines its primary structure.</li>
<li>Secondary structure: Proteins can form alpha-helix or beta-sheet structures.</li>
<li>Tertiary structure: The three-dimensional folding of proteins.</li>
<li>Quaternary structure: Some proteins consist of multiple polypeptide chains.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Types of lipids: $\rightarrow$ Functions of lipids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Proteins </span> $\rightarrow$ Functions of proteins $\rightarrow$ Enzymes </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-en-diol-arrangement-success-10"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules En Diol Arrangement </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-functions-of-proteins-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Functions of proteins </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Enzymes: Proteins act as biological catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions in the body.</li>
<li>Structural support: Proteins like collagen provide structural integrity to connective tissues.</li>
<li>Transport: Proteins like hemoglobin transport oxygen in the bloodstream.</li>
<li>Immunity: Antibodies are proteins that defend against foreign substances.</li>
<li>Hormones: Some proteins, like insulin, act as chemical messengers.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Functions of lipids $\rightarrow$ Proteins $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Functions of proteins </span> $\rightarrow$ Enzymes $\rightarrow$ Enzyme-substrate interaction: </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-en-diol-arrangement-success-11"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules En Diol Arrangement </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-enzymes-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Enzymes </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Enzymes are specialized proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions in living organisms.</li>
<li>They are involved in numerous physiological processes, such as digestion, metabolism, and DNA replication.</li>
<li><strong>Characteristics of enzymes</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Highly specific: Enzymes are specific to particular substrates due to the shape of their active sites.</li>
<li>Efficient catalysts: Enzymes increase the rate of reactions without being consumed in the process.</li>
<li>Sensitive to environmental factors: The activity of enzymes is influenced by factors like temperature and pH.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Proteins $\rightarrow$ Functions of proteins $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Enzymes </span> $\rightarrow$ Enzyme-substrate interaction: $\rightarrow$ Enzyme regulation: </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-types-of-nucleic-acids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Types of nucleic acids: </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>
<p>Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA):</p>
<ul>
<li>DNA carries genetic information in all living organisms.</li>
<li>It consists of two polynucleotide strands that form a double helix.</li>
<li>DNA dictates the synthesis of proteins through the process of transcription and translation.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>Ribonucleic acid (RNA):</p>
<ul>
<li>RNA plays a role in protein synthesis.</li>
<li>It is single-stranded and can adopt various secondary structures.</li>
<li>RNA can also function as an enzyme (ribozyme) and as a regulator of gene expression.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Enzyme regulation: $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Types of nucleic acids: </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA replication: $\rightarrow$ Acid-Base Reactions </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-en-diol-arrangement-success-18"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules En Diol Arrangement </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-bronsted-lowry-acid-base-theory-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Bronsted-Lowry acid-base theory: </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>According to the Bronsted-Lowry theory, an acid is a substance that donates a proton, and a base is a substance that accepts a proton.</li>
<li>The acid-base reaction results in the formation of a conjugate acid and a conjugate base.</li>
<li><strong>Examples</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Acid: Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
<ul>
<li>HCl donates a proton, forming the chloride ion (Cl-) as the conjugate base.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Base: Ammonia (NH3)
<ul>
<li>NH3 accepts a proton, forming the ammonium ion (NH4+) as the conjugate acid.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA replication: $\rightarrow$ Acid-Base Reactions $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Bronsted-Lowry acid-base theory: </span> $\rightarrow$ pH scale: $\rightarrow$ Redox Reactions </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-en-diol-arrangement-success-25"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules En Diol Arrangement </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-factors-that-affect-equilibrium-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Factors that affect equilibrium: </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Concentration: Changes in the concentration of reactants or products can shift the equilibrium position.</li>
<li>Temperature: Increasing temperature favors an endothermic reaction, while decreasing temperature favors an exothermic reaction.</li>
<li>Pressure: Changes in pressure mostly affect reactions involving gases.</li>
<li>Catalysts: Catalysts do not affect the position of equilibrium but can increase the rate at which equilibrium is achieved.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Redox indicators: $\rightarrow$ Equilibrium and Le Chatelier's Principle $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Factors that affect equilibrium: </span> $\rightarrow$ Equilibrium constant (K): $\rightarrow$ Chemical Kinetics </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-en-diol-arrangement-success-32"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules En Diol Arrangement </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-types-of-chemical-bonds-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Types of chemical bonds: </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Ionic bonds: Formed between a metal and a non-metal through the transfer of electrons.
<ul>
<li>Example: NaCl (Sodium chloride) - Sodium donates an electron to chlorine to form an ionic bond.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Covalent bonds: Formed between non-metals through the sharing of electrons.
<ul>
<li>Example: H2 (Hydrogen gas) - Two hydrogen atoms share electrons to form a covalent bond.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Metallic bonds: Formed between metal atoms due to the delocalization of electrons.
<ul>
<li>Example: Copper (Cu) - Metal atoms share a sea of electrons, forming metallic bonds.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Activation energy: $\rightarrow$ Chemical Bonding $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Types of chemical bonds: </span> $\rightarrow$ Lewis dot structures: $\rightarrow$ Periodic Trends (Atomic Radius) </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-en-diol-arrangement-success-34"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules En Diol Arrangement </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-periodic-trends-atomic-radius-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Periodic Trends (Atomic Radius) </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Periodic trends are patterns observed in the periodic table that help predict the properties of elements.</li>
<li><strong>Atomic radius</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Atomic radius refers to the size of an atom, measured as the distance from the nucleus to the outermost electron shell.</li>
<li>Atomic radius generally increases down a group and decreases across a period.
<ul>
<li>Example: Atomic radius increases from top to bottom in Group 1 (alkali metals).</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Types of chemical bonds: $\rightarrow$ Lewis dot structures: $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Periodic Trends (Atomic Radius) </span> $\rightarrow$ Periodic Trends (Ionization energy) $\rightarrow$ Periodic Trends (Electronegativity) </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-en-diol-arrangement-success-38"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules En Diol Arrangement </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-organic-chemistry-basics-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Organic Chemistry Basics </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-based compounds and their reactions.</li>
<li>Organic compounds have a wide range of applications, including medicine, fuels, and polymers.</li>
<li><strong>Carbon bonding in organic compounds</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Carbon can form covalent bonds with other carbon atoms and with other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and halogens.</li>
<li>Carbon often forms single, double, or triple bonds with other atoms.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Periodic Trends (Electronegativity) $\rightarrow$ Periodic Trends (Metallic character) $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Organic Chemistry Basics </span> $\rightarrow$ Functional groups: $\rightarrow$ Isomerism: </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-en-diol-arrangement-success-56"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules En Diol Arrangement </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-equilibrium-constants-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Equilibrium Constants </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Equilibrium constants (K) are mathematical expressions that relate the concentrations of reactants and products at equilibrium.</li>
<li>They provide information about the extent of a reaction at a given condition.</li>
<li><strong>Equilibrium constant expression</strong>:
<ul>
<li>The equilibrium constant expression is written using the concentrations of products divided by the concentrations of reactants, each raised to the power of their stoichiometric coefficient.</li>
<li>Example: For the reaction A + B ⇌ C + D, the equilibrium constant expression is K = [C][D]</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Activation energy: $\rightarrow$ Factors affecting reaction rates: $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Equilibrium Constants </span> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$  </footer>