Biomolecules - Configuration Of D-Aldose

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-configuration-of-d-aldose-success-2"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Configuration Of D Aldose </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-fischer-projection-formula-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Fischer Projection Formula </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>A method to represent the stereochemistry of a molecule using a flat, two-dimensional drawing.</li>
<li>Vertical lines represent bonds coming out of the plane of the paper (wedges).</li>
<li>Horizontal lines represent bonds going behind the plane of the paper (dashes).</li>
<li>The carbon chain is depicted vertically in the middle of the projection.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: Fischer Projection of Glucose
<code>HOCH2−(CHOH)4−(CH2OH)</code></li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Configuration of D-Aldose $\rightarrow$ Configuration of D-Ketose $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Fischer Projection Formula </span> $\rightarrow$ Haworth Projection Formula $\rightarrow$ Anomers </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-haworth-projection-formula-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Haworth Projection Formula </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>A method to represent cyclic structures of carbohydrates.</li>
<li>The carbon chain is depicted as a polygon.</li>
<li>The oxygen atom that forms the cyclic structure is enclosed within the polygon.</li>
<li>Hydroxyl groups attached to carbon atoms are shown as lines coming out of or going into the plane of the paper.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: Haworth Projection of Glucose
<code>O \ CH2OH | HO−(CHOH)4−H</code></li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Configuration of D-Ketose $\rightarrow$ Fischer Projection Formula $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Haworth Projection Formula </span> $\rightarrow$ Anomers $\rightarrow$ Configuration of D-Ketose </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-configuration-of-d-ketose-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Configuration of D-Ketose </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>D-ketose is a type of sugar molecule that contains a ketone group on the second carbon atom.</li>
<li>The remaining carbon atoms have a hydroxyl group attached to them.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: D-Fructose</li>
<li><strong>Fischer Projection Formula</strong>:
<ul>
<li>The ketone group is represented by a horizontal line.</li>
<li>The hydroxyl groups are represented by vertical lines.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: Fischer Projection of Fructose
<code>HO―C(=O)―CH2OH | H―C―OH―C―OH―C―H |       | H       OH</code></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Haworth Projection Formula $\rightarrow$ Anomers $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Configuration of D-Ketose </span> $\rightarrow$ Configuration of L-Aldose $\rightarrow$ Configuration of L-Ketose </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-configuration-of-d-aldose-success-6"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Configuration Of D Aldose </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-configuration-of-l-aldose-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Configuration of L-Aldose </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>L-aldoheptose is a seven-carbon sugar molecule.</li>
<li>All the carbon atoms except the last one have a hydroxyl group attached to them.</li>
<li>The last carbon atom is bonded to an aldehyde group.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: L-Glyceraldehyde</li>
<li><strong>Fischer Projection Formula</strong>:
<ul>
<li>The carbon chain is depicted vertically in the middle of the projection.</li>
<li>The aldehyde group is represented by a horizontal line.</li>
<li>The hydroxyl groups are represented by vertical lines.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: Fischer Projection of L-Glyceraldehyde
<code>HO―C(=O)―H | H―C―OH―C―OH―C―OH |       | H       H</code></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Anomers $\rightarrow$ Configuration of D-Ketose $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Configuration of L-Aldose </span> $\rightarrow$ Configuration of L-Ketose $\rightarrow$ Haworth Projection of D-Glucose </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-configuration-of-l-ketose-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Configuration of L-Ketose </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>L-ketohexose is a six-carbon sugar molecule.</li>
<li>The first carbon atom is a ketone group.</li>
<li>The remaining carbon atoms have a hydroxyl group attached to them.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: L-Fructose</li>
<li><strong>Fischer Projection Formula</strong>:
<ul>
<li>The carbon chain is depicted vertically in the middle of the projection.</li>
<li>The ketone group is represented by a horizontal line.</li>
<li>The hydroxyl groups are represented by vertical lines.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: Fischer Projection of L-Fructose
<code>HO―C(=O)―CH2OH | HO―CH―OH―C―OH―C―OH |       | H       H</code></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Configuration of D-Ketose $\rightarrow$ Configuration of L-Aldose $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Configuration of L-Ketose </span> $\rightarrow$ Haworth Projection of D-Glucose $\rightarrow$ Haworth Projection of D-Fructose </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-configuration-of-d-aldose-success-8"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Configuration Of D Aldose </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-haworth-projection-of-d-glucose-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Haworth Projection of D-Glucose </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Haworth projection is used to represent cyclic forms of sugars.</li>
<li>The carbon chain is depicted as a polygon.</li>
<li>The oxygen atom that forms the cyclic structure is enclosed within the polygon.</li>
<li>Hydroxyl groups attached to carbon atoms are shown as lines coming out of or going into the plane of the paper.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: Haworth Projection of D-Glucose
<code>O       HO \     / HO―CH2OH―C―OH |      |  H      H</code></li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Configuration of L-Aldose $\rightarrow$ Configuration of L-Ketose $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Haworth Projection of D-Glucose </span> $\rightarrow$ Haworth Projection of D-Fructose $\rightarrow$ Anomers of D-Glucose </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-anomers-of-d-glucose-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Anomers of D-Glucose </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li><strong>D-Glucose can exist in two anomeric forms</strong>: α and β.</li>
<li><strong>α-D-Glucose</strong>: Hydroxyl group on C1 is trans to the -CH2OH group.</li>
<li><strong>β-D-Glucose</strong>: Hydroxyl group on C1 is cis to the -CH2OH group.</li>
<li><strong>Haworth Projection examples</strong>:
<ul>
<li>α-D-Glucose:
<code>O       HO \     /  HO―CH2OH―C―OH |   \ HO   H</code></li>
<li>β-D-Glucose:
<code>O       HO \     /  OH―CH2OH―C―OH |   \ HO   H</code></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Haworth Projection of D-Glucose $\rightarrow$ Haworth Projection of D-Fructose $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Anomers of D-Glucose </span> $\rightarrow$ Anomers of D-Fructose $\rightarrow$ Chirality in Biomolecules </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-configuration-of-d-aldose-success-11"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Configuration Of D Aldose </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-anomers-of-d-fructose-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Anomers of D-Fructose </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>D-Fructose can also exist in α and β anomeric forms.</li>
<li><strong>α-D-Fructose</strong>: Hydroxyl group on C2 is trans to the terminal CH2OH group.</li>
<li><strong>β-D-Fructose</strong>: Hydroxyl group on C2 is cis to the terminal CH2OH group.</li>
<li><strong>Haworth Projection examples</strong>:
<ul>
<li>α-D-Fructose:
<code>O       HO \     /  HO―CH2OH―C―OH |       | H       OH</code></li>
<li>β-D-Fructose:
<code>O       HO \     /  OH―CH2OH―C―OH |       | H       OH</code></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Haworth Projection of D-Fructose $\rightarrow$ Anomers of D-Glucose $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Anomers of D-Fructose </span> $\rightarrow$ Chirality in Biomolecules $\rightarrow$ Enantiomers </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-chirality-in-biomolecules-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Chirality in Biomolecules </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Biomolecules, such as amino acids and sugars, often exhibit chirality.</li>
<li>A chiral molecule is one that cannot be superimposed on its mirror image.</li>
<li>Chirality arises from an asymmetric carbon atom, also known as a stereocenter.</li>
<li>A stereocenter is a carbon atom that is bonded to four different groups.</li>
<li>Chirality is important in biological processes, as different enantiomers can have different effects.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: L- and D-amino acids</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Anomers of D-Glucose $\rightarrow$ Anomers of D-Fructose $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Chirality in Biomolecules </span> $\rightarrow$ Enantiomers $\rightarrow$ Optical Activity </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-configuration-of-d-aldose-success-13"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Configuration Of D Aldose </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-enantiomers-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Enantiomers </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Enantiomers are chiral molecules that are mirror images of each other.</li>
<li>Enantiomers have the same physical properties (except for optical activity) but exhibit different biological activities.</li>
<li>Enantiomers rotate plane-polarized light in equal and opposite directions.</li>
<li>Enantiomers are denoted by prefixes L- and D- or (+) and (-) based on their optical activity.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: L-alanine and D-alanine</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Anomers of D-Fructose $\rightarrow$ Chirality in Biomolecules $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Enantiomers </span> $\rightarrow$ Optical Activity $\rightarrow$ Haworth Projection of L-Glucose </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-configuration-of-d-aldose-success-14"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Configuration Of D Aldose </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-optical-activity-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Optical Activity </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Optical activity refers to the ability of a substance to rotate the plane of plane-polarized light.</li>
<li>Dextrorotatory (d-) substances rotate light clockwise (to the right) and have a positive rotation value.</li>
<li>Levorotatory (l-) substances rotate light counterclockwise (to the left) and have a negative rotation value.</li>
<li>Optical rotation is measured in degrees using a polarimeter.</li>
<li>Specific rotation (α) is a standardized value that represents the rotation per unit length.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: D-glucose has a specific rotation of +52.7°.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Chirality in Biomolecules $\rightarrow$ Enantiomers $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Optical Activity </span> $\rightarrow$ Haworth Projection of L-Glucose $\rightarrow$ Anomers of L-Glucose </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-configuration-of-d-aldose-success-16"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Configuration Of D Aldose </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-anomers-of-l-glucose-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Anomers of L-Glucose </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>L-Glucose can also exist in α and β anomeric forms.</li>
<li><strong>α-L-Glucose</strong>: Hydroxyl group on C1 is trans to the -CH2OH group.</li>
<li><strong>β-L-Glucose</strong>: Hydroxyl group on C1 is cis to the -CH2OH group.</li>
<li><strong>Haworth Projection examples</strong>:
<ul>
<li>α-L-Glucose:
<code>O       HO \     /  HO―CH2OH―C―OH |   \ HO   H</code></li>
<li>β-L-Glucose:
<code>O       HO \     /  OH―CH2OH―C―OH |   \ HO   H</code></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Optical Activity $\rightarrow$ Haworth Projection of L-Glucose $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Anomers of L-Glucose </span> $\rightarrow$ Epimers $\rightarrow$ Anomerization </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-configuration-of-d-aldose-success-17"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Configuration Of D Aldose </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-epimers-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Epimers </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Epimers are stereoisomers that differ in the configuration of only one stereogenic center.</li>
<li>Epimers are a type of diastereomers.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: D-glucose and D-mannose are epimers at the C2 carbon atom.</li>
<li><strong>Fischer Projection examples</strong>:
<ul>
<li>D-Glucose:
<code>HO―CH2OH―C―OH |       | H―C―OH        H | H</code></li>
<li>D-Mannose:
<code>HO―CH2OH―C―OH |       | H―C―OH        OH | H</code></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Haworth Projection of L-Glucose $\rightarrow$ Anomers of L-Glucose $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Epimers </span> $\rightarrow$ Anomerization $\rightarrow$ Glycosidic Bond Formation </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-configuration-of-d-aldose-success-18"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Configuration Of D Aldose </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-anomerization-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Anomerization </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Anomerization is the interconversion between anomers.</li>
<li>It occurs due to the rotation of the hydroxyl group attached to the anomeric carbon.</li>
<li>Anomerization can be catalyzed by acids or enzymes.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: α-D-glucose can convert into β-D-glucose.</li>
<li><strong>Haworth Projection examples</strong>:
<ul>
<li>α-D-Glucose:
<code>O       HO \     /  HO―CH2OH―C―OH |   \ HO   H</code></li>
<li>β-D-Glucose:
<code>O       HO \     /  OH―CH2OH―C―OH |   \ HO   H</code></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Anomers of L-Glucose $\rightarrow$ Epimers $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Anomerization </span> $\rightarrow$ Glycosidic Bond Formation $\rightarrow$ Classification of Carbohydrates </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-glycosidic-bond-formation-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Glycosidic Bond Formation </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Glycosidic bond formation occurs when a hydroxyl group of one sugar reacts with the anomeric carbon of another sugar.</li>
<li>It is an example of a condensation reaction, resulting in the formation of a glycosidic bond and the release of a molecule of water.</li>
<li>Glycosidic bonds are typically formed between the anomeric carbon of one sugar and a hydroxyl group on the carbon atom of another sugar.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: Sucrose formation from glucose and fructose.</li>
<li><strong>Equation</strong>: Glucose + Fructose → Sucrose + H2O</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Epimers $\rightarrow$ Anomerization $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Glycosidic Bond Formation </span> $\rightarrow$ Classification of Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Monosaccharides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-classification-of-carbohydrates-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Classification of Carbohydrates </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li><strong>Carbohydrates can be classified into three main groups</strong>: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.</li>
<li><strong>Monosaccharides: Simple sugars that cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller units. Examples</strong>: Simple sugars that cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller units. Examples: glucose, fructose.</li>
<li><strong>Disaccharides: Formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide units. Examples</strong>: Formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide units. Examples: sucrose, lactose.</li>
<li><strong>Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharide units. Examples</strong>: Long chains of monosaccharide units. Examples: cellulose, starch.</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Anomerization $\rightarrow$ Glycosidic Bond Formation $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Classification of Carbohydrates </span> $\rightarrow$ Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ Disaccharides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-disaccharides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Disaccharides </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Disaccharides are formed by the condensation reaction between two monosaccharide units.</li>
<li>The glycosidic bond is formed between the anomeric carbon of one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group on the carbon atom of another monosaccharide.</li>
<li><strong>Examples of disaccharides</strong>: sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), maltose (glucose + glucose).</li>
<li>Disaccharides are usually crystalline solids that are soluble in water.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Classification of Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Disaccharides </span> $\rightarrow$ Polysaccharides $\rightarrow$ Functions of Carbohydrates </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-functions-of-carbohydrates-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Functions of Carbohydrates </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li><strong>Carbohydrates have multiple functions in living organisms, including</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Energy storage: Carbohydrates serve as a primary source of energy for cellular processes.</li>
<li>Structural support: Polysaccharides like cellulose provide structural support to plant cell walls.</li>
<li>Cell recognition: Carbohydrates on the cell surface play a role in cell recognition and immune response.</li>
<li>DNA and RNA synthesis: Carbohydrates are essential for the synthesis of nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA.</li>
<li>Glycoproteins and glycolipids: Carbohydrates are present in glycoproteins and glycolipids, which are important for cell signaling and communication.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Disaccharides $\rightarrow$ Polysaccharides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Functions of Carbohydrates </span> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$  </footer>