Biomolecules - Classification Of Carbohydrates

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-linkage-in-disaccharides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Linkage in Disaccharides </primary></h3>
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<li>Disaccharides are formed by the condensation reaction between two monosaccharides.</li>
<li>The linkage between the monosaccharide units can be either α or β.</li>
<li>In α linkage, the hydroxyl group on the anomeric carbon is below the plane of the ring.</li>
<li>In β linkage, the hydroxyl group on the anomeric carbon is above the plane of the ring.</li>
<li><strong>Example</strong>: Sucrose has an α,β-glycosidic linkage between glucose and fructose.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Haworth Projection Formula $\rightarrow$ Examples of Haworth Projections $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Linkage in Disaccharides </span> $\rightarrow$ Sucrose $\rightarrow$ Lactose </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-functions-of-polysaccharides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Functions of Polysaccharides </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Starch and glycogen serve as energy storage molecules in plants and animals.</li>
<li>Cellulose provides structural support to plant cells.</li>
<li>Polysaccharides such as chitin are found in the exoskeleton of arthropods.</li>
<li>Some polysaccharides, like hyaluronic acid, have lubricating properties in joints.</li>
<li>Polysaccharides also play a role in cell-cell recognition and immune responses.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Cellulose $\rightarrow$ Glycogen $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Functions of Polysaccharides </span> $\rightarrow$ Biologically Important Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ Summary </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-biologically-important-monosaccharides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Biologically Important Monosaccharides </primary></h3>
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<li><strong>Glucose</strong>: It is the primary source of energy for cellular respiration.</li>
<li><strong>Fructose</strong>: It is found in fruits and is converted to glucose in the liver.</li>
<li><strong>Galactose</strong>: It is present in milk and is converted to glucose in the liver.</li>
<li><strong>Ribose and deoxyribose</strong>: They are components of nucleotides in DNA and RNA.</li>
<li><strong>Glucosamine</strong>: It is an amino sugar used in the synthesis of chitin and glycosaminoglycans.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Glycogen $\rightarrow$ Functions of Polysaccharides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Biologically Important Monosaccharides </span> $\rightarrow$ Summary $\rightarrow$ Properties of Monosaccharides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-summary-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Summary </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates are classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.</li>
<li>Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates and cannot be hydrolyzed.</li>
<li>Disaccharides are formed by condensation reactions and can be hydrolyzed into monosaccharides.</li>
<li>Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates with various functions in organisms.</li>
<li>Understanding the structure and function of carbohydrates is essential in studying biomolecules.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Functions of Polysaccharides $\rightarrow$ Biologically Important Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Summary </span> $\rightarrow$ Properties of Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ Mutarotation of Monosaccharides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-mutarotation-of-monosaccharides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Mutarotation of Monosaccharides </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Mutarotation refers to the interconversion between different stereoisomeric forms of a sugar.</li>
<li>In solution, monosaccharides exist in an equilibrium between the open-chain and cyclic forms.</li>
<li>Mutarotation occurs as the α and β anomers of a sugar interconvert through the open-chain form.</li>
<li>This process is catalyzed by the surrounding solvent, such as water.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Summary $\rightarrow$ Properties of Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Mutarotation of Monosaccharides </span> $\rightarrow$ Functional Groups in Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Glycosidic Bond Formation </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-functional-groups-in-carbohydrates-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Functional Groups in Carbohydrates </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates contain multiple functional groups, including hydroxyl (-OH) groups.</li>
<li>These hydroxyl groups make carbohydrates polar and capable of forming hydrogen bonds.</li>
<li>The carbonyl group (C=O) in monosaccharides is responsible for their reactivity.</li>
<li>Carbohydrates can react with other molecules, such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Properties of Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ Mutarotation of Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Functional Groups in Carbohydrates </span> $\rightarrow$ Glycosidic Bond Formation $\rightarrow$ Importance of Carbohydrates in Metabolism </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-importance-of-carbohydrates-in-metabolism-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Importance of Carbohydrates in Metabolism </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy for cells.</li>
<li>Glucose is the main fuel molecule for cellular respiration.</li>
<li>Carbohydrates are metabolized to produce ATP, which is used in various cellular processes.</li>
<li>Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in animals and as starch in plants.</li>
<li>Carbohydrates also play a role in the biosynthesis of other biomolecules, such as lipids and proteins.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Functional Groups in Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Glycosidic Bond Formation $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Importance of Carbohydrates in Metabolism </span> $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates in Food $\rightarrow$ Importance of Fiber in the Diet </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-carbohydrates-in-food-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Carbohydrates in Food </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates are a major component of the human diet.</li>
<li>They are commonly found in grains, fruits, vegetables, and dairy products.</li>
<li>Complex carbohydrates, such as starch and fiber, provide sustained energy and regulate digestion.</li>
<li>Simple carbohydrates, such as sugars, provide quick energy but should be consumed in moderation.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Glycosidic Bond Formation $\rightarrow$ Importance of Carbohydrates in Metabolism $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Carbohydrates in Food </span> $\rightarrow$ Importance of Fiber in the Diet $\rightarrow$ Common Carbohydrate Tests </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-importance-of-fiber-in-the-diet-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Importance of Fiber in the Diet </primary></h3>
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<li>Fiber is a type of carbohydrate that cannot be digested by humans.</li>
<li>It adds bulk to the diet and promotes healthy digestion.</li>
<li>Fiber helps prevent constipation and aids in weight management.</li>
<li>Foods rich in fiber include whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes.</li>
<li>Increasing fiber intake is beneficial for overall health.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Importance of Carbohydrates in Metabolism $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrates in Food $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Importance of Fiber in the Diet </span> $\rightarrow$ Common Carbohydrate Tests $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrate Derivatives </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-common-carbohydrate-tests-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Common Carbohydrate Tests </primary></h3>
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<li><strong>Benedict’s Test</strong>: It is used to detect the presence of reducing sugars.</li>
<li><strong>Iodine Test</strong>: It is used to detect the presence of starch. A blue-black color indicates the presence of starch.</li>
<li><strong>Molisch’s Test</strong>: It is used to detect the presence of carbohydrates. A purple or red color indicates a positive test.</li>
<li><strong>Fehling’s Test</strong>: It is similar to Benedict’s test and is used to detect reducing sugars.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Carbohydrates in Food $\rightarrow$ Importance of Fiber in the Diet $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Common Carbohydrate Tests </span> $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrate Derivatives $\rightarrow$ Conclusion </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-conclusion-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Conclusion </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates are essential biomolecules with diverse functions in living organisms.</li>
<li>They are classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides based on their structure and properties.</li>
<li>Monosaccharides are the building blocks of carbohydrates and can exist as cyclic structures.</li>
<li>Disaccharides are formed by the condensation reaction between two monosaccharides.</li>
<li>Polysaccharides serve as storage and structural molecules in organisms.</li>
<li>Understanding carbohydrates is important for studying metabolism, nutrition, and biochemistry.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Common Carbohydrate Tests $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrate Derivatives $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Conclusion </span> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$  </footer>