Biomolecules - Carbohydrates

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-biomolecules---carbohydrates-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Biomolecules - Carbohydrates </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.</li>
<li><strong>They are classified into three main types</strong>: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.</li>
<li>Monosaccharides are simple sugars with a single sugar unit, such as glucose and fructose.</li>
<li>Disaccharides are formed by the condensation reaction between two monosaccharides, like sucrose and lactose.</li>
<li>Polysaccharides consist of many monosaccharide units and are complex carbohydrates, examples include starch and cellulose.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px"> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Biomolecules - Carbohydrates </span> $\rightarrow$ Structure of Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ Isomers of Monosaccharides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-isomers-of-monosaccharides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Isomers of Monosaccharides </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements.</li>
<li>In monosaccharides, isomers can occur due to different arrangements of hydroxyl groups around the carbon atoms.</li>
<li>Aldose isomers have an aldehyde functional group, while ketose isomers have a ketone functional group.</li>
<li>For example, glucose and fructose are isomers, both having the same molecular formula, C6H12O6, but different structural arrangements.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Biomolecules - Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Structure of Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Isomers of Monosaccharides </span> $\rightarrow$ Reducing and Non-reducing Sugars $\rightarrow$ Disaccharides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-reducing-and-non-reducing-sugars-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Reducing and Non-reducing Sugars </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Reducing sugars are monosaccharides or disaccharides that can reduce other compounds, particularly oxidizing agents.</li>
<li>They have a free anomeric carbon that can undergo oxidation.</li>
<li>Glucose is a reducing sugar, as it can reduce Benedict’s or Fehling’s solution.</li>
<li>Non-reducing sugars, such as sucrose, do not have a free anomeric carbon and cannot undergo oxidation.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Structure of Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ Isomers of Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Reducing and Non-reducing Sugars </span> $\rightarrow$ Disaccharides $\rightarrow$ Hydrolysis of Disaccharides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-disaccharides-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Disaccharides </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Disaccharides are formed by the condensation reaction between two monosaccharides.</li>
<li>The reaction involves the loss of a water molecule, forming a glycosidic bond.</li>
<li>Common disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.</li>
<li>Sucrose is formed by the condensation of glucose and fructose.</li>
<li>Lactose is composed of glucose and galactose.</li>
<li>Maltose results from the condensation of two glucose molecules.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Isomers of Monosaccharides $\rightarrow$ Reducing and Non-reducing Sugars $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Disaccharides </span> $\rightarrow$ Hydrolysis of Disaccharides $\rightarrow$ Polysaccharides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-structure-and-function-of-cellulose-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Structure and Function of Cellulose </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on Earth and an important structural polysaccharide in plants.</li>
<li>It is composed of glucose units linked by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds.</li>
<li>Cellulose forms long, linear chains that are interconnected through hydrogen bonding, providing strength and rigidity to plant cell walls.</li>
<li>Humans cannot digest cellulose due to the lack of enzymes to break β-1,4-glycosidic bonds.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Polysaccharides $\rightarrow$ Structure and Function of Starch $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Structure and Function of Cellulose </span> $\rightarrow$ Structure and Function of Glycogen $\rightarrow$ Structure and Function of Glycosaminoglycans </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-structure-and-function-of-glycogen-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Structure and Function of Glycogen </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Glycogen is the storage polysaccharide in animals, particularly in the liver and muscles.</li>
<li>It is highly branched, similar to amylopectin.</li>
<li>Glycogen serves as an energy reserve and can be rapidly hydrolyzed into glucose when needed.</li>
<li>The branching allows for efficient storage and quick release of glucose molecules.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Structure and Function of Starch $\rightarrow$ Structure and Function of Cellulose $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Structure and Function of Glycogen </span> $\rightarrow$ Structure and Function of Glycosaminoglycans $\rightarrow$ Introduction to Lipids </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-structure-and-function-of-glycosaminoglycans-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Structure and Function of Glycosaminoglycans </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are long unbranched polysaccharides.</li>
<li>They are composed of repeating disaccharide units, with one of the sugars being an amino sugar.</li>
<li>GAGs are important components of extracellular matrices and provide structural support.</li>
<li>Examples of GAGs include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, and heparan sulfate.</li>
<li>Hyaluronic acid is found in the synovial fluid, vitreous humor, and connective tissue of animals.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Structure and Function of Cellulose $\rightarrow$ Structure and Function of Glycogen $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Structure and Function of Glycosaminoglycans </span> $\rightarrow$ Introduction to Lipids $\rightarrow$ Types of Lipids </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-introduction-to-lipids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Introduction to Lipids </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Lipids are a diverse group of biomolecules that are largely nonpolar and hydrophobic.</li>
<li>They include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.</li>
<li>Lipids serve various functions, including energy storage, insulation, and forming cell membranes.</li>
<li>Fats and oils are composed of glycerol and fatty acids.</li>
<li>Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated, depending on the presence of double bonds.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Structure and Function of Glycogen $\rightarrow$ Structure and Function of Glycosaminoglycans $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Introduction to Lipids </span> $\rightarrow$ Types of Lipids $\rightarrow$ Steroids </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-types-of-lipids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Types of Lipids </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Triglycerides, also known as triacylglycerols, are the most common type of lipid.</li>
<li>They consist of a glycerol backbone and three fatty acid chains.</li>
<li>Saturated fatty acids have single bonds between all carbon atoms and exist as solids at room temperature.</li>
<li>Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds and exist as liquids at room temperature.</li>
<li>Phospholipids are the major components of cell membranes and have a polar phosphate head and nonpolar fatty acid tails.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Structure and Function of Glycosaminoglycans $\rightarrow$ Introduction to Lipids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Types of Lipids </span> $\rightarrow$ Steroids $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acids - DNA and RNA </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-nucleic-acids---dna-and-rna-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Nucleic Acids - DNA and RNA </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Nucleic acids are large biomolecules composed of nucleotide monomers.</li>
<li>They store and transmit genetic information in cells.</li>
<li>DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double-stranded helical structure that carries genetic instructions.</li>
<li>RNA (ribonucleic acid) is single-stranded and involved in protein synthesis.</li>
<li>Both DNA and RNA are composed of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Types of Lipids $\rightarrow$ Steroids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Nucleic Acids - DNA and RNA </span> $\rightarrow$ Structure of DNA $\rightarrow$ Structure of RNA </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-structure-of-dna-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Structure of DNA </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>DNA has a double-helical structure, with two antiparallel strands held together by hydrogen bonding between nitrogenous bases.</li>
<li>The sugar-phosphate backbone forms the outer part of the helix.</li>
<li>Adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), forming two hydrogen bonds.</li>
<li>Guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C), forming three hydrogen bonds.</li>
<li>The base pairing allows for accurate DNA replication and transcription.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Steroids $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acids - DNA and RNA $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Structure of DNA </span> $\rightarrow$ Structure of RNA $\rightarrow$ Enzymes - Catalysts in Biochemical Reactions </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-structure-of-rna-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Structure of RNA </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>RNA is single-stranded and has a similar structure to one strand of DNA.</li>
<li>However, RNA contains ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose sugar and uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).</li>
<li>RNA can fold upon itself and form complex structures due to internal base pairing.</li>
<li>Different types of RNA molecules, such as mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA, have specific functions in protein synthesis.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nucleic Acids - DNA and RNA $\rightarrow$ Structure of DNA $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Structure of RNA </span> $\rightarrow$ Enzymes - Catalysts in Biochemical Reactions $\rightarrow$ Enzyme Regulation - Allosteric Regulation </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-enzymes---catalysts-in-biochemical-reactions-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Enzymes - Catalysts in Biochemical Reactions </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions in cells.</li>
<li>They lower the activation energy required for the reaction to occur.</li>
<li>Enzymes follow the lock-and-key model, where the enzyme’s active site binds to the substrate.</li>
<li>The enzyme-substrate complex undergoes a reaction, producing the product.</li>
<li>Enzymes are highly specific and can be regulated by factors such as pH, temperature, and inhibitors.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Structure of DNA $\rightarrow$ Structure of RNA $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Enzymes - Catalysts in Biochemical Reactions </span> $\rightarrow$ Enzyme Regulation - Allosteric Regulation $\rightarrow$ Metabolism of Carbohydrates </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-enzyme-regulation---allosteric-regulation-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Enzyme Regulation - Allosteric Regulation </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Allosteric regulation is a process where the regulation of enzyme activity occurs at a site other than the active site.</li>
<li>It involves the binding of an effector molecule to the allosteric site.</li>
<li>The effector can be an activator or inhibitor, regulating the enzyme’s function.</li>
<li>Allosteric regulation allows for dynamic control of enzyme activity in response to cellular needs.</li>
<li>An example of allosteric regulation is the feedback inhibition of enzymes in metabolic pathways.
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Structure of RNA $\rightarrow$ Enzymes - Catalysts in Biochemical Reactions $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Enzyme Regulation - Allosteric Regulation </span> $\rightarrow$ Metabolism of Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Glycolysis </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-metabolism-of-carbohydrates-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Metabolism of Carbohydrates </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates play a crucial role in energy metabolism.</li>
<li>Glucose is the primary source of energy for cells.</li>
<li>During cellular respiration, glucose is oxidized to produce ATP.</li>
<li>Glycolysis is the first step of glucose metabolism, where glucose is converted into pyruvate.</li>
<li>In aerobic conditions, pyruvate undergoes further oxidation in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Enzymes - Catalysts in Biochemical Reactions $\rightarrow$ Enzyme Regulation - Allosteric Regulation $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Metabolism of Carbohydrates </span> $\rightarrow$ Glycolysis $\rightarrow$ Citric Acid Cycle </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-citric-acid-cycle-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Citric Acid Cycle </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle, takes place in the mitochondria.</li>
<li>It completes the breakdown of glucose by oxidizing pyruvate.</li>
<li>Pyruvate is transformed into acetyl-CoA and enters the citric acid cycle.</li>
<li>The cycle generates energy-rich molecules, such as NADH and FADH2, as well as GTP.</li>
<li><strong>The overall reaction can be summarized as</strong>: Acetyl-CoA + 3 NAD+ + FAD + ADP + Pi → 2 CO2 + 3 NADH + FADH2 + GTP + CoA</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Metabolism of Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Glycolysis $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Citric Acid Cycle </span> $\rightarrow$ Electron Transport Chain $\rightarrow$ Fermentation </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-importance-of-carbohydrates-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Importance of Carbohydrates </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates serve as a vital energy source for all living organisms.</li>
<li>They are crucial in the functioning of the nervous system and brain.</li>
<li>Carbohydrates play a role in the proper functioning of the immune system.</li>
<li>They are also involved in cell signaling and adhesion processes.</li>
<li>Carbohydrates serve as structural components in plants, forming cellulose and other polysaccharides.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Electron Transport Chain $\rightarrow$ Fermentation $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Importance of Carbohydrates </span> $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrate Derivatives $\rightarrow$ Clinical Significance of Carbohydrates </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-carbohydrate-derivatives-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Carbohydrate Derivatives </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates can undergo various chemical modifications to produce carbohydrate derivatives.</li>
<li>These derivatives can have different functional groups or added substituents.</li>
<li>Examples of carbohydrate derivatives include amino sugars, sugar alcohols, and glycosides.</li>
<li>Amino sugars have an amino group (-NH2) substituent attached to the sugar.</li>
<li>Sugar alcohols have a hydroxyl (-OH) group replaced with an alcohol group (-CH2OH).</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Fermentation $\rightarrow$ Importance of Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Carbohydrate Derivatives </span> $\rightarrow$ Clinical Significance of Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Summary </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-carbohydrates-success-26"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Carbohydrates </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-clinical-significance-of-carbohydrates-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Clinical Significance of Carbohydrates </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Abnormalities in carbohydrate metabolism can have clinical implications.</li>
<li>Diabetes mellitus is a disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels.</li>
<li>Type 1 diabetes is caused by the inability to produce insulin, while type 2 diabetes is due to insulin resistance.</li>
<li>Glycogen storage diseases result from deficiencies in enzymes involved in glycogen metabolism.</li>
<li>Disorders in carbohydrate metabolism can lead to symptoms such as hypoglycemia, fatigue, and organ damage.</li>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Importance of Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Carbohydrate Derivatives $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Clinical Significance of Carbohydrates </span> $\rightarrow$ Summary $\rightarrow$ Conclusion </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-carbohydrates-success-27"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Carbohydrates </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-summary-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Summary </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Carbohydrates are vital biomolecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.</li>
<li>They are classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.</li>
<li>Monosaccharides are the simplest sugars, while polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates.</li>
<li>Carbohydrates play a critical role in energy metabolism, cellular signaling, and structural support.</li>
<li>Metabolism of carbohydrates involves glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain.</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Carbohydrate Derivatives $\rightarrow$ Clinical Significance of Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Summary </span> $\rightarrow$ Conclusion $\rightarrow$  </footer>