Biomolecules - Biosynthesis Of Nucleic Acids

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-steps-in-dna-replication-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Steps in DNA Replication </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Initiation</strong>: The replication begins at specific sites on the DNA molecule called replication origins.</li>
<li><strong>Unwinding</strong>: The double helix is unwound by an enzyme called helicase, which breaks the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs.</li>
<li><strong>Separation</strong>: The unwound DNA strands separate, forming a replication fork.</li>
<li><strong>Synthesis</strong>: DNA polymerase adds new nucleotides to the exposed template strands, creating complementary strands.
<ul>
<li>The new nucleotides are added in a 5’ to 3’ direction, using the existing strands as templates.</li>
<li>The enzyme DNA ligase seals the gaps between the newly synthesized fragments, forming continuous strands.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Biomolecules - Biosynthesis of Nucleic Acids $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Steps in DNA Replication </span> $\rightarrow$ Transcription $\rightarrow$ Steps in Transcription </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-steps-in-transcription-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Steps in Transcription </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Initiation</strong>: RNA polymerase binds to a specific site on the DNA called the promoter region.</li>
<li><strong>Elongation</strong>: The RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template, synthesizing a single-stranded RNA molecule.
<ul>
<li>The RNA molecule is complementary to the DNA template strand.</li>
<li>The RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the growing RNA chain in a 5’ to 3’ direction.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Termination</strong>: The RNA polymerase reaches a specific termination signal on the DNA template, causing it to detach and release the newly synthesized RNA molecule.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Steps in DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ Transcription $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Steps in Transcription </span> $\rightarrow$ Nucleotides $\rightarrow$ DNA Nucleotides </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-replication-vs-transcription-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA Replication vs. Transcription </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>DNA replication and transcription are both essential processes for the maintenance and expression of genetic information.</li>
<li><strong>However, they differ in their roles and outcomes</strong>:
<ul>
<li>DNA replication creates an exact copy of the DNA molecule, preserving the genetic information.</li>
<li>Transcription synthesizes RNA molecules from DNA templates, enabling the expression of genes.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Nucleotides $\rightarrow$ RNA Nucleotides $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA Replication vs. Transcription </span> $\rightarrow$ Summary $\rightarrow$ References </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-steps-in-dna-replication-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Steps in DNA Replication </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Initiation</strong>:
<ul>
<li>DNA replication starts at specific sites called replication origins.</li>
<li>Enzymes like helicase unwind the double helix structure.</li>
<li>Accessory proteins stabilize the unwound DNA strands.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Unwinding</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs, separating the DNA strands.</li>
<li>Topoisomerases help relieve the tension caused by unwinding.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Separation</strong>:
<ul>
<li>The unwound DNA strands form a Y-shaped structure called the replication fork.</li>
<li>Replication proceeds bidirectionally from each replication fork.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">References $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Steps in DNA Replication </span> $\rightarrow$ Steps in DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ Steps in Transcription </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-steps-in-dna-replication-primary-2"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Steps in DNA Replication </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Synthesis</strong>:
<ul>
<li>DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to the exposed template strands.</li>
<li>New DNA strands are synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction.</li>
<li>Leading and lagging strands are synthesized differently.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Termination</strong>:
<ul>
<li>The replication process ends at specific termination sites.</li>
<li>DNA ligase joins the Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ Steps in DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Steps in DNA Replication </span> $\rightarrow$ Steps in Transcription $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication and Transcription </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-steps-in-transcription-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Steps in Transcription </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li><strong>Initiation</strong>:
<ul>
<li>RNA synthesis starts at a specific DNA region called the promoter.</li>
<li>RNA polymerase recognizes and binds to the promoter.</li>
<li>Transcription factors assist in the binding process.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Elongation</strong>:
<ul>
<li>RNA polymerase synthesizes an RNA molecule.</li>
<li>It moves along the DNA template, adding complementary nucleotides.</li>
<li>The growing RNA chain is antiparallel to the DNA template strand.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Termination</strong>:
<ul>
<li>Transcription terminates at specific sites called terminator sequences.</li>
<li>The RNA molecule is released, and the RNA polymerase detaches from the DNA template.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Steps in DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ Steps in DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Steps in Transcription </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication and Transcription $\rightarrow$ Nucleotides in DNA and RNA </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-replication-and-transcription-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA Replication and Transcription </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>DNA replication and transcription share some similarities, such as using nucleotides and involving the synthesis of nucleic acids.</li>
<li>However, they differ in several aspects, including their purposes and locations.</li>
<li>DNA replication occurs during cell division and ensures DNA duplication for inheritance.</li>
<li>Transcription takes place in the nucleus (eukaryotes) or cytoplasm (prokaryotes) and produces RNA for protein synthesis.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Steps in DNA Replication $\rightarrow$ Steps in Transcription $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA Replication and Transcription </span> $\rightarrow$ Nucleotides in DNA and RNA $\rightarrow$ Base Pairing in DNA </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-nucleotides-in-dna-and-rna-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Nucleotides in DNA and RNA </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids.</li>
<li><strong>They consist of three components</strong>: a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.</li>
<li>In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose, while in RNA, it is ribose.
Examples:</li>
<li><strong>DNA nucleotides</strong>: deoxyadenosine triphosphate (dATP), deoxyguanosine triphosphate (dGTP), deoxycytidine triphosphate (dCTP), deoxythymidine triphosphate (dTTP)</li>
<li><strong>RNA nucleotides</strong>: adenosine triphosphate (ATP), guanosine triphosphate (GTP), cytidine triphosphate (CTP), uridine triphosphate (UTP)</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Steps in Transcription $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication and Transcription $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Nucleotides in DNA and RNA </span> $\rightarrow$ Base Pairing in DNA $\rightarrow$ Base Pairing in RNA </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-base-pairing-in-dna-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Base Pairing in DNA </primary></h3>
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<main>
<ul>
<li>In DNA, adenine (A) forms hydrogen bonds with thymine (T), and guanine (G) forms bonds with cytosine (C).</li>
<li>These base pairs bind the two complementary strands of DNA together.</li>
<li><strong>Example: A double-stranded DNA sequence could be</strong>: A double-stranded DNA sequence could be:</li>
<li>5’ - ATGCCGA - 3'</li>
<li>3’ - TACGGCT - 5'</li>
<li>Here, A binds with T and G binds with C.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Replication and Transcription $\rightarrow$ Nucleotides in DNA and RNA $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Base Pairing in DNA </span> $\rightarrow$ Base Pairing in RNA $\rightarrow$ Importance of DNA Replication and Transcription </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-base-pairing-in-rna-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Base Pairing in RNA </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>In RNA, adenine (A) forms hydrogen bonds with uracil (U), and guanine (G) forms bonds with cytosine (C).</li>
<li>RNA base pairing rules are similar to DNA, except that uracil replaces thymine in RNA.</li>
<li><strong>Example: RNA sequence complementary to the previous DNA sequence would be</strong>: RNA sequence complementary to the previous DNA sequence would be:</li>
<li>5’ - UACGGCU - 3'</li>
<li>Here, A binds with U, G binds with C, and T is replaced by U.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Nucleotides in DNA and RNA $\rightarrow$ Base Pairing in DNA $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Base Pairing in RNA </span> $\rightarrow$ Importance of DNA Replication and Transcription $\rightarrow$ Summary </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-importance-of-dna-replication-and-transcription-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Importance of DNA Replication and Transcription </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>DNA replication ensures accurate transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next.</li>
<li>Transcription allows the expression of specific genes and the production of functional proteins.</li>
<li>Both processes are critical for the growth, development, and survival of organisms.
Examples: DNA replication during cell division and transcription in protein synthesis.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Base Pairing in DNA $\rightarrow$ Base Pairing in RNA $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Importance of DNA Replication and Transcription </span> $\rightarrow$ Summary $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Initiation </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-summary-primary-1"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Summary </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>DNA replication and transcription are essential processes in genetics.</li>
<li>DNA replication creates an identical copy of the DNA molecule during cell division.</li>
<li>Transcription synthesizes RNA molecules from DNA templates for gene expression.</li>
<li>Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids and consist of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.
References: Chemistry textbook for 12th Boards, Molecular Biology of the Cell, Alberts et al.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Base Pairing in RNA $\rightarrow$ Importance of DNA Replication and Transcription $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Summary </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Initiation $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Unwinding </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-replication-initiation-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA Replication: Initiation </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>DNA replication begins at specific sites called replication origins.</li>
<li>Replication origins contain specific nucleotide sequences recognized by initiator proteins.</li>
<li>Initiator proteins bind to replication origins and recruit other proteins to initiate replication.</li>
<li>Examples of initiator proteins include DnaA in bacteria and ORC (origin recognition complex) in eukaryotes.</li>
<li>The binding of initiator proteins marks the starting point for DNA replication.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Importance of DNA Replication and Transcription $\rightarrow$ Summary $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA Replication: Initiation </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Unwinding $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Separation </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-replication-unwinding-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA Replication: Unwinding </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Helicase enzymes unwind the double helix structure of DNA.</li>
<li>Helicases bind to the origin of replication and move along the DNA, separating the two strands.</li>
<li>As helicase moves, it disrupts the hydrogen bonds between the complementary base pairs.</li>
<li>Unwinding of the DNA double helix generates tension and creates localized DNA regions called replication bubbles.</li>
<li>Topoisomerases help relieve the supercoiling tension generated during DNA unwinding.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Summary $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Initiation $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA Replication: Unwinding </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Separation $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Synthesis - Leading Strand </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-replication-separation-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA Replication: Separation </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>The unwound DNA strands form a Y-shaped structure called a replication fork.</li>
<li>Replication forks move bidirectionally from the origin of replication.</li>
<li>Each replication fork has a leading strand and a lagging strand.</li>
<li>The leading strand is synthesized continuously in the 5’ to 3’ direction following the replication fork.</li>
<li>The lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously as short fragments called Okazaki fragments.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Replication: Initiation $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Unwinding $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA Replication: Separation </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Synthesis - Leading Strand $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Synthesis - Lagging Strand </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-replication-synthesis---leading-strand-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA Replication: Synthesis - Leading Strand </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Leading strand synthesis occurs continuously and is synthesized as a single, uninterrupted strand.</li>
<li>The leading strand is synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction.</li>
<li>DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the growing leading strand using the template strand as a guide.</li>
<li>Primase synthesizes a short RNA primer that is complementary to the leading strand template in order to start DNA synthesis.</li>
<li>DNA polymerase then extends from the primer, continuously adding nucleotides to the growing leading strand.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Replication: Unwinding $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Separation $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA Replication: Synthesis - Leading Strand </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Synthesis - Lagging Strand $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Synthesis - Leading and Lagging Strand </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-replication-synthesis---lagging-strand-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA Replication: Synthesis - Lagging Strand </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Lagging strand synthesis occurs discontinuously as a series of Okazaki fragments.</li>
<li>Okazaki fragments are short DNA fragments synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction but in the opposite direction of overall DNA replication.</li>
<li>Primase synthesizes RNA primers on the lagging strand template at regular intervals.</li>
<li>DNA polymerase then extends from each primer and synthesizes a short fragment of DNA, which is an Okazaki fragment.</li>
<li>The process is repeated multiple times to complete the synthesis of the lagging strand.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Replication: Separation $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Synthesis - Leading Strand $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA Replication: Synthesis - Lagging Strand </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Synthesis - Leading and Lagging Strand $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Termination </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-replication-synthesis---leading-and-lagging-strand-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA Replication: Synthesis - Leading and Lagging Strand </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>On the leading strand, DNA synthesis occurs smoothly and continuously.</li>
<li>On the lagging strand, DNA synthesis occurs discontinuously, as Okazaki fragments are synthesized in the opposite direction.</li>
<li>The individual Okazaki fragments are later joined together by DNA ligase.</li>
<li>This process ensures that both strands of the original DNA molecule are replicated.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Replication: Synthesis - Leading Strand $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Synthesis - Lagging Strand $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA Replication: Synthesis - Leading and Lagging Strand </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Termination $\rightarrow$ Transcription: Initiation </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-dna-replication-termination-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> DNA Replication: Termination </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>DNA replication terminates when the replication forks meet at specific termination sites.</li>
<li>Termination sites contain specific nucleotide sequences that signal the end of replication.</li>
<li>Replication forks converge, and DNA synthesis is halted by various terminators.</li>
<li>Replication proteins dissociate from the DNA molecule, completing the replication process.</li>
<li>The newly synthesized DNA molecules are now ready to be utilized for cellular processes.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Replication: Synthesis - Lagging Strand $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Synthesis - Leading and Lagging Strand $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> DNA Replication: Termination </span> $\rightarrow$ Transcription: Initiation $\rightarrow$ Transcription: Elongation </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-transcription-initiation-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Transcription: Initiation </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Transcription begins at specific DNA regions called promoters.</li>
<li>Promoters have specific sequences that are recognized by RNA polymerase.</li>
<li>RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region and recruits other proteins to form a transcription initiation complex.</li>
<li>Transcription factors help in the binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter.</li>
<li>The promoter sequence determines the initiation site and the direction of transcription.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Replication: Synthesis - Leading and Lagging Strand $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication: Termination $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Transcription: Initiation </span> $\rightarrow$ Transcription: Elongation $\rightarrow$ Transcription: Termination </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-transcription-elongation-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Transcription: Elongation </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>During transcription elongation, RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template, synthesizing an RNA molecule.</li>
<li>RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA helix ahead of its active site and rewinds it behind.</li>
<li>The DNA strand not used as a template is called the non-template (coding) strand.</li>
<li>RNA polymerase adds complementary ribonucleotides to the growing RNA chain in the 5’ to 3’ direction.</li>
<li>The growing RNA molecule is antiparallel to the non-template strand.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">DNA Replication: Termination $\rightarrow$ Transcription: Initiation $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Transcription: Elongation </span> $\rightarrow$ Transcription: Termination $\rightarrow$  </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-transcription-termination-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Transcription: Termination </primary></h3>
<hr>
<main>
<ul>
<li>Transcription terminates at specific DNA sequences called terminators.</li>
<li>Termination signals cause RNA polymerase and the newly synthesized RNA molecule to detach from the DNA template.</li>
<li><strong>There are two types of termination</strong>: intrinsic termination and Rho-dependent termination.</li>
<li>Intrinsic termination occurs when specific terminator sequences cause the RNA to fold into a hairpin structure followed by a string of uracil residues.</li>
<li>Rho-dependent termination involves the binding of a protein called Rho to the mRNA molecule, leading to transcription termination.
References:</li>
<li>Chemistry textbook for 12th Boards</li>
<li>Molecular Biology of the Cell, Alberts et al.</li>
</ul>
</main>
<hr>
<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Transcription: Initiation $\rightarrow$ Transcription: Elongation $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Transcription: Termination </span> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$  </footer>