Biomolecules - Amino Acids

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-classification-of-amino-acids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Classification of Amino Acids </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li><strong>Non-Polar Amino Acids</strong>
<ul>
<li>Side chains are hydrophobic</li>
<li>Examples: Glycine, Alanine, Valine</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Polar Amino Acids</strong>
<ul>
<li>Side chains are hydrophilic</li>
<li>Examples: Serine, Threonine, Glutamine</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Acidic Amino Acids</strong>
<ul>
<li>Side chains are negatively charged at physiological pH</li>
<li>Examples: Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Basic Amino Acids</strong>
<ul>
<li>Side chains are positively charged at physiological pH</li>
<li>Examples: Lysine, Arginine, Histidine</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px"> $\rightarrow$ Biomolecules - Amino Acids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Classification of Amino Acids </span> $\rightarrow$ Structure of Amino Acids $\rightarrow$ Essential Amino Acids </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-secondary-structure-of-proteins-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Secondary Structure of Proteins </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Secondary structure refers to the local folding patterns within a protein</li>
<li>Two common secondary structures are alpha helix and beta sheet</li>
<li>Alpha helix is a right-handed coiled structure stabilized by hydrogen bonding between amino acid residues</li>
<li>Beta sheet consists of multiple strands of extended polypeptide chains held together by hydrogen bonds</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Peptide Bond Formation $\rightarrow$ Primary Structure of Proteins $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Secondary Structure of Proteins </span> $\rightarrow$ Tertiary Structure of Proteins $\rightarrow$ Quaternary Structure of Proteins </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-carbohydrates-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Carbohydrates </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li><strong>Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2</strong>:2:1</li>
<li>Main functions include energy storage and structural support</li>
<li>Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, fructose)</li>
<li>Disaccharides are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides (e.g., sucrose, lactose)</li>
<li>Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates formed by the polymerization of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose)</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Protein Folding $\rightarrow$ Protein Functions $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Carbohydrates </span> $\rightarrow$ Lipids $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acids </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-nucleic-acids-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Nucleic Acids </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information</li>
<li><strong>Two types of nucleic acids</strong>: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)</li>
<li>DNA carries the genetic code and is responsible for inherited traits</li>
<li>RNA plays a role in protein synthesis and gene expression</li>
<li>Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids, consisting of a phosphate group, a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine/uracil)</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Carbohydrates $\rightarrow$ Lipids $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Nucleic Acids </span> $\rightarrow$ DNA Structure $\rightarrow$ DNA Replication </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-protein-structure-determination-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Protein Structure Determination </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Determining the structure of proteins is crucial for understanding their functions and roles in biological processes</li>
<li>X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy are commonly used methods for protein structure determination</li>
<li>X-ray crystallography involves the analysis of diffraction patterns produced by X-rays passing through a crystalline protein sample</li>
<li>NMR spectroscopy uses the interaction of a protein with magnetic fields to study its structure</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Translation $\rightarrow$ Protein Synthesis $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Protein Structure Determination </span> $\rightarrow$ Enzymes $\rightarrow$ Enzyme Kinetics </footer>

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<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-enzyme-kinetics-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Enzyme Kinetics </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Enzyme kinetics is the study of how enzymes function and their reaction rates</li>
<li>The Michaelis-Menten equation describes the relationship between enzyme activity and substrate concentration</li>
<li>Enzymes exhibit saturation kinetics, meaning that as substrate concentration increases, the reaction rate levels off at the enzyme’s maximum velocity (Vmax)</li>
<li>The substrate concentration at which the reaction rate is half of Vmax is called the Michaelis constant (Km)</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Protein Structure Determination $\rightarrow$ Enzymes $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Enzyme Kinetics </span> $\rightarrow$ Reaction Mechanisms $\rightarrow$ Metabolism </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-amino-acids-success-26"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Amino Acids </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-carbohydrate-metabolism-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Carbohydrate Metabolism </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Carbohydrate metabolism is the process by which carbohydrates are synthesized, broken down, and converted into energy</li>
<li>Glycolysis is the initial step in carbohydrate metabolism, converting glucose into pyruvate</li>
<li>Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen, where pyruvate is further metabolized in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain</li>
<li>Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen, resulting in the conversion of pyruvate into lactate or ethanol</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Reaction Mechanisms $\rightarrow$ Metabolism $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Carbohydrate Metabolism </span> $\rightarrow$ Lipid Metabolism $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acid Metabolism </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-amino-acids-success-28"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Amino Acids </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-nucleic-acid-metabolism-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Nucleic Acid Metabolism </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Nucleic acid metabolism involves the biosynthesis and degradation of nucleotides, the building blocks of nucleic acids</li>
<li>Purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine/uracil) are synthesized through complex biochemical pathways</li>
<li>Nucleotides are essential for DNA and RNA synthesis, energy transfer (ATP), and signaling molecules (cyclic AMP)</li>
<li>Nucleotide catabolism involves the breakdown of nucleotides into nucleosides and then individual nitrogenous bases</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Carbohydrate Metabolism $\rightarrow$ Lipid Metabolism $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Nucleic Acid Metabolism </span> $\rightarrow$ Biochemical Pathways $\rightarrow$  </footer>

<h3 id="success-stylefont-size25px-biomolecules-amino-acids-success-29"><Success style="font-size:25px"> Biomolecules Amino Acids </Success></h3>
<h3 id="primary-stylefont-size24px-biochemical-pathways-primary"><primary style="font-size:24px"> Biochemical Pathways </primary></h3>
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<ul>
<li>Biochemical pathways refer to the interconnected series of chemical reactions that occur within an organism</li>
<li>They are essential for the efficient utilization of nutrients, energy production, and maintenance of cellular homeostasis</li>
<li>Examples of biochemical pathways include glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, electron transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation</li>
<li>Understanding these pathways is crucial for comprehending the overall functioning of biochemical systems in living organisms</li>
</ul>
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<footer style = "font-size: 18px">Lipid Metabolism $\rightarrow$ Nucleic Acid Metabolism $\rightarrow$ <span style = "color:blue"> Biochemical Pathways </span> $\rightarrow$  $\rightarrow$  </footer>