Slide 1: Genetics and Evolution

Molecular Basis of Inheritance - Steps of Initiation on Eukaryotes

Inheritance: transfer of genetic information from parents to offspring
Genetics: study of heredity and variation in organisms
Evolution: change in inherited characteristics of populations over generations

Slide 2: DNA Structure

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is a double-stranded molecule
Made up of nucleotides: sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate group, and nitrogenous base (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine)
Complementary base pairing: A-T and G-C

Slide 3: DNA Replication

Process by which DNA makes an exact copy of itself
Steps: initiation, elongation, and termination
Enzymes involved: helicase, DNA polymerase, DNA ligase

Slide 4: Transcription

Process of making a RNA molecule from a DNA template
Steps: initiation, elongation, and termination
RNA polymerase enzyme catalyzes the synthesis of RNA

Slide 5: Post-Transcriptional Modifications

Modifications made to the RNA molecule after transcription
Addition of a 5’ cap and a poly-A tail
RNA splicing removes introns and joins exons

Slide 6: Genetic Code

The set of rules by which information in the DNA sequence is converted into a protein
Codons: sequences of three nucleotides that code for amino acids
Start codon (AUG) initiates protein synthesis, stop codons (UAA, UAG, UGA) end protein synthesis

Slide 7: Translation

The process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is synthesized
Occurs on ribosomes in the cytoplasm
Steps: initiation, elongation, and termination

Slide 8: Mutations

Permanent changes in the DNA sequence
Types: point mutations (substitution, insertion, deletion), frameshift mutations, chromosomal mutations
Can lead to genetic disorders or variation in populations

Slide 9: Recombinant DNA Technology

Techniques used to manipulate and study DNA in the laboratory
Applications: genetic engineering, gene cloning, gene therapy
Tools: restriction enzymes, DNA ligase, plasmids

Slide 10: Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

Method used to amplify a specific DNA sequence
Steps: denaturation, annealing, and extension
Components: DNA template, primers, nucleotides, DNA polymerase

</p>
<h1 id="slide-11-gene-expression">Slide 11: Gene Expression</h1>
<ul>
<li>Process by which information encoded in a gene is used to direct the synthesis of a functional gene product (protein or RNA molecule)</li>
<li>Steps: transcription and translation</li>
<li>Regulation of gene expression: control of when, where, and in what amount a gene is expressed</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-12-regulation-of-gene-expression">Slide 12: Regulation of Gene Expression</h1>
<ul>
<li>Gene regulation ensures that genes are expressed only when needed</li>
<li>Types of regulation: transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational</li>
<li>Examples: gene regulatory proteins, enhancers, repressors</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-13-genetic-variation">Slide 13: Genetic Variation</h1>
<ul>
<li>Differences in genetic makeup among individuals within a population</li>
<li>Sources of genetic variation: mutation, recombination, and gene flow</li>
<li>Importance of genetic variation in evolution and adaptation</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-14-mendelian-genetics">Slide 14: Mendelian Genetics</h1>
<ul>
<li>Study of inherited traits and their patterns of transmission</li>
<li>Mendel’s laws: law of segregation and law of independent assortment</li>
<li>Punnett squares used to predict the inheritance of traits</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-15-mendelian-inheritance-of-traits">Slide 15: Mendelian Inheritance of Traits</h1>
<ul>
<li>Dominant and recessive traits</li>
<li>Phenotype and genotype</li>
<li>Examples: Mendel’s pea plant experiments, human genetic disorders (e.g. cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia)</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-16-non-mendelian-inheritance">Slide 16: Non-Mendelian Inheritance</h1>
<ul>
<li>Inheritance patterns that do not follow Mendel’s laws</li>
<li>Incomplete dominance, codominance, and multiple alleles</li>
<li>Examples: blood types (A, B, AB, O), sickle cell trait</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-17-sex-linked-inheritance">Slide 17: Sex-Linked Inheritance</h1>
<ul>
<li>Inheritance of traits linked to sex chromosomes</li>
<li>Examples: color blindness, hemophilia</li>
<li>Females are carriers while males are more likely to express the trait</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-18-polygenic-inheritance">Slide 18: Polygenic Inheritance</h1>
<ul>
<li>Inheritance of traits controlled by multiple genes</li>
<li>Produces a wide range of phenotypes</li>
<li>Examples: height, skin color, eye color</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-19-human-genome-project">Slide 19: Human Genome Project</h1>
<ul>
<li>International scientific research project</li>
<li>Goal: to determine the complete sequence of the human genome</li>
<li>Benefits: understanding the genetic basis of diseases, personalized medicine, genetic counseling</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-20-genetic-engineering">Slide 20: Genetic Engineering</h1>
<ul>
<li>Manipulation of an organism’s genes to achieve desired traits or outcomes</li>
<li>Tools and techniques: recombinant DNA technology, gene editing (e.g. CRISPR-Cas9), genetic modification of crops</li>
<li>Applications: medical research, agriculture, biotechnology</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-21-evolutionary-adaption">Slide 21: Evolutionary Adaption</h1>
<ul>
<li>Evolutionary adaptation refers to the process through which species become better suited to their environment over time</li>
<li>Natural selection acts on variations within a population, favoring traits that increase an organism’s survival and reproductive success</li>
<li>Examples: camouflage, mimicry, antibiotic resistance</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-22-speciation">Slide 22: Speciation</h1>
<ul>
<li>Speciation is the process by which new species arise from existing ones</li>
<li>It occurs through reproductive isolation and genetic divergence</li>
<li>Types of speciation: allopatric, sympatric, and parapatric speciation</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-23-mechanisms-of-evolution">Slide 23: Mechanisms of Evolution</h1>
<ul>
<li>Evolution occurs through several mechanisms:
<ul>
<li>Natural selection: differential survival and reproduction of individuals with advantageous traits</li>
<li>Genetic drift: random changes in gene frequencies due to chance events</li>
<li>Gene flow: movement of genes between populations through migration</li>
<li>Mutation: changes in DNA sequence that introduce new genetic variation</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-24-hardy-weinberg-principle">Slide 24: Hardy-Weinberg Principle</h1>
<ul>
<li>Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium describes a situation in which allele frequencies in a population do not change over time</li>
<li>Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: no mutation, random mating, no natural selection, no genetic drift, no gene flow</li>
<li>Can be used to calculate allele frequencies and predict genotype frequencies in a population</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-25-evolutionary-tree">Slide 25: Evolutionary Tree</h1>
<ul>
<li>An evolutionary tree, also known as a phylogenetic tree, depicts the evolutionary relationships between different species or groups of organisms</li>
<li>It shows the common ancestry and divergence of species over time</li>
<li>Branches represent lineages, and nodes represent common ancestors</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-26-fossil-record">Slide 26: Fossil Record</h1>
<ul>
<li>Fossils are preserved remnants or traces of organisms from the past</li>
<li>The fossil record provides evidence for the existence of extinct species and the evolution of current species</li>
<li>Fossil dating techniques: relative dating, radiometric dating</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-27-comparative-anatomy">Slide 27: Comparative Anatomy</h1>
<ul>
<li>Comparative anatomy involves studying the anatomical similarities and differences among different species</li>
<li>Homologous structures: structures with similar origin but different function</li>
<li>Analogous structures: structures with different origin but similar function</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-28-comparative-embryology">Slide 28: Comparative Embryology</h1>
<ul>
<li>Comparative embryology studies the development of different organisms to identify similarities and differences in their embryonic stages</li>
<li>Embryos of different species often exhibit common developmental patterns, suggesting shared ancestry</li>
<li>Examples: pharyngeal arches in animals, tail development in humans</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-29-molecular-phylogenetics">Slide 29: Molecular Phylogenetics</h1>
<ul>
<li>Molecular phylogenetics uses DNA or protein sequences to infer the evolutionary relationships between organisms</li>
<li>DNA sequencing techniques provide a molecular clock to estimate the divergence and evolutionary history of species</li>
<li>Examples: DNA barcoding, molecular clock analysis</li>
</ul>
<hr>
<h1 id="slide-30-human-evolution">Slide 30: Human Evolution</h1>
<ul>
<li>Human evolution is the study of the evolutionary history of the human species</li>
<li>Hominin fossils provide evidence for the gradual development of human-like traits over time</li>
<li>Examples: hominin species (Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis)</li>
</ul>

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