Genetics and Evolution- Molecular Basis of Inheritance

How do bacteria, lacking a nucleus, organize and pack their genome into the cell?

• Bacteria lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

• The bacterial genome is a single, circular DNA molecule.

• The organization and packaging of bacterial DNA involves several mechanisms.

• Nucleoid

  • Region of the bacterial cell where the DNA is located.
  • Dense and irregularly shaped.
  • DNA is not enclosed by a membrane.
  • Contains all genetic information required for the bacterium to survive and reproduce.

• Supercoiling

  • Bacterial DNA is supercoiled to fit within the limited space of the cell.
  • Requires the action of enzymes called topoisomerases.
  • Supercoiling helps in compacting the DNA and making it more space-efficient.

• Histone-like Proteins

  • Bacteria possess proteins that structurally resemble histones found in eukaryotes.
  • These proteins help in organizing the DNA and maintaining its structure.
  • They may play a role in determining gene expression.

• DNA Loops and Domains

  • Bacterial DNA forms loops and domains.
  • Loops bring distant parts of the genome together, facilitating interactions.
  • Domains are larger sections of the DNA that are anchored to the cell membrane or other cellular structures.

• Nucleoid-Associated Proteins (NAPs)

  • NAPs play a role in compacting bacterial DNA further.
  • They help in organizing the DNA into higher-order structures.
  • NAPs also influence gene expression by interacting with specific DNA sequences.

• Gene Expression Regulation

  • The organization of bacterial DNA affects gene expression.
  • DNA molecules that are more accessible are more likely to be transcribed and expressed.
  • DNA packaging plays a crucial role in regulating gene activity.

• DNA Replication

  • Bacterial DNA replication starts at a specific point called the origin of replication.
  • The process involves the unwinding of DNA, synthesis of new strands, and rejoining of strands.
  • DNA replication is tightly regulated to ensure accurate duplication of the genome.

• Plasmids

  • Bacteria can also contain smaller circular DNA molecules called plasmids.
  • Plasmids often carry additional genes that are beneficial for the bacterium.
  • Plasmids can replicate independently of the bacterial chromosome.

• Chromosome Segregation

  • During cell division, bacterial chromosomes are evenly distributed to daughter cells.
  • The precise mechanisms of chromosome segregation vary among different bacteria.
  </p> </li> </ul> <h1 id="slide-11">Slide 11</h1> <h3 id="mechanisms-of-dna-replication-in-bacteria">Mechanisms of DNA Replication in Bacteria</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Bacterial DNA replication is a highly coordinated process.</p> </li> <li> <p>It ensures accurate duplication of the genome.</p> </li> <li> <p>The basic steps involved in DNA replication are:</p> <ul> <li>Initiation</li> <li>Elongation</li> <li>Termination</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Initiation</strong></p> <ul> <li>The replication process starts at a specific location called the origin of replication (ori).</li> <li>Initiator proteins bind to the ori and unwind a small section of DNA.</li> <li>This creates a replication bubble and forms replication forks.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Elongation</strong></p> <ul> <li>DNA polymerase enzymes synthesize new DNA strands.</li> <li>Leading strand synthesis occurs continuously in the 5’ to 3’ direction.</li> <li>Lagging strand synthesis occurs discontinuously in the form of Okazaki fragments.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Termination</strong></p> <ul> <li>Replication is terminated when the replication fork reaches specific terminator sequences.</li> <li>Termination proteins facilitate the disassembly of the replication complex.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Enzymes Involved</strong></p> <ul> <li>DNA helicase unwinds the DNA strands.</li> <li>DNA primase synthesizes RNA primers.</li> <li>DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the growing strand.</li> <li>DNA ligase joins Okazaki fragments.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h1 id="slide-12">Slide 12</h1> <h3 id="dna-repair-mechanisms-in-bacteria">DNA Repair Mechanisms in Bacteria</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Errors can occur during DNA replication, leading to mutations.</p> </li> <li> <p>Bacteria have various mechanisms to correct these errors.</p> </li> <li> <p>Common DNA repair mechanisms include:</p> <ul> <li>Mismatch repair</li> <li>Base excision repair</li> <li>Nucleotide excision repair</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Mismatch Repair</strong></p> <ul> <li>Corrects errors missed by DNA polymerase during replication.</li> <li>Mismatch repair proteins recognize and remove the incorrectly paired nucleotide.</li> <li>The gap is filled in by DNA polymerase and ligase.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Base Excision Repair</strong></p> <ul> <li>Fixes damaged or altered bases.</li> <li>DNA glycosylases remove the damaged base, leaving an abasic (AP) site.</li> <li>The AP site is then repaired by other enzymes.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Nucleotide Excision Repair</strong></p> <ul> <li>Repairs bulky DNA lesions, such as pyrimidine dimers caused by UV radiation.</li> <li>The damaged region is recognized and removed by nucleases.</li> <li>The gap is filled in by DNA polymerase and ligase.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Importance of DNA Repair</strong></p> <ul> <li>DNA repair mechanisms play a crucial role in maintaining genome stability.</li> <li>They prevent the accumulation of mutations and genetic abnormalities.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h1 id="slide-13">Slide 13</h1> <h3 id="horizontal-gene-transfer-in-bacteria">Horizontal Gene Transfer in Bacteria</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Bacteria can transfer genetic material between unrelated cells.</p> </li> <li> <p>This process is known as horizontal gene transfer (HGT).</p> </li> <li> <p>HGT plays a significant role in bacterial evolution and adaptation.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Mechanisms of HGT</strong></p> <ul> <li>Conjugation: Direct transfer of genetic material through cell-to-cell contact.</li> <li>Transformation: Uptake of free DNA from the environment and its incorporation into the recipient genome.</li> <li>Transduction: Transfer of DNA via viruses that infect bacteria (bacteriophages).</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Importance of HGT</strong></p> <ul> <li>HGT promotes genetic diversity within bacterial populations.</li> <li>It allows the acquisition of beneficial traits, such as antibiotic resistance.</li> <li>HGT enables rapid adaptation to changing environments.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Conjugation</strong></p> <ul> <li>Conjugative plasmids carry genes necessary for conjugation.</li> <li>Pili facilitate contact between donor and recipient cells.</li> <li>The transfer of genetic material occurs through a pilus-mediated bridge.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h1 id="slide-14">Slide 14</h1> <h3 id="importance-of-bacterial-recombination">Importance of Bacterial Recombination</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Bacterial recombination is the exchange of genetic material between different DNA molecules.</p> </li> <li> <p>Recombination plays a crucial role in genetic diversity and the evolution of bacteria.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Homologous Recombination</strong></p> <ul> <li>Homologous regions on DNA molecules align and exchange segments.</li> <li>This process requires RecA protein and other enzymes.</li> <li>It promotes genetic diversity by shuffling genetic material between related strains.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Site-Specific Recombination</strong></p> <ul> <li>DNA recombination occurs at specific sites rather than homologous regions.</li> <li>Site-specific recombination allows the integration of specific genes or DNA segments at predefined sites.</li> <li>Examples include phage integration and plasmid insertion.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Importance of Recombination</strong></p> <ul> <li>Recombination facilitates the spread of advantageous genes throughout bacterial populations.</li> <li>It enables bacteria to adapt to changing environments.</li> <li>Recombination also contributes to the acquisition of antibiotic resistance and virulence factors.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h1 id="slide-15">Slide 15</h1> <h3 id="bacterial-transformation-uptake-of-foreign-dna">Bacterial Transformation: Uptake of Foreign DNA</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Bacterial transformation is the process by which foreign DNA is taken up by bacterial cells.</p> </li> <li> <p>This can occur naturally or can be induced in the laboratory.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Natural Transformation</strong></p> <ul> <li>Some bacteria have the ability to naturally take up free DNA from their surroundings.</li> <li>DNA fragments from lysed bacterial cells or released from other sources can be acquired.</li> <li>Natural transformation requires specific DNA uptake and recombination machinery.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Transformation in the Laboratory</strong></p> <ul> <li>In the laboratory, bacterial transformation can be induced using certain techniques.</li> <li>DNA of interest is introduced into competent cells, which are treated to enhance their ability to take up DNA.</li> <li>Transformed cells can be selected based on the presence of selectable markers on the introduced DNA.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Applications</strong></p> <ul> <li>Bacterial transformation is widely used in genetic engineering and biotechnology.</li> <li>It allows the introduction of specific genes into bacteria for various purposes, such as protein production or genetic modification.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h1 id="slide-16">Slide 16</h1> <h3 id="bacterial-conjugation-transfer-of-genetic-material">Bacterial Conjugation: Transfer of Genetic Material</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Bacterial conjugation is a mechanism of genetic transfer that involves direct cell-to-cell contact.</p> </li> <li> <p>It enables the transfer of genetic material, including plasmids, between bacteria.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Conjugative Plasmids</strong></p> <ul> <li>Conjugation usually involves the transfer of conjugative plasmids.</li> <li>Conjugative plasmids carry genes for the conjugation process itself.</li> <li>They can also carry other genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Pilus-Mediated Contact</strong></p> <ul> <li>Conjugation requires the formation of a pilus, a thin filament-like structure.</li> <li>The pilus establishes physical contact between the donor and recipient cells.</li> <li>DNA is then transferred from the donor to the recipient through this connection.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>F-Plasmid</strong></p> <ul> <li>The F-plasmid (fertility plasmid) is a well-studied example of a conjugative plasmid.</li> <li>It contains genes necessary for the synthesis of pili and the mobilization of DNA transfer.</li> <li>F-plasmids can confer the ability to conjugate on recipient cells.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h1 id="slide-17">Slide 17</h1> <h3 id="bacterial-transduction-transfer-of-dna-via-bacteriophages">Bacterial Transduction: Transfer of DNA via Bacteriophages</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria.</p> </li> <li> <p>Bacterial transduction is the process by which bacteriophages transfer bacterial DNA between cells.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Generalized Transduction</strong></p> <ul> <li>In generalized transduction, any bacterial DNA can be packaged into infecting phage particles.</li> <li>This occurs when a phage mistakenly incorporates bacterial DNA during viral replication.</li> <li>The phage then releases the DNA into a recipient bacterial cell, allowing gene transfer.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Specialized Transduction</strong></p> <ul> <li>Specialized transduction occurs when specific bacterial genes near the phage integration site are transferred.</li> <li>This occurs during phage excision from the bacterial chromosome.</li> <li>The excision process can occasionally capture adjacent bacterial genes, which are then transferred to recipient cells.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Phage Therapy</strong></p> <ul> <li>Bacteriophages have potential applications in treating bacterial infections.</li> <li>Phage therapy involves using specific phages to target and kill pathogenic bacteria.</li> <li>It offers an alternative to antibiotics, particularly in cases of antibiotic-resistant infections.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h1 id="slide-18">Slide 18</h1> <h3 id="bacterial-virulence-and-pathogenicity">Bacterial Virulence and Pathogenicity</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Some bacteria have the ability to cause disease (pathogenic bacteria).</p> </li> <li> <p>Pathogenicity is influenced by various factors, including genetic elements in the bacterial genome.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Virulence Factors</strong></p> <ul> <li>Virulence factors are traits that enable bacteria to cause disease.</li> <li>These factors can include toxins, adhesion molecules, capsules, and enzymes.</li> <li>They help bacteria colonize the host, evade the immune system, and cause tissue damage.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Pathogenicity Islands</strong></p> <ul> <li>Pathogenicity islands are specific regions in the bacterial genome.</li> <li>They contain genes encoding virulence factors and are acquired through horizontal transfer.</li> <li>Pathogenicity islands play a role in transforming nonpathogenic bacteria into pathogens.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Host-Pathogen Interaction</strong></p> <ul> <li>Successful infection involves a complex interplay between the host and pathogen.</li> <li>Bacteria use various strategies to survive and replicate within the host.</li> <li>The host immune response and bacterial virulence factors determine the outcome of infection.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h1 id="slide-19">Slide 19</h1> <h3 id="antibiotic-resistance-in-bacteria">Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Antibiotic resistance is a major concern in medical and veterinary science.</p> </li> <li> <p>Bacteria acquire resistance through various mechanisms.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance</strong></p> <ul> <li>Mutation: Spontaneous mutations can confer resistance to antibiotics.</li> <li>Horizontal Gene Transfer: Bacteria can acquire resistance genes through conjugation, transformation, or transduction.</li> <li>Efflux Pumps: Bacteria can actively pump out antibiotics from their cells.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Factors Contributing to Antibiotic Resistance</strong></p> <ul> <li>Misuse and overuse of antibiotics in human and veterinary medicine.</li> <li>Widespread use of antibiotics in livestock and agriculture.</li> <li>Poor infection control practices in healthcare settings.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Consequences of Antibiotic Resistance</strong></p> <ul> <li>Limited treatment options for bacterial infections.</li> <li>Increased morbidity and mortality from drug-resistant infections.</li> <li>Higher healthcare costs and longer hospital stays.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h1 id="slide-20">Slide 20</h1> <h3 id="antibiotic-resistance-and-its-control">Antibiotic Resistance and its Control</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Addressing antibiotic resistance requires a multifaceted approach.</p> </li> <li> <p>Effective strategies aim to prevent the emergence and spread of resistant bacteria.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Guidelines for Antibiotic Use</strong></p> <ul> <li>Promote appropriate antibiotic prescribing practices.</li> <li>Ensure the correct dosage and duration of treatment.</li> <li>Encourage healthcare providers and patients to follow treatment protocols.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Surveillance and Monitoring</strong></p> <ul> <li>Regular surveillance of antibiotic resistance patterns.</li> <li>Monitoring antibiotic usage and prescribing habits.</li> <li>Tracking outbreaks of multidrug-resistant bacteria.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Infection Prevention and Control</strong></p> <ul> <li>Implementing effective hygiene practices.</li> <li>Isolation and precautions for patients with resistant infections.</li> <li>Strict adherence to infection control guidelines in healthcare settings.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Research and Development</strong></p> <ul> <li>Developing new antibiotics with novel mechanisms of action.</li> <li>Understanding the genetics and mechanisms of antibiotic resistance.</li> <li>Exploring alternative therapies, such as phage therapy and immunotherapies.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <p>================</p> <h1 id="slide-21">Slide 21</h1> <h3 id="mechanisms-of-protein-synthesis-in-bacteria">Mechanisms of Protein Synthesis in Bacteria</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Bacteria have a well-organized machinery for protein synthesis.</p> </li> <li> <p>The process involves two main steps: transcription and translation.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Transcription:</strong></p> <ul> <li>RNA polymerase binds to a specific DNA sequence called the promoter.</li> <li>The enzyme moves along the DNA strand and synthesizes a complementary RNA molecule.</li> <li>The RNA molecule is called messenger RNA (mRNA) and carries the genetic information for protein synthesis.</li> <li>Transcription is terminated at specific DNA sequences called terminators.</li> <li>The mRNA molecule is then ready for translation.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Translation:</strong></p> <ul> <li>Ribosomes, the protein-synthesizing machines, bind to the mRNA molecule.</li> <li>Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules carry specific amino acids and match them with the codons on the mRNA.</li> <li>The ribosome links the amino acids together in the correct order, forming a polypeptide chain.</li> <li>The process continues until a stop codon is reached.</li> <li>The polypeptide chain folds into a functional protein.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h1 id="slide-22">Slide 22</h1> <h3 id="regulation-of-gene-expression-in-bacteria">Regulation of Gene Expression in Bacteria</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Bacteria tightly regulate their gene expression to adapt to different environments.</p> </li> <li> <p>Gene expression can be regulated at different levels: transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Transcriptional Regulation</strong></p> <ul> <li>Regulatory proteins, called transcription factors, control the initiation of transcription.</li> <li>Transcription factors can either activate or repress gene expression.</li> <li>They bind to specific DNA sequences called regulatory sites near the promoter region.</li> <li>The binding of activators promotes transcription, while repressors inhibit it.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Post-Transcriptional Regulation</strong></p> <ul> <li>After transcription, the mRNA molecule can undergo various modifications.</li> <li>Regulatory elements in the mRNA can influence its stability and translation efficiency.</li> <li>Small molecules, such as microRNAs, can bind to the mRNA and prevent its translation.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Translational Regulation</strong></p> <ul> <li>Regulatory proteins can interact with the ribosome and affect translation.</li> <li>They can enhance or suppress translation initiation or elongation.</li> <li>Specific sequences in the mRNA, such as the Shine-Dalgarno sequence, can influence translation efficiency.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Post-Translational Regulation</strong></p> <ul> <li>After protein synthesis, additional modifications can occur.</li> <li>Proteins can be cleaved, modified, or targeted for degradation.</li> <li>Post-translational modifications can affect protein stability, activity, or localization.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h1 id="slide-23">Slide 23</h1> <h3 id="tracing-genetic-inheritance-in-bacteria">Tracing Genetic Inheritance in Bacteria</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Genetic inheritance in bacteria can be studied using specific techniques.</p> </li> <li> <p>These techniques allow the tracking of genes and the analysis of genetic variability within bacterial populations.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT) Assays</strong></p> <ul> <li>HGT assays can determine the transfer of genetic material between bacteria.</li> <li>Recipient bacteria are tested for the acquisition of specific genes that may confer new traits, such as antibiotic resistance.</li> <li>This helps understand the spread of genetic material and the impact of HGT on bacterial evolution.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>DNA Sequencing</strong></p> <ul> <li>DNA sequencing techniques allow the determination of the entire bacterial genome.</li> <li>Comparing genomic sequences between different strains can reveal genetic differences.</li> <li>Sequencing can help identify specific genes responsible for certain traits or diseases.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Genotyping</strong></p> <ul> <li>Genotyping involves the analysis of specific genetic markers within bacterial populations.</li> <li>Techniques such as PCR or DNA microarrays can be used to target specific genes or DNA regions.</li> <li>Genotyping helps trace the sources of bacterial outbreaks, identify related strains, and study genetic diversity.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Phylogenetics</strong></p> <ul> <li>Phylogenetic analysis reconstructs the evolutionary relationships between different bacteria.</li> <li>It uses genetic data to create phylogenetic trees that depict the descent and relatedness of bacterial strains.</li> <li>Phylogenetic studies provide insights into bacterial evolution and the transmission of genetic traits.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h1 id="slide-24">Slide 24</h1> <h3 id="bacterial-mutations-types-and-consequences">Bacterial Mutations: Types and Consequences</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Mutations are spontaneous changes in the DNA sequence.</p> </li> <li> <p>Bacteria can accumulate mutations over time, leading to genetic diversity and evolution.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Types of Mutations:</strong></p> <ul> <li>Point Mutations: Single base changes, including substitutions, insertions, or deletions.</li> <li>Frameshift Mutations: Insertion or deletion of bases, causing a shift in the reading frame.</li> <li>Missense Mutations: Amino acid substitution, resulting in a different protein.</li> <li>Nonsense Mutations: Creation of a premature stop codon, leading to a truncated protein.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Consequences of Mutations:</strong></p> <ul> <li>Some mutations may be neutral and have no phenotypic effect.</li> <li>Beneficial mutations can lead to new traits, adaptations, or improved survival.</li> <li>Deleterious mutations can disrupt normal protein function and lead to decreased fitness or disease.</li> </ul> </li> <li> <p><strong>Mutation Rate and Mutation Systems:</strong></p> <ul> <li>Mutation rates vary among bacteria and can be influenced by factors such as DNA repair mechanisms.</li> <li>Some bacteria have evolved error-prone DNA polymerases that increase the mutation rate intentionally.</li> <li>This increases the likelihood of acquiring beneficial mutations under certain environmental conditions.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h1 id="slide-25">Slide 25</h1> <h3 id="bacterial-genetic-engineering-applications-and-techniques">Bacterial Genetic Engineering: Applications and Techniques</h3> <ul> <li> <p>Bacterial genetic engineering involves modifying the genetic makeup of bacteria for various purposes.</p> </li> <li> <p>Techniques like gene cloning, genetic modification, and recombinant DNA technology are employed.</p> </li> <li> <p><strong>Gene Cloning</strong></p> <ul> <li>Gene cloning involves replicating and isolating specific genes from the genome of one organism.</li> <li>This enables the production of large quantities of a particular gene or</li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <script src="/reveal/dist/reveal.js"></script> <script src="/reveal/plugin/markdown/markdown.js"></script> <script src="/reveal/plugin/highlight/highlight.js"></script> <script src="/reveal/plugin/math/math.js"></script> <script src="/reveal/plugin/anything/plugin.js"></script> <script src="/reveal/plugin/notes/notes.js"></script> <script src="/reveal/plugin/chart/Chart.min.js"></script> <script src="/reveal/plugin/chart/plugin.js"></script> <script src="/reveal/plugin/menu/menu.js"></script> <script src="/reveal/plugin/highlight/highlight.js"></script> <script src="/reveal/plugin/audio-slideshow/plugin.js"></script> <script src="/reveal/plugin/audio-slideshow/recorder.js"></script> <script 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