Biotechnology- Principles and Processes - DNA

• DNA: Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
• Consists of two strands of nucleotides
• Complementary base pairing (A-T, C-G)
• Double helix structure

Structure of DNA

• Sugar-phosphate backbone
• Nitrogenous bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G)
• Base pairing rules: A-T, C-G
• Antiparallel strands

DNA Replication

• Semiconservative replication
• Replication fork formation
• Enzymes involved: DNA Helicase, DNA Polymerase, DNA Ligase
• Leading and lagging strands
• Replication results in two identical DNA molecules

Genetic Engineering

• Recombinant DNA technology
• Manipulation of DNA sequences
• Tools used: Restriction enzymes, DNA ligase, PCR
• Applications: Production of medicines, genetic modification of crops

Restriction Enzymes

• Enzymes that cut DNA at specific recognition sites
• Produce sticky or blunt ends
• Used in genetic engineering to create recombinant DNA

DNA Cloning

• Production of identical copies of DNA
• Steps: Isolation of target gene, Insertion into cloning vector, Transformation, Selection and identification of clones

PCR: Polymerase Chain Reaction

• Technique for amplifying DNA
• Steps: Denaturation, Annealing, Extension
• Uses: Diagnosis of genetic diseases, DNA fingerprinting, Gene cloning

Gel Electrophoresis

• Technique used to separate DNA fragments
• Principle: DNA fragments move towards positive electrode based on size
• Analysis of DNA profiles, paternity testing, forensic investigations

DNA Sequencing

• Determination of nucleotide sequence in a DNA molecule
• Methods: Sanger sequencing, Next-generation sequencing
• Applications: Genome mapping, gene sequencing

11. Gene Therapy

• Introduction to gene therapy
• Gene therapy methods: Insertion of functional genes, Repair of mutated genes, Deactivation of harmful genes
• Applications of gene therapy: Treatment of genetic disorders, Cancer therapy, Vaccines

12. CRISPR-Cas9

• CRISPR-Cas9: Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9
• Gene editing tool
• Mechanism of action: Recognition of target DNA sequence, Cleavage of DNA, DNA repair process
• Applications: Disease treatment, Crop improvement, Creation of animal models

13. GMOs: Genetically Modified Organisms

• Definition and types of GMOs
• Genetic modification techniques: Transgenic organisms, Gene knockout, Gene stacking
• Applications of GMOs: Improved crop yield, Pest resistance, Disease resistance

14. Stem Cells

• Introduction to stem cells
• Types of stem cells: Embryonic stem cells, Adult stem cells, Induced pluripotent stem cells
• Differentiation potential of stem cells
• Applications of stem cells: Tissue regeneration, Disease treatment, Drug discovery

15. Cloning Techniques

• Different types of cloning: Reproductive cloning, Therapeutic cloning
• Process of reproductive cloning
• Process of therapeutic cloning
• Ethical concerns and controversies surrounding cloning

16. DNA Fingerprinting

• Principle and applications of DNA fingerprinting
• Steps involved in DNA fingerprinting: DNA extraction, Amplification of DNA, Gel electrophoresis, DNA analysis
• Uses of DNA fingerprinting: Forensic investigations, Paternity testing, Identification of species

17. Bioremediation

• Definition of bioremediation
• Types of bioremediation: Microbial bioremediation, Phytoremediation
• Role of microorganisms in bioremediation
• Applications of bioremediation: Clean-up of oil spills, Removal of toxic chemicals

18. Synthetic Biology

• Introduction to synthetic biology
• Combination of biology and engineering
• Design and construction of new biological parts and systems
• Applications of synthetic biology: Designing new drugs, Creating sustainable energy sources

19. Genetic Counseling

• Definition and purpose of genetic counseling
• Process of genetic counseling: Evaluation of family and medical history, Genetic testing, Communication of risk and options
• Benefits and ethical considerations of genetic counseling

20. Human Genome Project

• Overview of the Human Genome Project
• Aims and objectives of the project
• Methods used for sequencing the human genome
• Significance of the project in understanding diseases and human diversity

21. Recombinant DNA Technology

• Introduction to recombinant DNA technology
• Techniques involved: Cloning, DNA sequencing, Gene expression
• Applications: Production of therapeutic proteins, Creation of transgenic organisms, Gene therapy

22. Gene Expression

• Definition of gene expression
• Transcription: Synthesis of mRNA from DNA template
• Translation: Synthesis of protein from mRNA template
• Regulation of gene expression: Transcription factors, Promoters, Enhancers, Repressors

23. Transcription

• Initiation: Binding of RNA polymerase to promoter region
• Elongation: Addition of nucleotides to growing RNA strand
• Termination: Release of RNA molecule from DNA template
• Role of transcription factors and regulatory elements

24. Translation

• Ribosome structure and function
• Initiation: Assembly of ribosome at start codon
• Elongation: Stepwise addition of amino acids to growing polypeptide chain
• Termination: Release of polypeptide at stop codon

25. Genetic Code

• Definition of genetic code
• Codons: Three-nucleotide sequences that code for specific amino acids
• Start codon (AUG) and stop codons (UAA, UAG, UGA)
• Degeneracy and universality of the genetic code

26. Mutations

• Types of mutations: Point mutations, Insertions, Deletions, Frameshift mutations
• Causes of mutations: Spontaneous, Induced by mutagens
• Effects of mutations: Silent mutations, Missense mutations, Nonsense mutations

27. Operons

• Definition of operons
• Structure and components of operons: Promoter, Operator, Structural genes
• Inducible and repressible operons
• Examples: Lac operon, Trp operon

28. Genetic Disorders

• Introduction to genetic disorders
• Types of genetic disorders: Single gene disorders, Chromosomal disorders, Multifactorial disorders
• Examples of genetic disorders: Cystic fibrosis, Down syndrome, Diabetes

29. Evolutionary Biology

• Introduction to evolutionary biology
• Mechanisms of evolution: Natural selection, Genetic drift, Gene flow, Mutation
• Evidence for evolution: Fossil record, Homologous structures, DNA sequence comparisons
• Speciation and evolutionary patterns

30. Human Evolution

• Overview of human evolution
• Hominid evolution: Australopithecus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens
• Cultural and technological advancements in human evolution
• Impact of human evolution on societies and genetic diversity