Biomolecules

REDUCING AND NON-REDUCING SUGARS

A reducing sugar is a sugar that can reduce other substances through a chemical reaction
It has a free aldehyde or ketone functional group
Examples of reducing sugars include glucose, fructose, and maltose

–

Non-reducing sugars do not have a free aldehyde or ketone group
They cannot undergo the same chemical reaction to reduce other substances
Examples of non-reducing sugars include sucrose and lactose

–

Examples of Reducing Sugars

Glucose (C6H12O6)
Fructose (C6H12O6)
Maltose (C12H22O11)

–

Examples of Non-Reducing Sugars

Sucrose (C12H22O11)
Lactose (C12H22O11)

–

Reducing Sugar Reactions

Reducing sugars can undergo oxidation reactions
For example, glucose can be oxidized to form gluconic acid
This oxidation reaction involves the reduction of another substance, such as a metal ion

–

Non-Reducing Sugar Reactions

Non-reducing sugars, such as sucrose, do not undergo oxidation reactions
They cannot be directly oxidized to form acids or alcohols
However, they can be hydrolyzed to form their constituent monosaccharides

–

Hydrolysis of Sucrose

Sucrose can be hydrolyzed to form glucose and fructose
This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme sucrase
The hydrolysis of sucrose is a reversible reaction

–

Sucrose Hydrolysis Equation

Sucrose + H2O → Glucose + Fructose

–

Importance of Reducing and Non-Reducing Sugars

Reducing sugars play a crucial role in various biological processes
They can be used as a source of energy by organisms
Non-reducing sugars, such as sucrose, are important in transportation and storage of energy in plants

–

Summary

Reducing sugars have a free aldehyde or ketone group and can undergo oxidation reactions
Non-reducing sugars do not have a free aldehyde or ketone group and cannot undergo oxidation reactions
Examples of reducing sugars include glucose, fructose, and maltose
Examples of non-reducing sugars include sucrose and lactose

Note: Please continue creating slides 11 onwards.

Types of Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

Simplest form of carbohydrates
Cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller units
Examples: glucose, fructose, galactose

Disaccharides

Two monosaccharides joined together by a glycosidic bond
Can be hydrolyzed into two monosaccharides
Examples: sucrose, lactose, maltose

Polysaccharides

Complex carbohydrates made up of many monosaccharide units
Can be hydrolyzed into multiple monosaccharides
Examples: starch, cellulose, glycogen

Structure of Carbohydrates

Linear Form

Monosaccharides can exist in linear form
Formed by a chain of carbon atoms with functional groups attached

Ring Structure

Monosaccharides can also exist in ring structure
In ring form, the carbonyl group reacts with an alcohol group to form a hemiacetal or hemiketal

Alpha and Beta Forms

In ring structure, monosaccharides can exist in alpha (α) or beta (β) form
Differ in the orientation of the hydroxyl group attached to the anomeric carbon atom

Examples of Alpha and Beta Forms

Glucose: α-glucose and β-glucose
Fructose: α-fructose and β-fructose

Functions of Carbohydrates

Energy Source

Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy for living organisms
Glucose is the most commonly used carbohydrate for energy production

Structural Roles

Carbohydrates play a key structural role in cells and tissues
Examples include cellulose in plant cell walls and chitin in the exoskeleton of insects

Cell-Cell Communication

Carbohydrates on the surface of cells play a role in cell-cell recognition and communication
They help in immune responses, tissue development, and cell signaling

Storage of Energy

Carbohydrates are stored in the form of glycogen in animals and starch in plants
These storage forms can be broken down to release glucose when needed

Carbohydrate Derivatives

Glycosides

Glycosides are formed by replacing the hydroxyl group of a carbohydrate with another functional group
Common examples include disaccharides like sucrose and lactose

Glycoproteins

Glycoproteins are proteins that have carbohydrates attached to them
They play important roles in cell recognition, immune response, and cell signaling

Glycolipids

Glycolipids are lipids that have carbohydrates attached to them
Found in cell membranes and play roles in cell-cell recognition and signaling

Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides, the building blocks of nucleic acids, contain a carbohydrate (ribose or deoxyribose)
Nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, store and transmit genetic information

Carbohydrates in Daily Life

Food and Nutrition

Carbohydrates are an important part of our diet
They provide energy and are found in foods like fruits, vegetables, grains, and dairy products

Food Additives

Carbohydrates are used as food additives for various purposes
Examples include stabilizers, thickeners, and sweeteners

Industrial Uses

Carbohydrates have industrial applications, such as in the production of biofuels and bioplastics
They are also used in fermentation processes to produce ethanol and other chemicals

Pharmaceutical Industry

Carbohydrates play a role in drug delivery and formulation in the pharmaceutical industry
They can be used as excipients, stabilizers, or carriers for drug molecules

Note: The remaining slides will be created in the next response.

# Biomolecules - REDUCING AND NON-REDUCING SUGARS

---

- A reducing sugar is a sugar that can reduce other substances through a chemical reaction
- It has a free aldehyde or ketone functional group
- Examples include glucose, fructose, and maltose

----

- Non-reducing sugars do not have a free aldehyde or ketone group
- They cannot undergo the same chemical reaction to reduce other substances
- Examples include sucrose and lactose

----

### Examples of Reducing Sugars

- Glucose (C6H12O6)
- Fructose (C6H12O6)
- Maltose (C12H22O11)

----

### Examples of Non-Reducing Sugars

- Sucrose (C12H22O11)
- Lactose (C12H22O11)

----

## Reducing Sugar Reactions

- Reducing sugars can undergo oxidation reactions
- For example, glucose can be oxidized to form gluconic acid
- This oxidation reaction involves the reduction of another substance, such as a metal ion

----

## Non-Reducing Sugar Reactions

- Non-reducing sugars, such as sucrose, do not undergo oxidation reactions
- They cannot be directly oxidized to form acids or alcohols
- However, they can be hydrolyzed to form their constituent monosaccharides

----

### Hydrolysis of Sucrose

- Sucrose can be hydrolyzed to form glucose and fructose
- This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme sucrase
- The hydrolysis of sucrose is a reversible reaction

----

### Sucrose Hydrolysis Equation

- Sucrose + H2O → Glucose + Fructose

----

## Importance of Reducing and Non-Reducing Sugars

- Reducing sugars play a crucial role in various biological processes
- They can be used as a source of energy by organisms
- Non-reducing sugars, such as sucrose, are important in transportation and storage of energy in plants

----

## Summary

- Reducing sugars have a free aldehyde or ketone group and can undergo oxidation reactions
- Non-reducing sugars do not have a free aldehyde or ketone group and cannot undergo oxidation reactions
- Examples of reducing sugars include glucose, fructose, and maltose
- Examples of non-reducing sugars include sucrose and lactose

Note: Slide numbers have been excluded as per your request.