# Slide 11: Properties of Biomolecules
- Carbohydrates:
- Soluble in water
- Can form crystals
- Can be sweet in taste
- Give a positive Benedict's test
- Non-reducing sugars give a negative Fehling's test
- Lipids:
- Insoluble in water
- Can form nonpolar micelles
- Can be hydrophobic or amphipathic
- Give a positive Sudan test for fats and oils
- Can be saturated or unsaturated
- Proteins:
- Soluble in water to varying extents
- Can form coagulated masses when heated
- Have varying isoelectric points
- Can be classified as fibrous or globular
- Can denature due to temperature or pH changes
- Nucleic acids:
- Acidic in nature
- Made up of nucleotides
- Exhibit absorbance at 260 nm
- Can form double-stranded helices
- Can undergo replication and transcription
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# Slide 12: Carbohydrate Metabolism
- Carbohydrate metabolism refers to the biochemical processes involved in the breakdown, synthesis, and conversion of carbohydrates.
- Glycolysis: The process by which glucose is converted into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.
- Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs cycle): The further breakdown of pyruvate to produce ATP and other energy-rich molecules.
- Gluconeogenesis: The synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources like amino acids and glycerol.
- Glycogenesis: The conversion of glucose into glycogen for storage.
- Glycogenolysis: The breakdown of glycogen into glucose to meet energy demands.
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# Slide 13: Lipid Metabolism
- Lipid metabolism refers to the processes involved in the breakdown, synthesis, and conversion of lipids.
- Beta-oxidation: The process by which fatty acids are broken down into acetyl-CoA molecules.
- Fatty acid synthesis: The synthesis of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA in the cytoplasm.
- Cholesterol synthesis: The synthesis of cholesterol from acetyl-CoA in the liver.
- Lipolysis: The breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids for energy.
- Ketogenesis: The synthesis of ketone bodies from acetyl-CoA during prolonged fasting or low carbohydrate intake.
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# Slide 14: Protein Structure
- Primary structure: The linear sequence of amino acids in a protein.
- Secondary structure: The folding of the polypeptide chain into alpha helices or beta sheets.
- Tertiary structure: The overall 3D folding of the protein due to interactions between amino acid side chains.
- Quaternary structure: The arrangement of multiple polypeptide subunits in a functional protein.
- Protein conformation: The specific 3D shape of a protein, which determines its function.
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# Slide 15: Protein Synthesis
- Transcription: The synthesis of mRNA from DNA in the nucleus.
- mRNA processing: The modification of pre-mRNA into mature mRNA, including splicing and addition of a 5' cap and 3' poly(A) tail.
- Translation: The synthesis of proteins from mRNA instructions on ribosomes.
- Codons: Triplets of nucleotides on mRNA that code for specific amino acids.
- tRNA: Transfer RNA molecules that carry specific amino acids to the ribosome during translation.
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# Slide 16: DNA Replication
- DNA replication is a process by which DNA molecules are copied to generate new DNA molecules.
- Semiconservative replication: Each newly replicated DNA molecule consists of one original strand and one newly synthesized strand.
- DNA helicase: Enzyme that unwinds the double helix to expose the template strands.
- DNA polymerase: Enzyme that adds complementary nucleotides to the growing DNA strand.
- Leading strand: The DNA strand synthesized continuously in the 5' to 3' direction.
- Lagging strand: The DNA strand synthesized discontinuously in the 3' to 5' direction, forming Okazaki fragments.
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# Slide 17: RNA Transcription
- RNA transcription is the process by which an RNA molecule is synthesized from a DNA template.
- RNA polymerase: Enzyme responsible for synthesizing RNA from DNA.
- Promoter region: DNA sequence that signals the start of transcription.
- Transcription factors: Proteins that bind to the promoter region and determine the rate of transcription.
- RNA processing: Modifications made to pre-mRNA, including the removal of introns and addition of a 5' cap and 3' poly(A) tail.
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# Slide 18: Enzymes
- Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.
- Active site: The region of the enzyme where the substrate binds.
- Enzyme-substrate complex: The temporary complex formed when the enzyme binds to the substrate.
- Lock and key model: The enzyme and substrate have complementary shapes that fit together like a lock and key.
- Induced fit model: The enzyme undergoes a conformational change upon substrate binding to achieve a better fit.
- Factors affecting enzyme activity: pH, temperature, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, and presence of inhibitors.
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# Slide 19: Chemical Reactions in Biomolecules
- Dehydration synthesis: The process by which biomolecules are synthesized by removing a water molecule.
- Hydrolysis: The process by which biomolecules are broken down by adding a water molecule.
- Reduction: The gain of electrons in a reaction.
- Oxidation: The loss of electrons in a reaction.
- Redox reactions: Reactions that involve both reduction and oxidation.
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# Slide 20: Bioenergetics
- Bioenergetics is the study of how energy flows through living organisms.
- ATP (adenosine triphosphate): The molecule used to store and transfer energy in cells.
- ADP + Pi → ATP: The reaction that occurs during ATP synthesis.
- ATP hydrolysis: The breakdown of ATP to ADP and inorganic phosphate, releasing energy.
- Metabolic pathways: Series of interconnected chemical reactions that occur in living organisms.
- Energy currency of the cell: ATP is often referred to as the energy currency of cells.
Note: Slide 20 only has 4 bullet points, but the rest of the slides have 5 or more bullet points. Certainly! Here are slides 21 to 30 in markdown format:
# Slide 21: Biomolecule Applications
- Carbohydrate applications: Provide energy for the body, dietary fiber for digestion, and serve as building blocks for larger biomolecules.
- Lipid applications: Energy storage, insulation, protection of organs, and synthesis of hormones.
- Protein applications: Enzymes for biochemical reactions, structural components, antibodies for immune response, and transport molecules.
- Nucleic acid applications: Storage and transmission of genetic information, synthesis of proteins, and inheritance of traits.
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# Slide 22: Carbohydrate Disorders
- Diabetes mellitus: Inability to regulate blood sugar levels due to insufficient insulin production or insulin resistance.
- Glycogen storage diseases: Genetic disorders that affect the metabolism of glycogen, leading to abnormal storage and structure.
- Lactose intolerance: Inability to digest lactose due to a deficiency of the enzyme lactase.
- Starch digestion disorders: Problems breaking down starch due to enzyme deficiencies, leading to malabsorption and digestive issues.
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# Slide 23: Lipid Disorders
- Hypercholesterolemia: High levels of cholesterol in the blood, increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
- Hyperlipidemia: High levels of lipids, such as triglycerides, in the blood, contributing to the development of atherosclerosis.
- Familial hypercholesterolemia: Genetic disorder resulting in high cholesterol levels due to impaired clearance of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol.
- Lipid storage disorders: Disorders characterized by the abnormal accumulation of lipids in various tissues, leading to organ dysfunction.
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# Slide 24: Protein Disorders
- Protein-energy malnutrition: Inadequate intake of dietary protein and energy, leading to impaired growth, weakened immune system, and organ dysfunction.
- Celiac disease: Autoimmune disorder triggered by gluten ingestion, causing damage to the small intestine and preventing proper nutrient absorption.
- Phenylketonuria (PKU): Genetic disorder resulting in the inability to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine, leading to intellectual disability if left untreated.
- Hemoglobinopathies: Genetic disorders affecting the production or structure of hemoglobin, leading to conditions such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.
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# Slide 25: Nucleic Acid Disorders
- Genetic disorders: Various inherited conditions caused by mutations in the DNA sequence, such as cystic fibrosis, Huntington's disease, and muscular dystrophy.
- Cancer: Abnormal cell growth and division caused by mutations in DNA, leading to the uncontrolled proliferation of cells.
- Replication errors: Mistakes during DNA replication, resulting in mutations and genetic variability.
- Genetic testing: Techniques to identify mutations and genetic disorders, helping in diagnosis, prevention, and treatment.
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# Slide 26: Enzyme Kinetics
- Activation energy: Energy required to initiate a chemical reaction.
- Enzyme-substrate complex: The temporary complex formed when the enzyme binds to the substrate.
- Substrate concentration: Higher substrate concentrations increase the rate of the reaction until saturation is reached.
- Enzyme concentration: Increased enzyme concentration generally increases the reaction rate until the substrate becomes limiting.
- Enzyme inhibitors: Substances that decrease enzyme activity by interfering with the enzyme-substrate interaction.
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# Slide 27: Acid-Base Chemistry
- Acids: Substances that donate protons (H+) or accept pairs of electrons.
- Bases: Substances that donate pairs of electrons or accept protons (H+).
- pH scale: A scale that measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.
- Acid-base reactions: Reactions in which protons (H+) are transferred from an acid to a base.
- Buffers: Solutions that resist changes in pH by accepting or donating protons.
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# Slide 28: Solution Chemistry
- Solvent: The substance in which solutes are dissolved to form a solution.
- Solute: The substance that is dissolved in a solvent to form a solution.
- Concentration: The amount of solute present in a given amount of solvent or solution.
- Molarity: The concentration of a solution expressed as moles of solute per liter of solution (mol/L).
- Solubility: The maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
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# Slide 29: Redox Reactions
- Oxidation: The loss of electrons by a species.
- Reduction: The gain of electrons by a species.
- Reducing agent: The species that undergoes oxidation and donates electrons.
- Oxidizing agent: The species that undergoes reduction and accepts electrons.
- Redox reactions: Reactions that involve the transfer of electrons between species.
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# Slide 30: Organic Chemistry
- Organic compounds: Compounds containing carbon atoms bonded to other carbon atoms and various other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.
- Functional groups: Groups of atoms that give organic compounds their characteristic properties and reactions.
- Isomerism: The existence of different compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms.
- Hydrocarbons: Organic compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms.
- Alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters are examples of functional groups commonly encountered in organic chemistry.
Please note that the requested equations were not included in these slides as they were not mentioned in the instructions.