Slide 1: Biomolecules Introduction

Biomolecules are organic compounds found in living organisms.
They are essential for maintaining the structure and function of cells.
Biomolecules include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
They are involved in processes such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction.
Understanding biomolecules is crucial for comprehending various aspects of biology and biochemistry.

Slide 2: Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules.
They consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in a ratio of 1:2:1.
Examples of carbohydrates include glucose, fructose, and sucrose.
They are a major source of energy in living organisms.
Carbohydrates can be classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Slide 3: Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates.
They are simple sugars with a single sugar unit.
Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
They serve as a source of energy and are building blocks for complex carbohydrates.
Monosaccharides can be classified based on the number of carbon atoms they contain.

Slide 4: Disaccharides

Disaccharides are formed by the combination of two monosaccharide units.
Examples of disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
They are formed through a condensation reaction, releasing a molecule of water.
Disaccharides are used as a source of energy and as transport molecules in plants and animals.
Sucrose is commonly found in sugars and is the table sugar used in everyday life.

Slide 5: Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides consist of multiple monosaccharide units bonded together.
They serve as energy storage and structural components in living organisms.
Examples of polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
Starch is the primary energy storage molecule in plants.
Glycogen is the main energy storage molecule in animals.

Slide 6: Lipids

Lipids are hydrophobic molecules that include fats, oils, and waxes.
They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
Lipids are essential for energy storage, insulation, and cell membrane formation.
Triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids are examples of lipids.
Triglycerides store energy in adipose tissue and are a concentrated source of energy.

Slide 7: Proteins

Proteins are large biomolecules composed of amino acid subunits.
They play a vital role in cell structure, growth, and repair.
Proteins are involved in enzymatic reactions, immune responses, and transportation.
Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds to form proteins.
The sequence of amino acids determines the structure and function of a protein.

Slide 8: Structure of Amino Acids

Amino acids are organic compounds with an amino group, carboxyl group, and a side chain.
There are 20 different amino acids commonly found in proteins.
The side chain, also known as the R-group, varies for each amino acid.
The chemical properties of the side chain determine the characteristics of the amino acid.
The primary structure of a protein refers to the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain.

Slide 9: Protein Structure Levels

Proteins have four levels of structural organization: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
The secondary structure refers to the folding of the polypeptide chain into alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets.
Tertiary structure is the overall 3-dimensional arrangement of a protein.
Quaternary structure results from the interaction of multiple protein subunits.
Protein folding is crucial for its proper function.

Slide 10: Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are biomolecules responsible for the storage and transmission of genetic information.
They include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids.
DNA contains the genetic code for the synthesis of proteins.
RNA plays a crucial role in the synthesis of proteins by carrying the genetic information from DNA.

Lipid Structure

Lipids consist of a glycerol molecule and three fatty acid chains.
Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated depending on the presence of double bonds.
Saturated fatty acids have single bonds between all carbon atoms and are solid at room temperature.
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds and are liquid at room temperature.
Examples of lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol.

Lipid Functions

Lipids serve as a concentrated source of energy, providing twice the energy of carbohydrates.
They help in the absorption and transportation of fat-soluble vitamins.
Lipids are essential for the formation and maintenance of cell membranes.
They act as insulation and protection for vital organs.
Some lipids, like hormones, function as signaling molecules in the body.

Protein Structure - Primary

The primary structure of a protein is determined by the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain.
Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds.
Each protein has a unique sequence of amino acids, which gives it specific properties and functions.
Changes in the primary structure can lead to alterations in protein function or cause genetic disorders.
The primary structure is the simplest level of protein structure.

Protein Structure - Secondary

Secondary structure refers to the folding of the polypeptide chain into localized shapes.
The two common types of secondary structures are alpha-helix and beta-sheet.
In an alpha-helix, the polypeptide chain coils into a spiral shape.
In a beta-sheet, the polypeptide chain folds back and forth, forming a pleated sheet.
Hydrogen bonding between amino acid residues stabilizes the secondary structure.

Protein Structure - Tertiary

Tertiary structure describes the overall form and shape of a protein.
It is determined by interactions between amino acid side chains.
These interactions include hydrogen bonding, disulfide bridges, hydrophobic interactions, and electrostatic interactions.
Tertiary structure is critical for the function of enzymes and other proteins.
Protein folding is often assisted by chaperone proteins to ensure proper folding.

Protein Structure - Quaternary

Quaternary structure results from the interaction of multiple protein subunits.
Some proteins consist of a single polypeptide chain (monomers), while others have multiple chains (multimers).
Interactions between subunits are typically noncovalent, such as hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions.
Quaternary structure is important for the stability and function of proteins.
Examples of proteins with quaternary structure include hemoglobin and antibodies.

Enzymes

Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in living organisms.
They increase the rate of reactions by lowering the activation energy required.
Enzymes are highly specific, meaning they only catalyze specific reactions.
The substrate is the molecule that binds to the enzyme’s active site.
Enzyme activity is influenced by factors such as temperature, pH, and substrate concentration.

Enzyme-Substrate Interaction

Enzymes and substrates interact through a lock-and-key model or an induced fit model.
In the lock-and-key model, the active site of the enzyme is complementary in shape to the substrate.
In the induced fit model, the active site undergoes conformational changes upon substrate binding.
Enzymes can be inhibited by competitive, noncompetitive, or uncompetitive inhibitors.
Enzyme activity can be regulated through the process of allosteric regulation.

Biochemical Reactions

Biochemical reactions involve the conversion of reactants into products within living organisms.
Metabolic pathways regulate the flow of biochemical reactions in cells.
Reactions can be classified as catabolic (breaking down molecules) or anabolic (building up molecules).
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the universal energy currency in cells.
Enzymes play a crucial role in biochemical reactions by speeding up chemical reactions.

DNA Structure

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double-stranded, helical molecule responsible for storing genetic information.
It consists of nucleotides containing a sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, thymine, cytosine, or guanine).
The two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs.
Adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs with guanine.
DNA replication is the process of copying DNA, which is crucial for cell division and inheritance.

Slide 21: Nucleic Acid Structure

Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are the two types of nucleic acids.
DNA has a double-stranded helical structure, while RNA is usually single-stranded.
The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, while RNA contains ribose.
The four nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.

Slide 22: DNA Replication

DNA replication is the process of making an identical copy of DNA.
It occurs during DNA synthesis in preparation for cell division or DNA repair.
The DNA double helix unwinds and separates into two strands.
Each separated strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand.
DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the growing strand according to the base pairing rules.

Slide 23: Transcription

Transcription is the process of synthesizing an RNA molecule using a DNA template.
It occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and the cytoplasm of prokaryotes.
RNA polymerase binds to the DNA at the promoter region to initiate transcription.
The DNA strands separate, and the RNA polymerase synthesizes an RNA molecule complementary to the DNA template.
The RNA molecule is called messenger RNA (mRNA) and carries the genetic information to the ribosomes.

Slide 24: Translation

Translation is the process by which the mRNA sequence is decoded to produce a specific protein.
It occurs in the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules bring amino acids to the ribosome.
The codon on the mRNA molecule matches with an anticodon on the tRNA molecule.
Amino acids are joined together to form a polypeptide chain, which folds to form a protein.

Slide 25: Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis is the process of synthesizing proteins from mRNA templates.
It consists of two main steps: transcription and translation.
Transcription occurs in the nucleus, where mRNA is synthesized from DNA.
Translation occurs in the ribosomes, where the mRNA is decoded to synthesize a protein.
Protein synthesis is a highly regulated and vital process in all living organisms.

Slide 26: Metabolism

Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions that occur in living organisms to maintain life.
It can be divided into two main processes: catabolism and anabolism.
Catabolism involves the breakdown of complex molecules to release energy.
Anabolism involves the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler building blocks, requiring energy.
Metabolism is regulated by enzyme-catalyzed reactions and is essential for maintaining homeostasis.

Slide 27: Energy Metabolism

Energy metabolism refers to the processes by which organisms obtain, store, and utilize energy.
It involves the breakdown of macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins) to release energy.
The energy released is stored in the form of ATP, which can be used for various cellular processes.
ATP is generated through cellular respiration, which involves glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
Energy metabolism is essential for the functioning of cells, tissues, and organisms.

Slide 28: Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.
It can be divided into three stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate.
The citric acid cycle occurs in the mitochondria and completes the breakdown of glucose.
Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondria and produces the majority of ATP.

Slide 29: Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy.
It involves two main reactions: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle).
In the light-dependent reactions, light energy is captured by chlorophyll and converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH.
In the Calvin cycle, ATP and NADPH are used to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.
Photosynthesis is essential for the production of oxygen and organic molecules, supporting life on Earth.

Slide 30: Chemical Equations in Metabolism

Chemical equations are used to represent the reactions that occur during metabolism.
Example equation for cellular respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP (glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + energy)
Example equation for photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 (carbon dioxide + water + light energy -> glucose + oxygen)
These equations highlight the interconversion of energy and matter during metabolic processes.
Understanding chemical equations is crucial for studying and comprehending metabolism.