Biomolecules - CELLULOSE

• Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate.
• It is a polymer made up of glucose units.
• It is the main structural component of plant cell walls.
• Cellulose molecules are long chains of glucose units linked by β(1→4) glycosidic bonds.
• The glycosidic bonds cannot be hydrolyzed by human digestive enzymes.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• The long, unbranched chains of cellulose form a strong, rigid structure.
• Cellulose provides structural support to plants.
• It cannot be digested by humans but serves as a dietary fiber.
• Cellulose is insoluble in water due to the strong hydrogen bonds between the glucose chains.
• It can be broken down by certain microorganisms in the digestive tract of animals like cows and termites.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• Cellulose is an example of a polysaccharide.
• It is made up of repeating glucose units joined together by glycosidic bonds.
• The β(1→4) glycosidic bonds in cellulose make it resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis.
• The rigid structure of cellulose is due to the extensive hydrogen bonding.
• The presence of cellulose in plant cell walls provides strength and rigidity to the plant.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• The structural formula of glucose is C₆H₁₂O₆.
• Cellulose has a general molecular formula of (C₆H₁₀O₅)n, where n represents the number of glucose units.
• The β(1→4) glycosidic bonds in cellulose result in the glucose units being in the beta configuration.
• The linear chains of cellulose are held together by hydrogen bonding.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• Cellulose is a homopolysaccharide because it is made up of a single type of monosaccharide, glucose.
• It can be classified as a structural carbohydrate due to its role in providing structural support to plants.
• Cellulose is one of the most abundant biomolecules on Earth.
• Its presence in plant cell walls contributes to the integrity and shape of plant cells.
• Cellulose is a vital component of dietary fiber, providing bulk to the diet and aiding in digestion.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• Cellulose is synthesized by plants through the process of photosynthesis.
• The cellulose synthesis occurs in the plasma membrane of plant cells.
• The enzymes involved in cellulose synthesis are called cellulases.
• Cellulose synthesis is a complex process involving the addition of glucose units to existing chains.
• The cellulose microfibrils are constantly being broken and reformed to maintain cellular integrity.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• Cellulose is used for various practical applications such as making paper, textiles, and biofuels.
• It is also used as a bulking agent in food products and as an additive in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.
• Cellulose derivatives like cellulose acetate and cellulose nitrate are used in the production of films, fibers, and plastics.
• Cellulosic ethanol, a type of biofuel, can be derived from cellulose-rich feedstocks like agricultural waste and wood.
• Advances in biotechnology have enabled the production of cellulose-based materials with enhanced properties.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• The structure of cellulose makes it resistant to degradation by most organisms.
• Cellulose can be broken down by certain microorganisms that produce the enzyme cellulase.
• In ruminant animals like cows, cellulose is broken down by bacteria in the rumen.
• Termites also have symbiotic relationships with cellulose-digesting microorganisms in their gut.
• These cellulose-degrading microorganisms possess cellulases that can cleave the β(1→4) glycosidic bonds.

Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• The structure of cellulose consists of long, linear chains of glucose units.
• The β(1→4) glycosidic bonds between glucose units give cellulose its characteristic rigidity.
• Pure cellulose is colorless and translucent.
• Cellulose chains can form microfibrils that are cross-linked to provide strength to plant cell walls.
• Cellulose is insoluble in organic solvents due to its strong hydrogen bonding.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on Earth.
• It is found in plant cell walls, as well as in certain algae and bacteria.
• Cotton is composed almost entirely of cellulose.
• Wood and paper also contain significant amounts of cellulose.
• The physical properties of cellulose can vary depending on its degree of polymerization and crystallinity.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• The strength and rigidity provided by cellulose make it an important structural material.
• Plant cell walls, which contain cellulose, help provide support and protection for the plant.
• Cellulose is also important in the formation of fibers, such as cotton and linen, which have numerous applications.
• Cellulose derivatives, such as methyl cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose, find use in a variety of industries including food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• Cellulose can be hydrolyzed by strong acid or enzyme action.
• Acid hydrolysis of cellulose yields glucose units.
• Enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose is catalyzed by cellulases, which are produced by certain microorganisms.
• Cellulases act on the β(1→4) glycosidic bonds of cellulose to break them down into glucose units.
• Cellulose digestion in the rumen of cows is accomplished by the action of cellulase-producing bacteria.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• Cellulose has a number of industrial applications, including the production of paper and textiles.
• The cellulose fibers in paper give it strength and durability.
• Cellulose textiles, such as cotton and linen, are valued for their breathability and comfort.
• Cellulosic ethanol, a type of biofuel, can be produced from cellulose-rich biomass.
• The use of cellulose-based materials in environmentally-friendly packaging and biodegradable plastics is currently being explored.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• Cellulose can be chemically modified to alter its properties and expand its range of applications.
• Cellulose ethers, such as ethyl cellulose and hydroxypropyl cellulose, have enhanced water solubility and film-forming properties.
• Cellulose esters, like cellulose acetate and cellulose nitrate, have improved strength and toughness.
• Cellulose nanocrystals and cellulose nanofibers have unique properties that make them suitable for advanced materials and nanotechnology applications.
• Ongoing research aims to develop sustainable and renewable sources of cellulose and improve cellulose-based materials.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• Cellulose is an important component of dietary fiber.
• Dietary fiber, including cellulose, plays a crucial role in maintaining digestive health.
• It adds bulk to the diet, promotes regular bowel movements, and prevents constipation.
• Cellulose passes through the digestive system largely intact, providing a feeling of satiety without contributing calories.
• Adequate consumption of dietary fiber, including cellulose, is associated with a reduced risk of various health conditions, such as heart disease and obesity.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• Cellulose-based materials are being developed for applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
• Engineered cellulose scaffolds can provide a supportive structure for the growth of cells and tissue regeneration.
• The biocompatibility and biodegradability of cellulose make it an attractive material for biomedical applications.
• Cellulose nanocrystals can also be used as carriers for drug delivery systems due to their small size and high surface area.
• Further research in the field of cellulose-based materials holds promise for advancements in medical science.

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Biomolecules - CELLULOSE (contd.)

• Cellulose is an essential biomolecule with a wide range of applications and implications.
• Its structural properties provide strength and rigidity to plants, making it an important component of plant cell walls.
• Cellulose has numerous industrial uses, including paper production and textile manufacturing.
• Its role as a dietary fiber contributes to digestive health and overall well-being.
• Ongoing research continues to explore the potential of cellulose-based materials in various fields.

Biomolecules - CARBOHYDRATES

• Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
• They are classified into three main groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
• Monosaccharides are simple sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller carbohydrates.
• Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond.
• Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units and have complex structures.

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Biomolecules - CARBOHYDRATES (contd.)

• Monosaccharides are classified based on the number of carbon atoms they contain.
• Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
• Glucose, a 6-carbon monosaccharide, is the most common sugar used by living organisms for energy.
• Fructose is a 6-carbon monosaccharide commonly found in fruits and honey.
• Galactose is a 6-carbon monosaccharide found in milk and dairy products.

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Biomolecules - CARBOHYDRATES (contd.)

• Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond.
• Examples of disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
• Sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, consists of a glucose molecule bonded to a fructose molecule.
• Lactose, found in milk, consists of a glucose molecule bonded to a galactose molecule.
• Maltose, produced during the digestion of starch, consists of two glucose molecules bonded together.

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Biomolecules - CARBOHYDRATES (contd.)

• Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of long chains of monosaccharide units.
• Examples of polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
• Starch is a storage polysaccharide found in plants and consists of amylose and amylopectin molecules.
• Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in animals and is highly branched.
• Cellulose is a structural polysaccharide found in plant cell walls, providing support and rigidity.

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Biomolecules - CARBOHYDRATES (contd.)

• In addition to their role as a source of energy, carbohydrates have several other functions in living organisms.
• They can provide structural support in the form of cellulose and chitin.
• Carbohydrates are involved in cell recognition and cell signaling processes.
• They can serve as components of nucleic acids and form part of the genetic material.
• Some carbohydrates have important roles in the immune system as antigens and antibodies.

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Biomolecules - CARBOHYDRATES (contd.)

• Carbohydrates undergo various chemical reactions, including oxidation and reduction.
• Carbohydrate oxidation involves the breakdown of glucose to release energy.
• Reduction reactions result in the formation of complex carbohydrates, such as glycogen and cellulose.
• Carbohydrates can also undergo hydrolysis reactions, breaking glycosidic bonds to release monosaccharides.
• These reactions are essential for the metabolism and utilization of carbohydrates in the body.

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Biomolecules - CARBOHYDRATES (contd.)

• Carbohydrates can be measured quantitatively using various analytical techniques.
• The Benedict’s test is used to detect reducing sugars, such as glucose, in a sample.
• The iodine test can determine the presence of starch by forming a blue-black color with amylose.
• Enzymatic methods, such as glucose oxidase and hexokinase, are used for accurate measurement of glucose levels.
• These tests are important in clinical diagnostics, food analysis, and research laboratories.

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Biomolecules - CARBOHYDRATES (contd.)

• Carbohydrates are an important component of a balanced diet.
• They provide a readily available source of energy and should make up a significant portion of daily caloric intake.
• Complex carbohydrates, such as whole grains, vegetables, and legumes, are preferable to simple sugars.
• Dietary fiber, a type of carbohydrate, is essential for proper digestion and bowel movement.
• Sugary foods and drinks should be consumed in moderation to maintain overall health.

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Biomolecules - CARBOHYDRATES (contd.)

• Imbalances in carbohydrate metabolism can lead to various health conditions.
• Diabetes mellitus is a disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels due to impaired insulin function.
• Hypoglycemia is low blood sugar levels resulting from excessive insulin or inadequate carbohydrate intake.
• Glycogen storage diseases are genetic disorders affecting the metabolism of glycogen.
• Carbohydrate metabolism disorders require careful management through dietary modifications and medical intervention.

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Biomolecules - CARBOHYDRATES (contd.)

• The study of carbohydrates is essential to understand the foundation of biochemistry and biological systems.
• Carbohydrates play a vital role in cellular processes, energy metabolism, and structural support.
• Understanding carbohydrate structures and functions contributes to the development of treatments for diseases.
• Carbohydrate chemistry is also important in food science, agriculture, and environmental studies.
• Further research in carbohydrate science has the potential to drive advancements in various fields.