Biomolecules - Secondary structure of DNA

DNA is composed of two polynucleotide chains.
The two chains are coiled around each other in a double helix.
The structure of DNA is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between complementary bases.
The two polynucleotide chains run anti-parallel to each other.
The backbone of the DNA molecule is made up of alternating sugar and phosphate groups.

Biomolecules - Base pairing in DNA

Adenine (A) always pairs with Thymine (T) through two hydrogen bonds.
Guanine (G) always pairs with Cytosine (C) through three hydrogen bonds.
Base pairing allows for accurate replication of DNA during cell division.
The specificity of base pairing ensures that genetic information is maintained.

Biomolecules - DNA replication

DNA replication is a process by which DNA is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules.
Replication occurs during cell division and is carried out by a series of enzymes.
The two strands of DNA are separated to serve as templates for new strands.
Complementary nucleotides are added to the templates, following the base pairing rules.
DNA replication is a highly accurate process, with an error rate of about one mistake per billion bases.

Biomolecules - Central dogma of molecular biology

The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information.
It states that DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into protein.
Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.
Translation is the process of synthesizing protein from an mRNA template.
The central dogma is essential for the functioning of cells and the expression of genetic information.

Biomolecules - Protein structure

Proteins are polymers made up of amino acids.
There are 20 different amino acids that can be combined to form proteins.
The primary structure of a protein is the sequence of amino acids.
The secondary structure refers to the local folding patterns of the protein.
The tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional shape of the protein.

Biomolecules - Types of protein secondary structure

The two main types of protein secondary structure are alpha helix and beta sheet.
Alpha helix is a right-handed coil stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the amino acids.
Beta sheet is a planar structure formed by hydrogen bonding between adjacent strands.
Proteins can have a combination of alpha helices and beta sheets in their secondary structure.
The secondary structure plays a crucial role in protein stability and function.

Biomolecules - Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms.
They are usually proteins, but some are made of RNA.
Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction, allowing it to proceed more quickly.
Enzymes are highly specific and usually catalyze only one type of reaction.
Enzymes are essential for many biological processes, including metabolism and cellular signaling.

Biomolecules - Enzyme-substrate interaction

Enzymes interact with specific molecules called substrates.
The substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme, forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
The enzyme catalyzes a reaction on the substrate, converting it into a product.
The active site of the enzyme is complementary in shape and chemical properties to the substrate.
Enzymes can undergo conformational changes upon substrate binding to enhance catalytic activity.

Biomolecules - Enzyme regulation

Enzymes can be regulated to control the rate of biochemical reactions.
Regulation can be achieved through various mechanisms, including allosteric regulation and covalent modification.
Allosteric regulation involves the binding of a regulatory molecule to a site other than the active site.
Covalent modification involves the addition or removal of a chemical group from the enzyme.
Enzyme regulation allows cells to respond to changes in their environment and maintain homeostasis.

Biomolecules - Secondary structure of DNA

DNA is composed of two polynucleotide chains.
The two chains are coiled around each other in a double helix.
The structure of DNA is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between complementary bases.
The two polynucleotide chains run anti-parallel to each other.
The backbone of the DNA molecule is made up of alternating sugar and phosphate groups.

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Biomolecules - Base pairing in DNA

Adenine (A) always pairs with Thymine (T) through two hydrogen bonds.
Guanine (G) always pairs with Cytosine (C) through three hydrogen bonds.
Base pairing allows for accurate replication of DNA during cell division.
The specificity of base pairing ensures that genetic information is maintained.
Example: A DNA sequence AGCT will pair with its complementary sequence TCAG.

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Biomolecules - DNA replication

DNA replication is a process by which DNA is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules.
Replication occurs during cell division and is carried out by a series of enzymes.
The two strands of DNA are separated to serve as templates for new strands.
Complementary nucleotides are added to the templates, following the base pairing rules.
Example: The replication of DNA is initiated by an enzyme called DNA helicase.

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Biomolecules - Central dogma of molecular biology

The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information.
It states that DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into protein.
Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.
Translation is the process of synthesizing protein from an mRNA template.
The central dogma is essential for the functioning of cells and the expression of genetic information.

=======

Biomolecules - Protein structure

Proteins are polymers made up of amino acids.
There are 20 different amino acids that can be combined to form proteins.
The primary structure of a protein is the sequence of amino acids.
The secondary structure refers to the local folding patterns of the protein.
The tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional shape of the protein.

=======

Biomolecules - Types of protein secondary structure

The two main types of protein secondary structure are alpha helix and beta sheet.
Alpha helix is a right-handed coil stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the amino acids.
Beta sheet is a planar structure formed by hydrogen bonding between adjacent strands.
Proteins can have a combination of alpha helices and beta sheets in their secondary structure.
Example: Spider silk protein contains mostly beta sheet structures.

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Biomolecules - Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms.
They are usually proteins, but some are made of RNA.
Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction, allowing it to proceed more quickly.
Enzymes are highly specific and usually catalyze only one type of reaction.
Example: The enzyme amylase catalyzes the breakdown of starch into glucose molecules.

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Biomolecules - Enzyme-substrate interaction

Enzymes interact with specific molecules called substrates.
The substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme, forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
The enzyme catalyzes a reaction on the substrate, converting it into a product.
The active site of the enzyme is complementary in shape and chemical properties to the substrate.
Example: The enzyme lactase catalyzes the hydrolysis of lactose into glucose and galactose.

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Biomolecules - Enzyme regulation

Enzymes can be regulated to control the rate of biochemical reactions.
Regulation can be achieved through various mechanisms, including allosteric regulation and covalent modification.
Allosteric regulation involves the binding of a regulatory molecule to a site other than the active site.
Covalent modification involves the addition or removal of a chemical group from the enzyme.
Example: The enzyme hexokinase is regulated through feedback inhibition by its product glucose-6-phosphate. Biomolecules - Secondary structure of DNA ==================================================
DNA is composed of two polynucleotide chains.
The two chains are coiled around each other in a double helix.
The structure of DNA is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between complementary bases.
The two polynucleotide chains run anti-parallel to each other.
The backbone of the DNA molecule is made up of alternating sugar and phosphate groups.

Biomolecules - Base pairing in DNA

Adenine (A) always pairs with Thymine (T) through two hydrogen bonds.
Guanine (G) always pairs with Cytosine (C) through three hydrogen bonds.
Base pairing allows for accurate replication of DNA during cell division.
The specificity of base pairing ensures that genetic information is maintained.
Example: A DNA sequence AGCT will pair with its complementary sequence TCAG.

Biomolecules - DNA replication

DNA replication is a process by which DNA is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules.
Replication occurs during cell division and is carried out by a series of enzymes.
The two strands of DNA are separated to serve as templates for new strands.
Complementary nucleotides are added to the templates, following the base pairing rules.
Example: The replication of DNA is initiated by an enzyme called DNA helicase.

Biomolecules - Central dogma of molecular biology

The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information.
It states that DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into protein.
Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.
Translation is the process of synthesizing protein from an mRNA template.
The central dogma is essential for the functioning of cells and the expression of genetic information.

Biomolecules - Protein structure

Proteins are polymers made up of amino acids.
There are 20 different amino acids that can be combined to form proteins.
The primary structure of a protein is the sequence of amino acids.
The secondary structure refers to the local folding patterns of the protein.
The tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional shape of the protein.

Biomolecules - Types of protein secondary structure

The two main types of protein secondary structure are alpha helix and beta sheet.
Alpha helix is a right-handed coil stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the amino acids.
Beta sheet is a planar structure formed by hydrogen bonding between adjacent strands.
Proteins can have a combination alpha helices and beta sheets in their secondary structure.
Example: Spider silk protein contains mostly beta sheet structures.

Biomolecules - Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms.
They are usually proteins, but some are made of RNA.
Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction, allowing it to proceed more quickly.
Enzymes are highly specific and usually catalyze only one type of reaction.
Example: The enzyme amylase catalyzes the breakdown of starch into glucose molecules.

Biomolecules - Enzyme-substrate interaction

Enzymes interact with specific molecules called substrates.
The substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme, forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
The enzyme catalyzes a reaction on the substrate, converting it into a product.
The active site of the enzyme is complementary in shape and chemical properties to the substrate.
Example: The enzyme lactase catalyzes the hydrolysis of lactose into glucose and galactose.

Biomolecules - Enzyme regulation

Enzymes can be regulated to control the rate of biochemical reactions.
Regulation can be achieved through various mechanisms, including allosteric regulation and covalent modification.
Allosteric regulation involves the binding of a regulatory molecule to a site other than the active site.
Covalent modification involves the addition or removal of a chemical group from the enzyme.
Example: The enzyme hexokinase is regulated through feedback inhibition by its product glucose-6-phosphate.