Slide 1

• Topic: Biomolecules - Nucleic Acids
• Introduction to Nucleic Acids
  • Definition: Large biomolecules that are involved in the storage and expression of genetic information
• Types of Nucleic Acids
  • DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
  • RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
• Importance of Nucleic Acids
  • Essential for the functioning and development of all living organisms
  • Store and transmit genetic information

Slide 2

• Structure of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
  • Double-stranded helix
  • Composed of nucleotides
  • Nucleotides consist of:
    • Deoxyribose sugar
    • Phosphate group
    • Nucleobases (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine)
• Base pairing in DNA
  • Adenine binds with Thymine
  • Cytosine binds with Guanine
  • Forms complementary base pairs

Slide 3

• DNA Replication
  • Process of making an identical copy of DNA
  • Occurs during cell division
  • DNA strands separate and each strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand
• Enzymes involved in DNA replication
  • DNA Helicase: Unwinds the DNA double helix
  • DNA Polymerase: Synthesizes the new DNA strand
  • DNA Ligase: Joins the newly synthesized DNA fragments

Slide 4

• RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
  • Single-stranded molecule
  • Composed of nucleotides
  • Nucleotides consist of:
    • Ribose sugar
    • Phosphate group
    • Nucleobases (Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine, Guanine)
• Types of RNA
  • Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes
  • Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfers amino acids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis
  • Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Forms a major component of ribosomes

Slide 5

• Protein Synthesis
  • Process of converting genetic information in DNA into functional proteins
• Transcription
  • DNA is transcribed into mRNA
  • Occurs in the nucleus
  • Enzyme involved: RNA Polymerase
• Translation
  • mRNA is translated into a protein
  • Occurs at the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
  • Involves tRNA and ribosomes

Slide 6

• Types of Nucleic Acid Modifications
  • DNA Methylation
    • Addition of a methyl group to DNA
    • Regulates gene expression
  • RNA Editing
    • Alteration of RNA sequence after transcription
    • Can result in the production of different protein isoforms

Slide 7

• Nucleic Acid Hybridization
  • Process of forming a stable double-stranded structure between two complementary nucleic acid strands
  • Important technique in molecular biology for DNA and RNA analysis
  • Used in DNA fingerprinting, genetic testing, and gene expression studies

Slide 8

• DNA Sequencing
  • Process of determining the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule
  • Important in genomics and genetic research
  • Techniques: Sanger sequencing, Next-generation sequencing

Slide 9

• Applications of Nucleic Acids
  • Genetic Engineering
    • DNA technology for manipulating and modifying genes
    • Production of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
  • Forensic Science
    • DNA fingerprinting for identification purposes
  • Medical Diagnosis
    • DNA and RNA tests for detecting genetic diseases and infections

Slide 10

• Summary
  • Nucleic acids are essential biomolecules involved in storing and expressing genetic information
  • DNA is a double-stranded molecule with base pairing rules
  • DNA replication, transcription, and translation are important processes in molecular biology
  • RNA is involved in protein synthesis
  • Nucleic acids have various modifications and applications in genetic research and medicine

Slide 11

• Biomolecules: Nucleic Acids (continued)
• Nucleic Acid Structure
  • DNA double helix structure provides stability and protection for genetic information
  • RNA is typically single-stranded, which allows for flexibility and versatility
• Nucleic Acid Composition
  • DNA and RNA are composed of nucleotides
  • Nucleotides consist of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
• Nucleotide Examples
  • DNA: Deoxyadenosine, Deoxyguanosine, Deoxycytidine, Deoxythymidine
  • RNA: Adenosine, Guanosine, Cytidine, Uridine

Slide 12

• DNA Replication Process
  • Initiation: DNA helicase separates the DNA strands, creating a replication fork
  • Elongation: DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to each original strand, creating two new DNA molecules
  • Termination: Replication is complete when DNA polymerase reaches the end of the strands
• Semi-conservative Replication
  • Each new DNA molecule is composed of one original strand and one newly synthesized strand

Slide 13

• RNA Transcription Process
  • Initiation: RNA polymerase binds to a specific DNA sequence called the promoter region
  • Elongation: RNA polymerase synthesizes a complementary RNA strand using DNA as a template
  • Termination: Transcription ends when RNA polymerase reaches a termination sequence
• mRNA Processing
  • In eukaryotes, mRNA undergoes modification before leaving the nucleus
  • Steps include capping, polyadenylation, and splicing

Slide 14

• Translation Process
  • Initiation: mRNA binds to a ribosome, and the start codon is identified
  • Elongation: tRNA molecules with anticodons bring amino acids to the ribosome, forming a growing polypeptide chain
  • Termination: Translation stops when a stop codon is reached
• Genetic Code
  • The genetic code is a set of rules that determines how the nucleotide sequence in mRNA translates into an amino acid sequence
  • Triplet codons encode specific amino acids (e.g., AUG codes for methionine)

Slide 15

• DNA and RNA Structure Comparison
  • DNA:
    • Sugar: Deoxyribose
    • Bases: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine
    • Stable, double-stranded structure
  • RNA:
    • Sugar: Ribose
    • Bases: Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine, Guanine
    • Single-stranded structure with various secondary structures

Slide 16

• Nucleic Acid Hybridization Applications
  • DNA Hybridization:
    • Analysis of gene expression levels
    • DNA fingerprinting and forensic investigations
  • RNA Hybridization:
    • Detection of specific RNA sequences in cells or tissues
    • Microarray analysis to study gene expression profiles

Slide 17

• DNA Sequencing Techniques
  • Sanger Sequencing (Dideoxy Sequencing):
    • Traditional method using dideoxynucleotides to terminate DNA strand synthesis at specific bases
  • Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS):
    • High-throughput sequencing methods that enable faster and cost-effective sequencing of DNA
• Importance of DNA Sequencing
  • Understanding genetic variations and mutations
  • Identifying disease-causing genes
  • Evolutionary studies and genome mapping

Slide 18

• DNA Methylation and Gene Expression
  • DNA methylation is the addition of a methyl group to DNA nucleotides
  • Methylation can regulate gene expression by affecting the binding of transcription factors and RNA polymerase to DNA
  • Abnormal DNA methylation patterns have been associated with various diseases, including cancer

Slide 19

• RNA Editing Mechanisms
  • RNA editing is the post-transcriptional alteration of RNA sequences
  • Changes can include nucleotide substitutions, insertions, and deletions
  • RNA editing can modify the functional properties of RNA molecules and proteins they encode
  • Examples: Adenosine-to-Inosine (A-to-I) editing, Cytosine deamination

Slide 20

• Applications of Nucleic Acids in Medicine and Biotechnology
  • Gene Therapy: Introduction of normal genes into cells to treat genetic disorders
  • PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): Method to amplify DNA for various applications, such as genetic testing and forensics
  • DNA Barcoding: Using unique DNA sequences to identify different species
  • Genetic Engineering: Manipulation of DNA to produce desirable traits in organisms

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Slide 21

• Biomolecules - Nucleic Oxides
• Introduction to Nucleic Oxides
  • Definition: Inorganic compounds that contain oxygen and specific numbers of oxygen atoms bonded to other elements
  • Examples: Peroxides, Superoxides, Ozonides
• Peroxides
  • Definition: Compounds with an oxygen-oxygen single bond
  • Example: Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
• Superoxides
  • Definition: Compounds with an oxygen-oxygen bond and one unpaired electron
  • Example: Potassium Superoxide (KO2)
• Ozonides
  • Definition: Compounds formed by the reaction of ozone with certain substances
  • Example: Sodium ozonide (NaO3)

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Slide 22

• Properties of Peroxides
  • Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
    • Clear, colorless liquid
    • Strong oxidizing agent
    • Used as a disinfectant and in bleaching processes
    • Decomposes into water and oxygen gas upon exposure to light or in the presence of certain catalysts
• Application of Peroxides
  • Used in hair bleaching products
  • Used in rocket fuel as an oxidizer

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Slide 23

• Properties of Superoxides
  • Potassium Superoxide (KO2)
    • Violet crystalline solid
    • Strong oxidizing agent
    • Reacts with water to produce potassium hydroxide (KOH) and oxygen gas (O2)
    • Used as a source of oxygen in breathing apparatus
• Application of Superoxides
  • Used in oxygen supply systems for submarines and spacecrafts
  • Used in self-contained breathing apparatus used by firefighters and rescue workers

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Slide 24

• Properties of Ozonides
  • Sodium Ozonide (NaO3)
    • Highly unstable compound
    • Reacts explosively upon exposure to heat or shock
    • Used as a powerful oxidizing agent in certain chemical reactions
• Application of Ozonides
  • Used in organic synthesis to introduce oxygen atoms into compounds
  • Used in wastewater treatment to eliminate organic contaminants

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Slide 25

• Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (Redox Reactions)
  • Definition: Chemical reactions in which there is a transfer of electrons from one species to another
  • Involves two half-reactions: oxidation and reduction
  • Reduction: Gain of electrons by a species
  • Oxidation: Loss of electrons by a species
• Redox Reactions Examples
  • 2Na + Cl2 -> 2NaCl (Sodium is oxidized, chlorine is reduced)
  • Cu + 2AgNO3 -> Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag (Copper is oxidized, silver is reduced)

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Slide 26

• Balancing Redox Reactions
  • Steps for Balancing Redox Reactions using the Half-Reaction Method
    1. Write separate half-reactions for the oxidation and reduction processes
    2. Balance the elements other than hydrogen and oxygen in each half-reaction
    3. Balance the electrons in each half-reaction
    4. Match the number of electrons transferred in both half-reactions
    5. Combine the balanced half-reactions to get the overall balanced reaction

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Slide 27

• Balancing Redox Reactions Example
  • Fe + Cl2 -> FeCl3 (Unbalanced equation)
  • Half-Reaction 1: Fe -> Fe3+ + 3e-
  • Half-Reaction 2: Cl2 + 2e- -> 2Cl-
  • Balance iron atoms: 2Fe -> 2Fe3+ + 6e-
  • Combine the half-reactions: 2Fe + Cl2 -> 2FeCl3

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Slide 28

• Electrochemistry
  • Branch of chemistry that deals with the relationship between electricity and chemical reactions
  • Involves redox reactions and the flow of electric current
  • Key concepts: Electrolytes, Electrodes, Galvanic cells, Electrolytic cells

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Slide 29

• Electrolytes
  • Substances that conduct electric current when dissolved in water or melted
  • Can be categorized as strong electrolytes or weak electrolytes based on their ability to dissociate into ions
  • Examples: Sodium chloride (strong electrolyte), Acetic acid (weak electrolyte), Sugar (non-electrolyte)

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Slide 30

• Galvanic Cells
  • Also known as voltaic cells or batteries
  • Produce electrical energy from spontaneous redox reactions
  • Consist of two half-cells: anode (site of oxidation) and cathode (site of reduction)
  • Electrolyte solutions and salt bridges are used to complete the circuit and maintain charge balance