Slide 1: Introduction to Biomolecules

• Biomolecules are the organic molecules that are essential for life.
• They are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
• Biomolecules include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
• These molecules play vital roles in various biological processes.
• They are responsible for storing and transforming energy, providing structure, and carrying out chemical reactions.

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Slide 2: Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• They are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
• Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose.
• Disaccharides are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide units, for example, sucrose and lactose.
• Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates, like cellulose, starch, and glycogen.

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Slide 3: Lipids

• Lipids are a diverse group of biomolecules that are insoluble in water.
• They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• Lipids include fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids.
• Fats and oils are triglycerides and provide energy storage.
• Phospholipids are important components of cell membranes.
• Steroids are involved in various biological functions, such as hormone production.

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Slide 4: Proteins

• Proteins are large biomolecules composed of amino acids.
• They have diverse functions, including enzyme catalysis, structural support, and transport.
• Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds to form polypeptide chains.
• Proteins have a specific three-dimensional structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
• Examples of proteins include enzymes, antibodies, and structural proteins like collagen.

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Slide 5: Nucleic Acids

• Nucleic acids are the genetic material of living organisms.
• They are composed of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
• There are two types of nucleic acids: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
• DNA carries the genetic information and is double-stranded, while RNA is involved in protein synthesis and is usually single-stranded.
• The base pairing between adenine-thymine (DNA) or adenine-uracil (RNA) and cytosine-guanine is essential for their function.

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Slide 6: Hydrogen Bonding

• Hydrogen bonding is a type of intermolecular force that occurs between molecules containing a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom like oxygen or nitrogen.
• In biomolecules, hydrogen bonding plays a crucial role, especially in protein and nucleic acid structures.
• It dictates base pairing in DNA and RNA, resulting in the complementary pairing of nucleotides.
• Hydrogen bonds are weaker than covalent bonds but important for maintaining the overall structure and stability of biomolecules.

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Slide 7: Carbohydrates - Functions

• Carbohydrates serve as an important energy source for the body.
• They provide quick energy to cells through cellular respiration.
• Carbohydrates also play a role in cell structure, such as cellulose in plant cell walls and chitin in the exoskeleton of insects.
• Some carbohydrates, like glycogen, serve as energy storage molecules in animals.
• Blood groups are determined by specific carbohydrate molecules present on red blood cell surfaces.

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Slide 8: Lipids - Functions

• Lipids are an efficient long-term energy storage form in the body.
• They provide insulation and protection to vital organs.
• Lipids are important components of cell membranes, maintaining their structure and fluidity.
• Some lipids act as signaling molecules, like hormones.
• They also serve as precursors for the synthesis of various biomolecules, including steroids and bile acids.

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Slide 9: Proteins - Functions

• Proteins are involved in enzyme catalysis, speeding up chemical reactions in cells.
• They provide structural support to cells, tissues, and organs.
• Proteins are responsible for transport, such as the movement of molecules across cell membranes.
• Antibodies, a type of protein, help in immune response and defense against pathogens.
• Proteins also regulate gene expression and act as molecular switches in signal transduction pathways.

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Slide 10: Nucleic Acids - Functions

• Nucleic acids are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information.
• DNA contains the instructions for protein synthesis.
• RNA plays a crucial role in translating the genetic code into proteins.
• Nucleic acids are involved in the replication and repair of genetic material.
• They regulate gene expression and control various cellular processes.

Slide 11: Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing

• Hydrogen bonding is crucial in determining base pairing in nucleic acids.
  • DNA: Adenine (A) forms two hydrogen bonds with Thymine (T), and Guanine (G) forms three hydrogen bonds with Cytosine (C).
  • RNA: Adenine (A) forms two hydrogen bonds with Uracil (U), and Guanine (G) forms three hydrogen bonds with Cytosine (C).
• Base pairing allows for the complementary sequence of nucleotides in DNA and RNA.
• Hydrogen bonds between base pairs hold the two strands of DNA together in a double helix structure.
• The specific base pairing is essential for DNA replication, transcription, and translation.
• Disruption in base pairing can lead to genetic mutations and diseases.

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Slide 12: Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides

• Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar unit.
• Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
• Glucose is the primary energy source for cells and is crucial for cellular respiration.
• Fructose is found in fruits and is often used in sweeteners.
• Galactose is a component of lactose, the sugar found in milk.
• Monosaccharides are easily absorbed and transported in the body.

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Slide 13: Carbohydrates - Disaccharides

• Disaccharides are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide units.
• Examples of disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
• Sucrose is commonly known as table sugar and is composed of glucose and fructose.
• Lactose is found in milk and consists of glucose and galactose.
• Maltose is a product of starch digestion and is made up of two glucose molecules.
• Disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides during digestion.

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Slide 14: Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides

• Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of many monosaccharide units.
• Examples of polysaccharides include cellulose, starch, and glycogen.
• Cellulose is the main component of plant cell walls and provides structural support.
• Starch is the storage form of glucose in plants and can be broken down for energy.
• Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in animals and is mainly stored in the liver and muscles.
• Polysaccharides serve as a long-term energy reserve in organisms.

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Slide 15: Lipids - Fats and Oils

• Fats and oils are the primary types of lipids.
• They are composed of fatty acids and glycerol.
• Fats are solid at room temperature, while oils are liquid.
• Fats are found in animals, while oils are mainly derived from plants.
• Fats and oils serve as a concentrated and long-term energy source for the body.
• They provide insulation and cushioning to protect vital organs.

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Slide 16: Lipids - Phospholipids

• Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes.
• They are composed of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group.
• Phospholipids have a hydrophilic head (phosphate group) and hydrophobic tails (fatty acid chains).
• The hydrophobic tails align together, forming the interior of the lipid bilayer.
• The hydrophilic heads face outward and interact with water on both sides of the cell membrane.
• Phospholipids play a crucial role in maintaining the structure and integrity of cell membranes.

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Slide 17: Lipids - Steroids

• Steroids are a class of lipids with a specific carbon skeleton arrangement.
• They have multiple rings fused together, such as cholesterol and hormones like estrogen and testosterone.
• Cholesterol is an essential component of cell membranes and is a precursor for steroid hormone synthesis.
• Steroid hormones are involved in various physiological processes, including growth, development, and reproduction.
• Steroids can have both beneficial and harmful effects on the body depending on their role and level of regulation.

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Slide 18: Proteins - Amino Acids

• Proteins are composed of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.
• Amino acids contain an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain (R-group).
• There are 20 different amino acids that can combine in various sequences to form different proteins.
• Each amino acid has a unique R-group that determines its chemical properties and function.
• The sequence of amino acids in a protein determines its structure and function.
• Examples of amino acids include glycine, alanine, and valine.

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Slide 19: Proteins - Primary Structure

• The primary structure of a protein refers to the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
• The sequence is determined by the DNA sequence and is essential for protein folding and function.
• Even a slight change in the amino acid sequence can significantly impact protein structure and function.
• Genetic mutations can lead to alterations in the primary structure, resulting in diseases and disorders.
• The primary structure acts as a foundation for the higher levels of protein organization.

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Slide 20: Proteins - Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures

• Secondary structure refers to the local folding of the polypeptide chain into specific patterns.
  • Common secondary structures include alpha helix and beta sheet.
  • These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the amino acid backbone.
• Tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional conformation of a single polypeptide chain.
  • It is determined by interactions between amino acid side chains, including hydrogen bonding, disulfide bonds, and hydrophobic interactions.
• Quaternary structure refers to the arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains to form a functional protein molecule.
  • Interactions between subunits, such as hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions, stabilize the quaternary structure.
• The specific structure of a protein is crucial for its proper function.

Slide 21: Biomolecules - Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Base Pairing

• Hydrogen bonding is crucial in determining base pairing in nucleic acids.
• Base pairing allows for the complementary sequence of nucleotides in DNA and RNA.
• Disruption in base pairing can lead to genetic mutations and diseases.
• Examples:
  • DNA: Adenine (A) forms two hydrogen bonds with Thymine (T) and Guanine (G) forms three hydrogen bonds with Cytosine (C).
  • RNA: Adenine (A) forms two hydrogen bonds with Uracil (U) and Guanine (G) forms three hydrogen bonds with Cytosine (C).
• Hydrogen bonds between base pairs hold the two strands of DNA together in a double helix structure.
• The specific base pairing is essential for DNA replication, transcription, and translation.

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Slide 22: Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides

• Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar unit.
• Examples:
  • Glucose: Primary energy source for cells, involved in cellular respiration.
  • Fructose: Found in fruits and used in sweeteners.
  • Galactose: Component of lactose, the sugar found in milk.
• Monosaccharides are easily absorbed and transported in the body.

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Slide 23: Carbohydrates - Disaccharides

• Disaccharides are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide units.
• Examples:
  • Sucrose: Table sugar, composed of glucose and fructose.
  • Lactose: Found in milk, consists of glucose and galactose.
  • Maltose: Product of starch digestion, made up of two glucose molecules.
• Disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides during digestion.

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Slide 24: Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides

• Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of many monosaccharide units.
• Examples:
  • Cellulose: Main component of plant cell walls, provides structural support.
  • Starch: Storage form of glucose in plants, broken down for energy.
  • Glycogen: Storage form of glucose in animals, mainly stored in the liver and muscles.
• Polysaccharides serve as a long-term energy reserve in organisms.

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Slide 25: Lipids - Fats and Oils

• Fats and oils are the primary types of lipids.
• They are composed of fatty acids and glycerol.
• Fats are solid at room temperature, while oils are liquid.
• Fats are found in animals, while oils are mainly derived from plants.
• Fats and oils serve as a concentrated and long-term energy source for the body.

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Slide 26: Lipids - Phospholipids

• Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes.
• They are composed of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group.
• Phospholipids have a hydrophilic head (phosphate group) and hydrophobic tails (fatty acid chains).
• The hydrophobic tails align together, forming the interior of the lipid bilayer.
• The hydrophilic heads face outward and interact with water on both sides of the cell membrane.

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Slide 27: Lipids - Steroids

• Steroids are a class of lipids with a specific carbon skeleton arrangement.
• They have multiple rings fused together, such as cholesterol and hormones like estrogen and testosterone.
• Cholesterol: Essential component of cell membranes, precursor for steroid hormone synthesis.
• Steroid hormones: Involved in various physiological processes, including growth, development, and reproduction.

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Slide 28: Proteins - Amino Acids

• Proteins are composed of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.
• Amino acids contain an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain (R-group).
• There are 20 different amino acids that can combine in various sequences to form different proteins.
• Each amino acid has a unique R-group that determines its chemical properties and function.
• The sequence of amino acids in a protein determines its structure and function.

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Slide 29: Proteins - Primary Structure

• The primary structure of a protein refers to the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
• The sequence is determined by the DNA sequence and is essential for protein folding and function.
• Even a slight change in the amino acid sequence can significantly impact protein structure and function.
• Genetic mutations can lead to alterations in the primary structure, resulting in diseases and disorders.
• The primary structure acts as a foundation for the higher levels of protein organization.

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Slide 30: Proteins - Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures

• Secondary structure: Local folding of the polypeptide chain into specific patterns (alpha helix, beta sheet).
  • Stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the amino acid backbone.
• Tertiary structure: Overall three-dimensional conformation of a single polypeptide chain.
  • Determined by interactions between amino acid side chains, including hydrogen bonding, disulfide bonds, and hydrophobic interactions.
• Quaternary structure: Arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains to form a functional protein molecule.
  • Stabilized by interactions between subunits (hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions).
• Specific protein structures are crucial for proper function.