<h5 id="introduction">INTRODUCTION</h5> <ul> <li> <p>China is a large, mountainous country with three major river systems: the Yellow River, the Yangtse River, and the Pearl River. The dominant ethnic group is the Han, and the major language is Chinese (Putonghua).</p> </li> <li> <p>China has a diverse range of cuisines, with at least four distinct types. The best known is southern or Cantonese cuisine, which includes dim sum. In the north, wheat is the staple food, while in Szechuan, spices and chillies create a fiery cuisine.</p> </li> <li> <p>Japan is a string of islands, with more than 50% of the land area being mountainous. The population is largely Japanese, but there are also small Ainu and Korean minorities.</p> </li> <li> <p>Japan lacks a tradition of animal rearing and has a high earthquake risk. The staple crop is rice, and fish is the major source of protein. Raw fish (sashimi or sushi) is a widely popular dish.</p> </li> <li> <p>The geographical conditions in Japan have influenced its architecture and culture, including its cuisine and building styles.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="japan">JAPAN</h5> <ul> <li>Japan is an island country located in East Asia, comprising a stratovolcanic archipelago.</li> <li>It is the 11th most populous country and has the world’s third-largest economy by nominal GDP.</li> <li>Japan’s capital and largest city is Tokyo.</li> <li>The country is known for its rich history, unique culture, and technological advancements.</li> <li>Japan’s climate varies from temperate in the north to subtropical in the south. The currency is the Japanese Yen (JPY).</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="the-political-system">The Political System</h5> <ul> <li> <p>Japan’s political system from the 12th century was dominated by shoguns, who, in theory, ruled on behalf of the emperor. The Tokugawa family held the position of shogun from 1603 to 1867.</p> </li> <li> <p>The country was divided into over 250 domains under the rule of daimyo, or lords. The shogun had power over the daimyo, requiring them to spend time in the capital and controlling major cities and mines.</p> </li> <li> <p>Three significant changes in the late 16th century included disarming the peasantry, ordering daimyo to live in their domain capitals, and conducting land surveys to establish a stable revenue base.</p> </li> <li> <p>These changes led to the growth of commercial centers, a vibrant culture, and the development of a commercial economy with financial and credit systems.</p> </li> <li> <p>Social and intellectual changes, such as the study of ancient Japanese literature, led people to question Chinese influence and appreciate the unique aspects of Japanese culture and history.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="the-meiji-restoration">THE MEIJI RESTORATION</h5> <ul> <li> <p>The Meiji Restoration in Japan began with internal discontent and demands for trade and diplomatic relations. Commodore Matthew Perry’s arrival in 1853 pressured Japan to sign a treaty for trade and open diplomatic relations, which it did in 1854. This had a significant impact on Japanese politics, re-establishing the Emperor’s power and eventually leading to the shogun’s removal in 1868.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Nishijin quarter in Kyoto, a weavers’ guild, grew from 31 households in the 16th century to over 70,000 people by the end of the 17th century. The spread of sericulture and an order in 1713 to use only domestic yarn contributed to Nishijin’s growth. The community specialized in expensive products, and silk production helped the rise of regional entrepreneurs who challenged the Tokugawa order.</p> </li> <li> <p>In response to Western influence, the Japanese government adopted the slogan ‘fukoku kyohei’ (rich country, strong army) to develop their economy and build a strong army, avoiding colonization. They created a sense of nationhood, transformed subjects into citizens, and built the ’emperor system’ with the Emperor as the leader of westernization.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Meiji government implemented a new administrative structure, imposing modern military forces, a legal system, and a new school system with compulsory education for boys and girls. They considered developing a phonetic script or adopting a European language but ultimately decided against it.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Meiji Restoration led to a democratic constitution and a modern military, which sometimes clashed. The military’s aggressive foreign policies led to wars with China and Russia, and Japan’s economic growth resulted in a colonial empire. This tension between democratic ideals and military aggression had significant consequences both domestically and internationally.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="modernising-the-economy">Modernising the Economy</h5> <ul> <li>The Meiji reforms led to the modernization of Japan’s economy, which was funded by an agricultural tax.</li> <li>The first railway line was constructed in 1870-72, and textile machinery was imported from Europe. Foreign technicians were employed to train workers and teach in universities and schools.</li> <li>In 1872, modern banking institutions were established, and companies like Mitsubishi and Sumitomo were supported through subsidies and tax benefits to become major shipbuilders.</li> <li>The government encouraged migration to relieve population pressure, both within Japan (to Hokkaido and growing cities) and abroad (to Hawaii, Brazil, and the colonial empire).</li> <li>Zaibatsu, large business organizations controlled by individual families, dominated the economy until after the Second World War.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="industrial-workers">Industrial Workers</h5> <ul> <li>The number of people in manufacturing significantly increased from 700,000 in 1870 to 4 million in 1913.</li> <li>Over half of the workers in modern factories were women, and they were the ones who organized the first modern strike in 1886.</li> <li>The number of men began to increase after 1900, but male workers only outnumbered women in the 1930s.</li> <li>The size of factories also began to increase, with those employing more than a hundred workers rising from over 1,000 in 1909 to 4,000 by the 1930s.</li> <li>The rapid growth of industry and demand for natural resources led to environmental destruction, with the first agitation against industrial pollution launched in 1897 by Tanaka Shozo.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="aggressive-nationalism">Aggressive Nationalism</h5> <ul> <li>The Meiji constitution in Japan was restricted and created a Diet with limited powers, influenced by German legal ideas.</li> <li>From 1918 to 1931, popularly elected prime ministers formed cabinets, but thereafter lost power to national unity cabinets formed across party lines.</li> <li>The emperor was the commander of the forces, and from 1890, this was interpreted to mean that the army and the navy had independent control.</li> <li>The strengthening of the military and the expansion of Japan’s colonial empire were connected with the fear of being at the mercy of Western powers.</li> <li>Tanaka Shozo, a self-taught son of a farmer, became a major political figure and advocated for ordinary people not to be sacrificed for industrial progress.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="westernisation-and-tradition">‘WESTERNISATION’ AND ‘TRADITION’</h5> <ul> <li>Fukuzawa Yukichi was a leading Meiji intellectual who studied Dutch, English, and Western sciences.</li> <li>He advocated for Japan to adopt Western ideas and shed its Asian characteristics, coining the phrase “expel Asia.”</li> <li>Fukuzawa criticized Japanese knowledge and promoted Western learning through his school, which later became Keio University.</li> <li>The next generation of intellectuals, like Miyake Setsurei, questioned total acceptance of Western ideas and urged Japan to develop its unique talents.</li> <li>Some intellectuals, such as Ueki Emori, were attracted to Western liberalism and advocated for constitutional government, democracy, and women’s voting rights.</li> <li>This pressure from intellectuals led the government to announce a constitution.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="daily-life">Daily Life</h5> <ul> <li>The patriarchal household system in Japan, which comprised many generations living together, was replaced by the new concept of the nuclear family as more people became affluent.</li> <li>This change in family structure led to demands for new types of domestic goods, family entertainments, and housing. Construction companies made cheap housing available for a down payment of 200 yen and a monthly installment of 12 yen for ten years.</li> <li>The 1920s also saw the novelty of electric goods such as rice-cookers, American grills, and toasters.</li> <li>The new middle-class families enjoyed new forms of travel and entertainment, with transport in cities improving and public parks opening from 1878. The first radio stations opened in 1925.</li> <li>The period was one of great vitality and the questioning of traditional norms, with movies being made from 1899 and Matsui Sumako becoming a national star with her portrayal of Nora in Ibsen’s A Doll’s House.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="overcoming-modernity">‘Overcoming Modernity’</h5> <ul> <li>State-centered nationalism was expressed fully in the 1930s and 1940s by Japan’s wars to expand its empire, leading to the Second World War.</li> <li>The period was marked by greater controls on society, repression, imprisonment of dissidents, and the formation of patriotic societies for war support.</li> <li>In the 1943 symposium on ‘Overcoming Modernity’, Moroi Saburo sought to rescue music from sensory stimulation and restore it to an art of the spirit.</li> <li>Philosopher Nishitani Keiji defined ‘modern’ as the unity of three Western thought streams: Renaissance, Protestant Reformation, and natural sciences.</li> <li>Nishitani argued that Japan’s ‘moral energy’ helped it avoid colonization and it should establish a new world order, integrating science and religion.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="after-defeat-re-emerging-as-a-global-economic-power">After Defeat: Re-emerging as a Global Economic Power</h5> <ul> <li>Japan’s attempt to create a colonial empire ended with its defeat in WWII, leading to demilitarization and the introduction of a new constitution with Article 9, the “no war clause”.</li> <li>Rapid economic rebuilding, or the “post-war miracle”, was facilitated by US support, political democratization, and historical traditions of popular struggles and intellectual engagement.</li> <li>The 1964 Tokyo Olympics and Shinkansen (bullet train) system symbolized Japan’s technological advancements and growth as a global power.</li> <li>The 1960s and 1970s brought civil society movements demanding recognition and compensation for health and environmental issues, leading to government action and stricter regulations.</li> <li>As a developed country, Japan currently faces the challenge of maintaining its position as a leading world power through political and technological capabilities.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="china">CHINA</h5> <ul> <li>The modern history of China has been centered around regaining sovereignty, ending foreign occupation, and promoting equality and development.</li> <li>The Opium War (1839-42) was a significant event that marked the beginning of modern China, caused by the imbalance of trade between China and the West.</li> <li>The East India Company’s triangular trade led to the introduction of opium in China, which created a balance-of-trade problem, as Western goods did not find a market in China.</li> <li>The Qing reformers, such as Kang Youwei and Liang Bichao, recognized the need to strengthen the system and initiated policies to build a modern administrative system, a new army, and an educational system.</li> <li>The Chinese examination system, which provided entry into the elite ruling class, was abolished in 1905 as it was based on classical Chinese learning, which had no relevance for the modern world.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="establishing-the-republic">ESTABLISHING THE REPUBLIC</h5> <ul> <li>Tokugawa Ieyasu establishes the Edo shogunate in Japan, beginning a period of isolationism (1630-1854).</li> <li>Qing dynasty rules China (1644-1911), followed by a series of conflicts: the Two Opium Wars (1839-60), the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), and the invasion of China by Japan (1931).</li> <li>Meiji Restoration in Japan (1868) leads to modernization, including the establishment of a compulsory education system (1872), the first railway line (1872), and the Meiji Constitution (1889).</li> <li>The 20th century brings wars, revolutions, and reforms: World War I (1914-18), the May Fourth Movement (1919), universal male suffrage (1925), the founding of the Chinese Communist Party (1921), and the US-led Occupation of Japan (1946-52).</li> <li>Post-WWII developments: the founding of the People’s Republic of China (1949) and the Republic of China in Taiwan (1949), Japan’s membership in the UN (1956), China’s attack on India (1962), the Olympic Games in Tokyo (1964), the Cultural Revolution (1966), and the return of Hong Kong to China (1997).</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="the-rise-of-the-communist-party-of-china">The Rise of the Communist Party of China</h5> <ul> <li>The Communist Party of China (CCP) was founded in 1921, influenced by the Russian Revolution and the establishment of the Comintern.</li> <li>Mao Zedong, a major CCP leader, developed a revolutionary programme based on the peasantry, which differed from the traditional Marxist understanding of revolution brought about by the urban working class.</li> <li>In Jiangxi, Mao established a strong peasants’ council (soviet), focusing on land confiscation and redistribution, and advocating for an independent government and army.</li> <li>The CCP was forced to seek another base due to the Guomindang blockade, leading to the Long March to Shanxi and the establishment of a new base in Yanan, where they developed their programme to end warlordism, carry out land reforms, and fight foreign imperialism.</li> <li>The long and exhausting war with Japan, along with ecological and socio-economic crises in rural China, weakened the Guomindang and contributed to the CCP’s rise as a powerful political force, ultimately defeating the Guomindang.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="establishing-the-new-democracy-1949-65">Establishing the New Democracy: 1949-65</h5> <ul> <li>The People’s Republic of China was established in 1949, based on the principles of the ‘New Democracy’.</li> <li>Critical areas of the economy were controlled by the government, and private enterprise and land ownership were gradually ended.</li> <li>The Great Leap Forward movement (1958) aimed to industrialize rapidly, with people setting up steel furnaces in their backyards and starting people’s communes.</li> <li>Mao Zedong aimed to create a ‘socialist man’ and mobilized the masses, while mass organizations were created for various groups.</li> <li>Some party members, like Liu Shaochi and Deng Xiaoping, urged for more attention to industrial organization and economic growth, as the commune system and backyard furnaces were not efficient.</li> </ul> <p>*The ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ is a concept from Marxist theory, where the working class holds political power.</p> <p>======</p> <h5 id="conflicting-visions-1965-78">Conflicting Visions: 1965-78</h5> <ul> <li>The conflict between Maoists and those opposing ideology-focused education led to the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1965.</li> <li>The Red Guards, mainly students and army personnel, were used to campaign against old culture, customs, and habits, while professionals were sent to the countryside to learn from the masses.</li> <li>The Cultural Revolution weakened the Party, disrupted the economy, and severely affected the educational system, as ideology became more important than professional knowledge.</li> <li>From the late 1960s, the focus shifted towards greater social discipline and building an industrial economy to make China a power before the end of the century.</li> <li>In 1975, the Party once again emphasized the need for industrial growth, marking a shift from the Cultural Revolution’s ideological focus.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="reforms-from-1978">Reforms from 1978</h5> <ul> <li>The Cultural Revolution was followed by political maneuvering, with Deng Xiaoping introducing a socialist market economy in 1978.</li> <li>The Party declared its goal as the Four Modernizations (to develop science, industry, agriculture, defense), allowing debate but not questioning of the Party.</li> <li>In 1978, a wall-poster titled ‘The Fifth Modernisation’ called for democracy, criticizing the CCP for not solving poverty and sexual exploitation, including cases from within the Party.</li> <li>Post-1978 reforms allowed Chinese to buy consumer goods freely, but demands for greater openness and end to ‘ossified dogmas’ were suppressed, with student demonstrators at Tiananmen Square brutally repressed.</li> <li>Debates on developing China have emerged, with the dominant view supported by the Party focusing on strong political control, economic liberalization, and integration into the world market. Critics argue that increasing inequalities and heavy emphasis on the market are creating social tensions.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="the-story-of-taiwan">THE STORY OF TAIWAN</h5> <ul> <li>Chiang Kai-shek established the Republic of China in Taiwan after fleeing from China in 1949 with over US$300million in gold reserves and priceless art treasures.</li> <li>The GMD, under Chiang Kai-shek, established a repressive government in Taiwan, forbidding free speech and political opposition, and excluding the local population from positions of power. However, they carried out land reforms that increased agricultural productivity and modernized the economy.</li> <li>Taiwan’s economy, largely dependent on trade, has been steadily growing since 1973, with a GNP that was second only to Japan in Asia. The gap between the rich and poor has also been declining.</li> <li>Taiwan has been transforming into a democracy since the death of Chiang in 1975, with opposition parties legally permitted and free elections held after martial law was lifted in 1987.</li> <li>Diplomatically, most countries have only trade missions in Taiwan due to its consideration as part of China. The question of re-unification with the mainland remains contentious, but “Cross Strait” relations have been improving, with massive Taiwanese trade and investments in the mainland.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="the-story-of-korea">THE STORY OF KOREA</h5> <ul> <li>The Story of Korea is a comprehensive narrative about the history and culture of Korea.</li> <li>The timeline of Korean history is divided into several periods: Gojoseon, Three Kingdoms, United Silla, Goryeo, Joseon, and modern Korea.</li> <li>Gojoseon, founded by Dangun, is considered the first Korean kingdom. It was followed by the Proto-Three Kingdoms period, which saw the formation of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla.</li> <li>The Joseon dynasty, which lasted for over 500 years (1392-1910), was marked by the establishment of Confucianism as the state ideology, and significant advancements in science and art.</li> <li>The annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910 marked the beginning of a period of colonial rule, which ended in 1945 following Japan’s surrender in World War II.</li> <li>The division of Korea into North and South in 1948, and the subsequent Korean War (1950-1953), have shaped the modern political landscape of the Korean peninsula.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="beginnings-of-modernisation">Beginnings of Modernisation</h5> <ul> <li>During the late nineteenth century, Korea’s Joseon Dynasty faced internal strife and foreign pressure, leading to modernization reforms in government, diplomacy, infrastructure, and society.</li> <li>Japan annexed Korea in 1910, ending the Joseon Dynasty, and Koreans resisted through protests, a provisional government, and appeals to foreign leaders for independence.</li> <li>Japanese colonial rule ended in 1945 after their World War II defeat; Korea’s independence was ensured by activists’ efforts, leading to a temporary division along the 38th parallel.</li> <li>The temporary division became permanent in 1948, with separate governments established in the North and South, as nations worked to disband Japanese forces.</li> <li>Korean independence from Japan was celebrated in 1945, following the end of Japanese colonial rule.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="a-post-war-nation">A Post-War Nation</h5> <ul> <li> <p>The Korean War (1950-1953) was a proxy war of the Cold War era, causing massive losses of life and property, and delaying free-market economic development and democratization in Korea.</p> </li> <li> <p>Prices rose due to inflation caused by increased national expenses and currency issued during the war, and industrial facilities were destroyed entirely, forcing South Korea to rely on economic assistance from the USA.</p> </li> <li> <p>South Korea’s first president, Syngman Rhee, was elected in 1948 but extended his administration through illegal constitutional amendments. He was forced to resign in April 1960 after citizens protested against a rigged election.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Democratic Party administration, which took power after Rhee’s resignation, could not properly respond to citizens’ demands due to internal divisions and conflict.</p> </li> <li> <p>Reformist political powers emerged and the students’ movement grew into a unification movement, which was not looked upon favorably by the military authorities. In May 1961, the Democratic Party government was overthrown in a military coup staged by General Park Chung-hee and other military authorities.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="rapid-industrialisation-under-strong-leadership">Rapid Industrialisation under Strong Leadership</h5> <ul> <li>Park Chung-hee became president in 1963, implementing a state-led, export-oriented policy for economic growth.</li> <li>The government’s five-year plans supported large firms, expanded employment, and shifted focus from ISI to exports, beginning in the 1960s.</li> <li>The New Village Movement in 1970 aimed to mobilize the rural population, modernize agriculture, and empower people for community development.</li> <li>Korea’s economic growth can be attributed to strong leadership, well-trained bureaucrats, aggressive industrialists, and a capable labor force.</li> <li>High education levels, open economic policy, foreign investment, and domestic savings contributed to the development of the heavy industrial sector.</li> </ul> <p>(Note: I’ve kept the bullet points to 5 as the text does not provide 6 clear points for summarization.)</p> <p>======</p> <h5 id="continued-economic-growth-and-calls-for-democratisation">Continued Economic Growth and Calls for Democratisation</h5> <ul> <li>In December 1979, a military coup led by Chun Doo-hwan took place, and Chun became the president through an indirect election under the Yusin Constitution in 1980.</li> <li>The Chun administration suppressed democratization influences to stabilize the regime, but economic growth increased from 1.7% in 1980 to 13.2% by 1983 due to the international economic boom.</li> <li>Citizens’ self-awareness about political rights grew because of urbanization, improved education levels, and media advancements, leading to demands for a constitutional amendment to allow direct election of the president.</li> <li>The Chun administration’s minimization of inquiries into the death-by-torture of a university student in May 1987 sparked a large-scale struggle for democratization, known as the June Democracy Movement.</li> <li>As a result of the movement, the Chun administration was forced to make a revision to the constitution, allowing direct elections and marking a new chapter of Korean democracy.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="korean-democracy-and-the-imf-crisis">Korean Democracy and the IMF Crisis</h5> <ul> <li>In 1987, the first direct election since 1971 was held, leading to Roh Tae-woo’s election, but Korea continued on its democratic path.</li> <li>In 1990, Kim Young-sam, a long-time opposition leader, merged parties with Roh’s to create a ruling party, and he was elected president in 1992, ending military rule.</li> <li>Under Kim’s administration, Korean companies grew globally, but due to neoliberalist pressure, Korea joined the OECD in 1996 and faced an IMF crisis in 1997.</li> <li>Kim Dae-jung, a long-time opposition leader, was elected president in 1997, followed by peaceful transfers to Lee Myung-bak in 2008 and Park Geun-hye in 2012.</li> <li>After Park’s impeachment in 2017, Moon Jae-in became president, marking the third peaceful transfer, and the candlelight protests showed the maturity of the Korean democracy.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="two-roads-to-modernisation">Two Roads to Modernisation</h5> <ul> <li>The histories of Japan, China, Taiwan, and Korea demonstrate that industrial societies have taken different paths to modernization.</li> <li>Japan’s modernization was elitist-driven, which led to aggressive nationalism, a repressive regime, and colonial expansion. Despite imitating Western powers, Japan attempted to find its own solutions, leading to a unique blend of foreign and indigenous ideas.</li> <li>China’s modernization was marked by foreign imperialism, weak governance, and civil unrest, leading to immense human suffering. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) aimed to reject traditions and build national strength, but its repressive political system created new challenges.</li> <li>The CCP’s modernization efforts successfully removed centuries-old inequalities, promoted education, and raised societal consciousness, but have also resulted in growing inequalities and a revival of suppressed traditions.</li> <li>Modernization in Japan and China showcases the importance of creatively using traditions in new ways, addressing the challenges of nationalism, foreign influence, and repression, and balancing economic growth with social development and heritage preservation.</li> </ul> <p>======</p>