<h5 id="the-revival-of-italian-cities">THE REVIVAL OF ITALIAN CITIES</h5> <ul> <li>In the 14th century, Petrarch was given the title of ‘Poet Laureate’ in Rome (1341).</li> <li>The Canterbury Tales, a collection of stories by Geoffrey Chaucer, was published in 1390.</li> <li>The University of Florence was established in 1390.</li> <li>In 1454, Johannes Gutenberg printed the Bible using movable type, a significant development in printing technology.</li> <li>Portuguese mathematicians developed a method to calculate latitude by observing the sun in 1484.</li> <li>The Duomo in Florence was designed by Filippo Brunelleschi in 1436.</li> <li>Christopher Columbus reached America in 1492.</li> <li>Leonardo da Vinci painted The Last Supper in 1495.</li> <li>The Sistine Chapel ceiling was painted by Michelangelo in 1512.</li> <li>In 1453, the Ottoman Turks defeated the Byzantine ruler of Constantinople.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="universities-and-humanism">UNIVERSITIES AND HUMANISM</h5> <ul> <li>The earliest universities in Europe were established in Italian towns, with Bologna and Padua being centers of legal studies from the 11th century.</li> <li>The shift in emphasis in studying law was due to the influence of humanism, represented by Francesco Petrarch, who stressed the importance of a close reading of ancient authors.</li> <li>Humanism, an educational programme that implied there was much to be learnt which religious teaching alone could not give, was labelled by historians in the nineteenth century.</li> <li>Humanists like Giovanni Pico della Mirandola emphasised the importance of debate and skills developed by individuals through discussion and debate.</li> <li>The revolutionary ideas of humanism attracted attention in many other universities, particularly in the newly established university in Petrarch’s own home-town of Florence.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="the-humanist-view-of-history">The Humanist View of History</h5> <ul> <li>The Middle Ages span from the 5th to the 14th century, which can be divided into:</li> <li>The Dark Ages (5th to 9th century), though this term is now questioned by historians.</li> <li>The Early Middle Ages (9th to 11th century).</li> <li>The Late Middle Ages (11th to 14th century).</li> <li>The 15th century onwards is referred to as The Modern Age.</li> <li>There is ongoing debate among historians about the cultural vibrancy of these periods, leading to a reluctance in making sharp cultural distinctions between centuries.</li> <li>The term ‘Dark Ages’ is increasingly considered unfair due to new research findings about Europe in this period.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="science-and-philosophy-the-arabs-contribution">Science and Philosophy: The Arabs’ Contribution</h5> <ul> <li> <p>During the fourteenth century, scholars started reading translated works of Greek writers, such as Plato and Aristotle, thanks to Arab translators who had preserved and translated ancient manuscripts.</p> </li> <li> <p>Arabic translations of Greek works, as well as original texts by Arab and Persian scholars, were transmitted to other Europeans through Greek translations. These works covered various fields, including natural science, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and chemistry.</p> </li> <li> <p>Notable Muslim writers and scholars include Ibn Sina (Avicenna), a physician and philosopher from Bukhara, and al-Razi (Rhazes), author of a medical encyclopedia. Ibn Rushd (Averroes), an Arab philosopher from Spain, attempted to reconcile philosophical knowledge and religious beliefs, influencing Christian thinkers.</p> </li> <li> <p>The humanist movement, which focused on introducing liberal arts and classical studies into education, began to emerge. Although universities still focused on law, medicine, and theology, humanist subjects gradually started being introduced in schools, mainly in Italy and later in other European countries.</p> </li> <li> <p>It is essential to note that the European spelling of these scholars’ names led to later generations believing they were Europeans, and schools at this time were only for boys.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="artists-and-realism">Artists and Realism</h5> <ul> <li> <p>Artists of the sixteenth century, such as Durer and Leonardo da Vinci, integrated scientific elements into their work.</p> </li> <li> <p>Durer, a German artist, emphasized the importance of geometry in art and believed that an artist’s work should closely resemble life. He stated, “No man shall ever be able to make a beautiful figure out of his own imagination unless he has well stored his mind by much copying from life.”</p> </li> <li> <p>Leonardo da Vinci, an Italian artist, had a wide range of interests including anatomy, mathematics, and art. He studied bone structures by visiting medical schools and was known for his accurate and detailed depictions of the human body.</p> </li> <li> <p>Leonardo da Vinci’s self-portrait is signed with the title “Leonardo da Vinci, disciple of experiment,” highlighting his commitment to learning through observation and experimentation.</p> </li> <li> <p>Artists in this period also studied light and perspective, using geometry to create more realistic and three-dimensional representations in their paintings. The use of oil as a painting medium allowed for a greater richness of color.</p> </li> <li> <p>Sixteenth-century Italian artists were inspired by ancient Roman culture and sought to continue the tradition of sculpting perfectly proportioned figures. Donatello, for example, created lifelike statues in 1416, breaking new ground in realism.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="architecture">Architecture</h5> <ul> <li>In the 15th century, Rome experienced a revival under politically stronger popes who encouraged the study of Rome’s history.</li> <li>Archaeologists excavated ruins in Rome, inspiring a revival of imperial Roman architecture, now known as ‘classical’.</li> <li>Popes, merchants, and aristocrats employed architects familiar with classical architecture; artists and sculptors decorated buildings with art.</li> <li>Skilled individuals like Michelangelo Buonarroti and Filippo Brunelleschi contributed significantly to this architectural revival.</li> <li>A notable change was that artists came to be recognized individually, not as part of a group or guild.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="the-first-printed-books">The First Printed Books</h5> <ul> <li>The mastery of printing technology in the 16th century, borrowed from the Chinese and Mongol rulers, allowed the written word to travel to other countries.</li> <li>Johannes Gutenberg, a German, created the first printing press in 1455 and printed 150 copies of the Bible, a task that would take a monk the same amount of time to complete.</li> <li>By 1500, many classical texts, almost all in Latin, had been printed in Italy, making it possible for students to buy them and develop a reading habit, and for ideas, opinions, and information to move more widely and rapidly.</li> <li>Printed books played a significant role in the spread of the humanist culture of Italy across the Alps from the end of the 15th century, explaining why earlier intellectual movements were limited to particular regions.</li> <li>The availability of printed books made it possible for individuals to read books, promoting new ideas and reaching hundreds of readers quickly.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="a-new-concept-of-human-beings">A New Concept of Human Beings</h5> <ul> <li> <p>Humanist culture during this period was marked by a decrease in religious control over life, with individuals increasingly attracted to material wealth, power, and glory.</p> </li> <li> <p>Francesco Barbaro and Lorenzo Valla, both humanists, wrote about the importance of wealth acquisition and the pursuit of pleasure, challenging religious doctrines.</p> </li> <li> <p>The concept of humanism also emphasized the importance of good manners and individual autonomy in shaping one’s life, challenging the feudal belief in three separate orders of society.</p> </li> <li> <p>Niccolo Machiavelli’s The Prince (1513) discussed human nature, noting that individuals possess various qualities that earn them praise or condemnation, with self-interest being the most powerful motive for human action.</p> </li> <li> <p>Machiavelli believed that all men are inherently bad and prone to display their vicious nature due to insatiable human desires.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="the-aspirations-of-women">The Aspirations of Women</h5> <ul> <li> <p>In this era, women from aristocratic families were generally excluded from public life and had limited public roles.</p> </li> <li> <p>Women’s education was not emphasized, but a few women like Cassandra Fedele questioned this idea and advocated for women’s education.</p> </li> <li> <p>The position of women in merchant families was slightly different, with wives often assisting in running the shop or managing businesses.</p> </li> <li> <p>Women writers, such as Fedele and Isabella d’Este, expressed their aspirations for women to have economic power, property, and education to achieve an identity in a male-dominated world.</p> </li> <li> <p>Balthasar Castiglione, in his book The Courtier (1528), expressed his views on how a woman should be: soft, delicate, and feminine, without resembling a man in any way. He believed that women should adorn themselves with the finest accomplishments and possess virtues of the mind.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="debates-within-christianity">Debates within Christianity</h5> <ul> <li>In 1516, Thomas More’s Utopia was published, presenting an ideal society.</li> <li>Martin Luther wrote the Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, sparking the Protestant Reformation.</li> <li>Luther translated the Bible into German in 1522, making it more accessible to the public.</li> <li>A peasant uprising occurred in Germany in 1525, reflecting social unrest.</li> <li>Andreas Vesalius wrote On Anatomy in 1543, significantly contributing to the field of human anatomy.</li> <li>The Anglican Church was established in England in 1559, with the monarch as its head.</li> <li>Gerhardus Mercator prepared a cylindrical map of the earth in 1569, advancing cartography.</li> <li>The Gregorian calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, improving the previous Julian calendar.</li> <li>William Harvey linked the heart with blood circulation in 1628, marking a breakthrough in medical understanding.</li> <li>The Academy of Sciences was set up in Paris in 1669, promoting scientific discovery.</li> <li>Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica was published in 1687, laying the groundwork for classical physics.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="the-copernican-revolution">THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION</h5> <ul> <li>The Copernican Revolution was led by scientists who questioned the Christian notion of man as a sinner.</li> <li>Copernicus, a devout Christian, postulated that the planets, including the earth, rotate around the sun.</li> <li>Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei later bridged the gap between ‘heaven’ and earth by demonstrating that planets move around the sun in ellipses and confirming the notion of a dynamic world.</li> <li>Kepler’s Cosmographical Mystery and Galileo’s The Motion helped popularize the sun-centered system.</li> <li>The revolution reached its climax with Isaac Newton’s theory of gravitation.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="reading-the-universe">READING THE UNIVERSE</h5> <ul> <li>Galileo highlighted the distinction between knowledge, based on observation and experiments, and belief.</li> <li>The Scientific Revolution, marked by rapid expansion in physics, chemistry, and biology, emerged from the works of these scientists.</li> <li>The shift in knowledge acquisition led some to replace God with Nature as the source of creation, while others considered God as a distant entity not directly involved in the material world.</li> <li>This new scientific culture was popularized through scientific societies like the Paris Academy and the Royal Society, which promoted natural knowledge through public lectures and experiments.</li> <li>The development of these scientific societies contributed significantly to the establishment of a public scientific domain.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="was-there-a-european-renaissance-in-the-fourteenth-century">Was there a European ‘Renaissance’ in the Fourteenth Century?</h5> <ul> <li>The concept of a European ‘Renaissance’ in the 14th century is debated.</li> <li>Earlier periods, such as the 12th and 13th centuries, were not times of darkness but rather familiar with Greek and Roman cultures.</li> <li>Religion remained a significant part of people’s lives, and the cultural changes in Europe were influenced by various civilizations, including Greek, Roman, Indian, Arabian, Iranian, Central Asian, and Chinese.</li> <li>A significant shift during this period was the emergence of separate ‘private’ and ‘public’ spheres of life. The ‘private’ sphere included the family and personal religion, while the ‘public’ sphere encompassed government and formal religion.</li> <li>The different regions of Europe began to develop their distinct identities based on language, marking a departure from the unified Roman Empire and later Latin and Christianity.</li> </ul> <p>======</p>