<h5 id="introduction">INTRODUCTION</h5> <ul> <li>The text introduces the emergence of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan in the 13th century.</li> <li>Genghis Khan aimed to create a world empire, a goal that was fulfilled by his descendants who expanded the empire to its largest extent.</li> <li>The Mongols, under Genghis Khan’s grandson Mongke, claimed divine right to rule, warning other rulers, like Louis IX of France, of the consequences of resistance.</li> <li>Juwaini, a Persian chronicler, reported that after the capture of Bukhara in 1220, Genghis Khan declared himself as the punishment of God for the city’s sins.</li> <li>The success of the Mongol Empire can be attributed to their administrative and control skills in a pre-industrial age, their management of religious and social diversity, and the understanding of their origins, interactions, and society.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="social-and-political-background">SOCIAL AND POLITICAL BACKGROUND</h5> <ul> <li>The Mongols were a diverse group of people, including pastoralists and hunter-gatherers, who inhabited the steppes of Central Asia.</li> <li>Their society was divided into patrilineal lineages, with richer families possessing more animals and pasture lands, and therefore having more influence in local politics.</li> <li>Periodic natural calamities often forced families to forage further afield, leading to conflict over pasture lands and predatory raids.</li> <li>The Mongols traded with their sedentary neighbors in China, exchanging horses, furs, and game for agricultural produce and iron utensils.</li> <li>The social and political organizations of the nomadic and agrarian economies were very different, but they were not foreign to each other and often engaged in trade and barter.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="the-career-of-genghis-khan">THE CAREER OF GENGHIS KHAN</h5> <ul> <li> <p>Qubilai Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan, ascended as Grand Khan in Peking, leading to the division of the Mongol realm into independent lineages: Toluy, Chaghatai, and Jochi.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Toluyid lineage established the Yuan dynasty in China and the Il-Khanid state in Iran, while the Chaghatai lineage controlled the steppes north of Transoxiana and Jochid lineages ruled the Russian steppes, known as the ‘Golden Horde’.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Golden Horde, under Berke’s reign, shifted from Nestorian Christianity to Islam, and allied with Egypt against the Il-Khans. Ghazan Khan, an Il-Khanid ruler, converted to Islam, followed by other chieftains.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Yuan dynasty ended in China in 1368, and Timur, a Barlas Turk claiming Genghis Khanid descent through Chaghatai, established a steppe empire, assimilating parts of Toluy, Chaghatai, and Jochi’s dominions.</p> </li> <li> <p>Zahiruddin Babur, a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, founded the Mughal empire in India in 1526, after being expelled from Transoxiana by Shaybani Khan, a descendant of Jochi’s youngest son, Shiban.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Manchus of China conquered Mongolia in 1759, and the Republic of Mongolia was established in 1921.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="the-mongols-after-genghis-khan">The Mongols after Genghis Khan</h5> <ul> <li> <p>After Genghis Khan’s death, Mongol expansion occurred in two main phases: 1236-1242, focusing on the Russian steppes, Bulghar, Kiev, Poland, and Hungary, and 1255-1300, leading to the conquest of China, Iran, Iraq, and Syria.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Mongol military faced few reversals after 1203, but the original momentum of campaigns in the West declined in the 1260s due to internal politics of succession within the Mongol family and the marginalization of the Jochi and Ogodei lineages by the Toluyid branch.</p> </li> <li> <p>The Toluyid branch, led by Mongke, pursued energetic military campaigns in Iran during the 1250s and China during the 1260s, diverting forces and supplies away from Europe and leading to a small, understaffed force facing the Egyptian military, resulting in defeat.</p> </li> <li> <p>The defeat, internal turbulence between ruling family members, and conflict between Jochid and Toluyid descendants along the Russian-Iranian frontier halted further European campaigns.</p> </li> <li> <p>Despite internal issues, Mongol campaigns in China continued, resulting in the reunification of China under Mongol rule, showcasing the Mongols’ greatest successes and challenges.</p> </li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="social-political-and-military-organisation">Social, Political and Military Organisation</h5> <ul> <li>The Mongol army was organized according to a decimal system of divisions: 10s, 100s, 1,000s, and 10,000 soldiers. This system erased old tribal identities and integrated different lineages and clans, providing them with a new identity derived from Genghis Khan.</li> <li>Genghis Khan assigned the responsibility of governing the newly conquered people to his four sons, each receiving a different territory (ulus). The sons would rule the empire collectively, underlined by military contingents placed in each ulus.</li> <li>Genghis Khan established a rapid courier system, the yam, which was further refined after his death. This system enabled the Great Khans to keep a check on developments at the farthest end of their regime across the continental landmass.</li> <li>The Mongol empire, during the thirteenth century, saw a conflict of interests between pastoralists and peasants. Genghis Khan’s successors, such as Ghazan Khan, appeared as protectors of the peasants and the cities.</li> <li>The Mongols recruited civil administrators from the conquered societies, who helped integrate the distant dominions and blunt the harsher edges of nomadic predation on sedentary life. These administrators could sometimes command considerable influence.</li> </ul> <p>======</p> <h5 id="conclusion-situating-genghis-khan-and-the-mongols-in-world-history">Conclusion: Situating Genghis Khan and the Mongols in World History</h5> <ul> <li>Genghis Khan viewed as a great leader by Mongols, responsible for uniting them, ending tribal wars, and bringing prosperity.</li> <li>Mongol empire in 13th century was vast and diverse, with Mongol rulers recruiting administrators and armed contingents from various ethnic groups and religions.</li> <li>Inspiration behind the Mongol empire’s formation cannot be traced due to limited documentation, but its impact remained strong even after alterations in different milieus.</li> <li>In present-day Mongolia, Genghis Khan is revered as a national hero, with his achievements celebrated and used to forge national identity.</li> <li>Mongol rulers like Timur declared independence by associating themselves with Genghis Khanid descent, showcasing the latter’s enduring influence.</li> </ul> <p>======</p>