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$»$ THE FRENCH REVOLUTION $«$

French revolution is considered as the most important landmark in human history. The revolution occurred in 1789 and swept away the existing political institutions, overthrew the French Monarchy and aimed at establishing an egalitarian society and responsible government. The revolution began with the siege of Bastille on July 14, 1789 and continued until the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power.

FRENCH SOCIETY DURING THE LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

The term ‘Old Regime’ is usually used to describe the society and institutions of France before 1789 French society before 1789 .French society before 1789 was divided into three estates; it was called a society of estates . The estates constituted as follows:

(i) The First Estate - the First Estate consisted of the clergy. The clergy were exempted from paying taxes to the king.

(ii) The Second Estate - the Second Estate consisted of nobility was also exempted from taxes. The nobles further enjoyed feudal privileges. These included feudal dues, which they extracted from the peasants.

(iii) The Third Estate - the Third Estate consisted of big businessmen, merchants, court officials, lawyers, peasants and artisian, landless labor , servants, etc. the Third Estate comprised both rich and poor persons.

(a) Causes of the French Revolution:

Political Causes:

(i) The political structure of the French state was highly unpopular with the people who were burdened with heavy taxes and insecure conditions of life and property.

(ii) Divine rights of the kings, despotism and tyranny of the French monarchs topped by the extravagance and inefficiency of the Bourbon Kings.

(iii) Louis XV indulged in a life of ease and pleasure, was not interested in administrative reforms or the welfare of the people.

(iv) Louis XVI though good natured was completely under the influence of incompetent and corrupt ministers and a domineering queen, Marie Antoinette.

(v) Absence of any representative body to voice the need of the people . local bodies called Parliament were courts of justice rather then voices of people.

(i) The unfair division of French society and its feudal nature were also responsible for the revolution.

(ii) The first two estates enjoyed all the privileges and benefits in the society. the third estate was fraught with inequalities and discriminations. most of the burden of taxation was borne by the least privileged and most impoverished third estate.

(iii) Middle class was most receptive to new ideas and values as they were educated and had a broader outlook, denied the whole ideas, rights and privileged existence where the main qualification is that of birth and instead favoured the criterion of merit.

Economic Unrest:

(i) In the $18^{\text {th }}$ century the condition of common man had become pathetic, problem of subsistence due to failure of crops, increase in the prices of food grains (ii) In the second half of the $18^{\text {th }}$ century the French economy had started expanding. but its financial impact was uneven, hardest hit were the Third Estate

(iii) Between 1689 and 1783 French fought several long and exhausting wars which proved to be disastrous both in terms of French Manpower and finances, not only led to mounting debts but interest on these debts also multiplied.

(iv) To meet its mounting costs the government increased taxes. Peasantry was the hardest hit who owned the minimum land and paid the maximum taxes.

(v) Taxes were Taille the direct land tax, salt tax known as Gabelle, feudal dues or payments were taken by nobility and taxes know as Tithe was taken by the Church.

A growing middle class envisages an end to Privaleges:

(i) The French Revolution drew its strength from the ideas of philosophers and thinkers of the time, groups of intellectuals classified by scholars according to their thinking,

(ii) Physiocrates, Philosophers and some others were grouped as liberals depending on their ideologies.

(iii) Greatest thinkers were Francois Marie, Arouet de Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Charles Louis Montesquieu, John Locke and Diderot to name a few.

(iv) Through their teachings and writings they stirred the people to action, revolutionized the minds of the people and prepared them for the great changes ahead.

Contribution of the thinkers:

(i) Charles Montesquieu - A noblemen by birth, he become a lawyer and a judge. He preferred constitutional monarchy in France, he popularized the theory of powers within the government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary in his book “The Spirit of the Laws”

(ii) Francis Aronet Voltaire - he was another outstanding philosopher of the revolution. He wanted the people to think about their material life on earth and forget about heaven. He condemned the Church which supported the ignored the poor.

(iii) Jean Jacques Rousseau - he is regarded as the architect of the French Revolution . In the famous book “The Social Contract”, he proved that the government was the result of a social contract between the people on one hand and ruler on the other. So if the ruler didn’t fulfill the contract, the people had the right to withdraw their loyalty to him and bring down the tyranny of the ruler by revolting against him.

(iv) John Locke - he was a great political thinker. He wrote “Two Treatises of Government “in which he sough to refute the doctrine of the divine and absolute right of monarch.

THE OUT B REAK OF THE REVOLITION

On 5 may 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly to the Estate General to pass proposals for new taxes. The Estate General was a political body. The three estates sent their representatives to his body. Each of the three estates had a one vote each. The first estate and the second estate had sent 300 representatives each. They were seated in rows facing each other on two sides. The third estate had sent 600 representatives. They required standing at the back. Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the assembly. New taxes could be proposed only after the Estate General gave its approval to the king’s proposal.

Since the first estate and the second estate were exempted from paying taxes, it was a foregone conclusion that the king’s proposals on new taxes would get the approval of the Estate General.

(a) The Tennis Court Oath:

Voting in the Estate Generalin the past had been conducted according to the principle that each estate had one vote. Members of the third Estate demanded that voting now be conducted by the assembly as a whole, where each member would have one vote. When the king rejected this proposal, members of the third Estate walked out of the assembly in protest.

The representatives of the Estate on 20 June assembled in the hall of an indoor tennis court in the grounds of Versailles. They declared themselves a National Assembly and swore not to disperse till they had drafted a constitution of France that would limit the powers of the monarch. While the National assembly was busy at Versailles the rest of France seethed with turmoil, on 14 July the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille.

(b) ‘Storming of the Bastille’:

On the morning of July 14, 1789 the city of Paris was in a state of alarm. a severe winter had meant a bad harvest; the price of bread rose. Bakers exploited the situation and hoarded supplies. Crowds of angry women stormed into the shops.

The army was ordered by the king to move into the city. It was rumored that the army would be ordered to open fire upon the citizens. Thousands of persons gathered and decided to from a people’s militia. They broke into a number of government buildings in search of arms. Bastille was a dreaded fortress-prison. it was hated by all because it stood for the despotic power of the king. Protestors stormed into the Bastille in search of arms. The commander of Bastille was killed; the prisoners were released. The fortress was demolished .Louis XVI finally accorded recognition to the National Assembly and accepted the principle that his powers would from now on be checked by a constitution. On the Night of 4 August 1789, the Assembly passed a decreed abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes.

(c) France becomes a Constitutional Monarchy:

(i) The National Assembly completed the drafting of the constitution in 1791. Power was now separated and assigned to different institutions-the legislature, executive and judiciary making France a constitutionally monarchy.

(ii) The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected.

(iii) The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the Right of life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law were established as ’natural and inalienable’ rights.

(d) The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen:

(i) Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.

(ii) The aim of every political association is the preservation of the natural and inalienable rights of man; these are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.

(iii) The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation; no group or individual may exercise authority that does not come from the people.

(iv) Liberty consists of the power, to do whatever is not injurious to others.

(v) The law has the right to forbid only actions that are injurious to society.

(vi) Law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to participate in its formation, personally or through their representatives. All citizens are equal before it.

(vii) no man be accused, arrested or detained, except in cases determined by the law.

(viii) every citizen may speak, write and print freely; he must take responsibility for the abuse of such liberty in cases determined by the law.

(xi) for the maintenance of the public force and the expenses of administration a common tax is indispensable ; it must be assessed equally on all citizens in proportion to their means.

(x) since property is a sacred and inviolable right, no one may be deprived of it, unless a legally established public necessity requires it. in that case a just compensation must be given in advance

Le-Barbier painted the declaration of the rights of man and citizens in 1790. Majority of people at that time could not read and write, so he used many symbols to convey the content of the declaration of rights.

(i) Figure on the right represented France and figure on the left symbolized the law

(ii) The broken chain - Stands for the act of becoming free.

(iii)The bundle of rods - it implies that strength lies in unity as one can be easily broken but not an entire bundle.

(iv)The eye within a triangle radiating light - Eye stand for knowledge, the rays of sun will drive away the clouds of ignorance

(v) Scepter - It is a symbol of royal power. (vi) Snake biting its tail to form a ring, a symbol of eternity.

(vii) Red cap - Cap worn by a slave upon becoming free.

(viii) Blue, White, Red - these are National colours of France.

(xi) winged woman - Personification of the law.

(x) The law tablet - the law is same for all.

FRANCE ABOLISHES MONARCHY AND BECOMES A REPUBLIC

(i) Although Louis XVI had signed the Constitution, he entered into secret negotiations with the King of Prussia.

(ii) The National Assembly voted in April 1792 to declare war against Prussia and Austria. People saw this as a war of the people against kings and aristocracies all over Europe.

(iii) The revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the people. Political clubs became an important rallying point for people who wished to disuses government policies and plan their own form of action. The most successful of these clubs was that of the Jacobins, which got its name from the former convent of St. Jacob in Paris.

(iv) In the summer of 1792 the Jacobins planned an insurrection of a large number of Parisians who were angered by the short supplies and high prices of food. On the morning of august 10 they stormed the Palace of the Toiletries and held the king himself as hostage for several hours.

(v) Elections were held. The newly elected assembly was called the Constitution. On 21 September 1792 it abolished the monarchy and declared France a Republic.

(vi) Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the charges of treason. On 21 January 1793 he was executed publicly at the Place de la Concorde.

(a) The Reign of Terror:

The period in between 1793-94 is referred as the “Reign of Terror”.

(i) During this period Robespierre, who was the government of France followed a policy of severe control and punishment.

(ii) Ex-nobles and clergy, even members of his own party who did not agree with his methods were arrested, impressments.

(iii) France witnessed the guillotine of thousands of nobles and innocent men who supported.

(iv) Robespierre issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on prices. Churches were shut down.

(v) Finally Robespierre was guillotined in July 1794.

(b) A directory Rules France:

The reign of terror ended in 1794. The Jacobin government fell, and a new constitution was prepared by an elected convention providing for a republican from a government with a legislature and an executive body called the Directory. Directory was an executive made up of five members. Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss them. The political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rice of a military dictator, napoleon Bonaparte.

DID WOMAN HAVE A REVOLUTION

(i) Most women of the third estate had to work for a living, did not have a access to education or job training. Working women had also to for their families; their wages were lower then those of men.

(ii) In order to discuss and voice their interests woman stated their own political clubs and newspapers. about sixty women’s clubs came up in different French cities. One of their main demands was that women enjoy the same political rights as men.

(iii) In the early the revolutionary government did introduce laws that helped to improve the lives of women, creation of state schools, schooling made compulsory for all girls, could be no longer forced to get into marriage against their will, Divorce could be applied for by both women and men. Women could now train for jobs, could become artists or run small businesses. (iv) During the Region of Terror, the new government issued laws ordering closure of women’s clubs and banning their political actives.

(v) The fight for the vote was carried out though an Intemational suffrage movement during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.

(a) The Abolition of Slavery:

(i) Slavery was rampant in the European colonies of the Caribbean and the Americans. The slaves were mostly used on sugar, coffee, indigo and tobacco plantation. Their demand was because of their availability and low costs

(ii) in a debate in the Constituent Assembly in October 1790, to safeguard commercial interests of ‘planters’ two parties holding opposite views emerged. The group that safeguarded planters’ interests but pledged to maintain order in the colonies came up around the Massaic Club founded in August 1789 and their adversaries were he Society of the Friends of the Blacks founded in 1783. The outcome of the debate was that I served the purpose of drawing attention to the condition of slaves and sowed seeds of future political divisions.

(iii) On February 4, 1794 the Convention (National Assembly) ended slavery in the France Colonies. Napoleon Bonaparte revoked the decree in 1802, slavery was finally abolished from the France Colonies in 1848.

THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY:

The France Revolution produced great effects not only in France but also on the whole of Europe.

(a) Effect on France:

The France Revolution put on end to the arbitrary rule in France and paved the way for the establishment of a republic there. The special privileges of the high order were abolished and lead to the regeneration of France on the basis of social equality. The declaration of the right of man granted freedom and individual liberty to all without any distraction of class or creed. Many reforms were introduced in the administration. The higher and important posts in the state were opened to talented people. All were granted religious freedom. The Napoleonic code introduced an uniform system of law for France and made it quite clear and simple.

(b) Effects on Europe:

(i) Equality - the France Revolution had a great influence on Europe. Equality was one of the main principal of France Revolution. it implied the equality of all before law and abolition of privileges enjoyed by the upper order in the society. it established social, economic and political equality in the European countries.

(ii) Liberty - Revolutionary idea of liberty was hailed all over Europe. it implied social, political and religious freedom. the declaration of rights of made people understand the importance of personal liberty and rights.

(iii) Sovereignty - the France revolution emphasized the fact that sovereignty recites in the general public and law should be based on the will of the people. It infused the spirit of nationalism and patriotisms in the people.

(c) Globat impact:

(i) The France Revolution had a global impact which was felt equality in India.

(ii) The UN charter of Human Right also embodies the principles of the Revolution as laid down in the Declaration of Right of Man and Citizens.

THE RISE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON

In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte himself Emperor of France. He set out to conquer neighbour ing European countries, dispossessing dynasties and creating kingdoms where he placed members of his family. Napoleon saw his role as a moderhiser of Europe. He introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weight and measures provided by the decimal system .initially, many saw Napoleon as a liberation who would bring freedom for the people. But soon the Napoleonic armies came to be viewed everywhere as an invading force. He was finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815.

Some Important Dates:

1774 - Louis XVI becomes king of France, faces empty treasury and growing discontent within society of the Old Regime.

1789 - Convection of Estates General, Third Estate forms National Assembly, the Bastille is stormed, and peasant revolts in the countryside.

1791 - A constitution is framed to limit the powers of the king and to guarantee basic rights to all human beings. 1792-93 France becomes a republic, the king is beheaded. Overthrow of the Jacobin republic, a Directory rules France. 1804- Napoleon becomes emperor of France, annexes large parts of Europe. 1815- Napoleon defeated at Waterlo

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP- 1.1

1 The various groups in France society were known as:

(A) Caster

(B) Classes

(D) Tribes

2 The term old regime used to describe the society and institution of France:

(A) Before 1879

(B) Before 1689

(D) Before 1859

3 Peasants made about ………….. Percent of the France population at the time of revolution:

(A) $70 %$

(B) $80 %$

(D) $90 %$

4 A kind of tax called Taille was a/an:

(A) Direct tax

(B) Indirect tax

(D) Custom duty

5 The population of France rose from in 1751 to in 1789 :

(A) 20 million to 30 million

(B) 23 million to 28illion

(D) 13 million to 18 million

6 Montesquieu wrote:

(A) The social control

(B) Two treatises of government

(D) from monarchy to diarchy

7 The agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille on:

(A) 4 July 1789

(B) 5 May 1789

(D) 24 July 1789

8 The National Assembly completed the drafting of constitution in -

(A) 1791

(B) 1779

(D) 1792

9 The members of National Assembly were -

(A)Nominated

(B) indirectly elected

(D) Appointed by the king

10 To quality as an elector and then as member of the assembly a man had to belong to the -

(A) Lowest braclet of taxpayers

(B) Middle braclet of taxpayers

(D) Not to be a taxpayers

11 The constitution begins with a declaration of the -

(A) Rights of Church

(B) Rights of the king

(D) Rights of man

12 After signing the constitution the king of France entered into secret negotiations with the -

(A) King of Russia

(B) King of England

(D) King of lately

13 Which of the following was a patriotic song of France during revolution?

(A) Long live King

(B) Long live Robespierre

(D) Marseillaise

14 France become a republic after abolishing the monarchy on -

(A) 11 Sept.-1792

(B) 1 st Sept. 1792

(D) 31 Aug. 1792

15 Who of the following are the examples of individuals who represented to the ides coming from revolutionary France?

(A)Gandhi and Nehru

(B) Tilak and Gokhale

(D) Tagore and V Vivekananda

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 1.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1 What was the main aim of the National Assembly?

2 What was the National Anthem of France? Who composed if?

3 What is a guillotine? Who invented it?

4 State any two laws passed by Napoleon.

5 Mention two activities of French assembly which hastened the Revolution

6 How has the France society organized during the Old Regime?

7 What do you mean by ‘subsistence crisis;? Why did it occur frequently during the old Regime in France?

8 Why did Louis XVI want to raise taxes? Why was he opposed?

9 What was the composition of the Estate General of May 5, 1789?

Short Answer Type Questions:

10 What was the Tennis Court Oath?

11 What was the Bastille? What do you understand by ‘Storming of the Bastille’?

12 Explain how the new political system worked?

13 Who were Jacobins? What role did they play in emergence of republic in France?

14 What was Directory? What were its a consequences?

15 What role did the philosophers play in bridging about the France Revolution?

16 Why is the declaration of the Rights of man citizen regarded as a revolutionary document?

17 Give an estimate of Napoleon Bonaparte as the First Consul.

18 What was the impact of the France Revolution on the world?

19 Which groups of France society benefited from the Revolution? Which groups were forced to relinquish power? Which sections of society would have been disappointed with the outcome of the Revolution?

Long Answer Type Questions:

20 What was the impact of France Revolution of France?

21 Write short notes on (i) France slave trade (ii) Reign of Terror (iii) Fall of Napoleon.

22 What was the importance of slavery to France?

23 Discuss the impact of abolition of censorship in France. 24 How did the teaching of Rousseau lay the foundation of democracy?

25 List the accomplishments of the National Assembly of France from 1789 to 1791.

26 How did France become a constitutional monarchy?

27 Discuss the role of women in the revolutionary movement in France. When did women gain political equality in France?

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 1.1)

Que.	$\mathbf{1}$	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15
Ans	C	C	D	A	B	C	C	A	B	C	D	C	D	C	C

RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

In Russia the government headed by Tsar Nicholas II was very oppressive. The common people began to hate him. Popular discontentment rose to a new height when Russia was defeated by Japan (1904-05).in the wake of this defeat a large number of secret revolutionary parties sprang up. In March 1917, the Tsar was forced to abdicate and a provisional government of moderate social revolutionaries was formed. On November 7, 1917, the Bolsheviks under Lenin brought the downfall of the Menshevik government and established a Soviet Republic.

The French revolution opened up the possibility of creating a dramatic change in the way in which society was structured. Before the eighteenth century society was broadly divided into estates and orders and it was the aristocracy and church which controlled economic and social power. Suddenly after the revolution, it seemed possible to change this. In many parts of the world including Europe and Asia, new ideas about individual rights and who controlled social power began to be discussed. The development in the colonies, in turn, reshaped these ideas of societal change.

Not everyone in Europe, however, wanted a complete transformation of society. Responses varied from those who accepted that some change was necessary but wished for a gradual shift, to those who wanted to restructure society radically. Some were ‘conservatives’, others were ’liberals’ or ‘radicals’.

(a) Liberals, Radicals and Conservatives:

(i) Liberals looked to change society, they wanted a nation which tolerated all religions. They opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers. They wanted to safeguard the rights of individuals against governments. They argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government, subject to laws interpreted by a well-trained judiciary that was independent of rules and officials. They did not believe in Universal Adult Franchise, felt man of property mainly should have the vote, also did not want the vote for woman.

(ii) Radicals wanted a nation in which government was based on the majority of the country’s population. They supported women’s suffragette movements. They opposed the privileges of great landowners and wealthy factory owners. They were not against the existence of private property but disliked concentration of property in the hands of a few.

(iii) Conservative opposed to radicals and liberals. after the French revolution, however, even conservatives had opened their minds to the need for change. In the eighteenth century, conservatives had been generally opposed to the idea of change. By the nineteenth century, they accepted that some change was inevitable but believed that the past had to be respected and change had to be brought about through a slow process.

(i) New cities came up and new industrialized regions developed, railways expanded and the Industrial Revolution occurred.

(ii) Working hours were often long, wages were poor, unemployment was common, and problems of housing and sanitation were growing rapidly. liberals and radicals searched for solutions to these issues. (iii) Liberals and radicals who themselves were often property owners and employers firmly believed in the values of individual effort, labor and enterprise. If freedom of individuals was ensured, if the poor could labor, and those with capital could operate without restraint, they believed that societies would develop.

(iv) Some nationalists, liberals and radicals wanted revolution to put an end to the king of governments established in Europe in 1815. Nationalists talked of revolutions that would create ’nations’ where all citizens would have equally rights. After 1815, Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian nationalist, conspired with others to achieve this in Italy.

(c) The Coming of Socialism to Europe:

(i) By the mid-nineteenth century in Europe, socialism was a well known body of ideas that attracted widespread attention.

(ii) Socialists were against private property, and saw it as the root of all social evils of the time. rather then single individuals controlling property, they wanted that more attention would be paid to collective social interests.

(iii) Socialists had different visions of the future: Robert Owen (1771-1858) a leading English manufacturer, sought to build a cooperative community called New Harmony in Indiana (USA). other socialists, for instance, Louis Blanc(1813-1882) wanted the government to encourage cooperatives and replace capitalist enterprises. these cooperatives were to be associations of people who produced goods together and divided the profits according to the work done by members. Kari Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) added other ideas to this body of arguments.

(d) Support for socialism:

By the 1870’s, socialist ideas spread through Europe. An international body was formed-namely the Second international. Workers in England and Germany began forming associations to fight for better living and working conditions, set up funds to help members in times of distress and demanded a reduction of working hours and the right to vote. In Germany, Social Democratic Party won parliamentary seats. By 1905, socialists and trade unionists foamed a Labor Party in Britain and a Socialist Party in France. Their ideas did shape legislations, but governments continued to be run by conservatives, liberals and radicals.

THE RUSSIANIREMOLOTION

(a) The Russian Empire in 1914:

In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia and its empire. Besides the territory around Moscow, the Russian empire included current-day Finland, Lithuania, and Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine and Belarus. It stretched to the Pacific and comprised today’s Central Asian states, as well as Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. The majority religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity - which had grown out of the Greek Orthodox Church - but the empire also included Catholics, Protestants, Muslims and Buddhists.

(i) Peasants and workers formed most of the Czarist Russia’s population including the Non-Russian nationalities. their condition was miserable.

(ii) Russia was industrially a backward country. The condition of the workers was bad. They were forced to work for long hours on low wages.

(iii) Both the workers and peasants had no meaningful place in the society. they had no political rights. In, contrast the nobility at the top enjoyed all the privileges in the state.

(iv) Corruption was widespread at all levels. the condition of the soldiers was also not satisfactory.

Political Conditions:

(i) The Russian Czars continued to enjoy unlimited powers and were cruel and irresponsible as before. They never cared for the welfare of their people.

(ii) Czar Nicholas II still believed in the old ‘Divine of Kings’.

(iii) People were taxed heaved to maintain armed forces. Only the nobility supported the Czar as all important position in the state were occupied by it. (iv) All right officials were recruited from the upper classes only. They were corrupt and inefficient.

(iv) The Royal family was also corrupt and immoral

(vi) The Russian Czars had built a vast empire by conquering diverse nationalities in Asia and Europe. The Czars forced the people there to adopt the Russian language and culture.

(vii) The Czar’s policy of expansion also brought them in conflict or wars with other major imperialist powers.

Two classes of the Russian Society:

(i) The king, the nobles and the clergy were at the top. this privileged class consisted of just ten percent of the total population. Enjoyed all the benefits and occupied all important jobs or posts.

(ii) The serfs (farmers) who stood at the bottom formed about ninety percent of the Russian population. they led a miserable life. Had to pay heavily for years to own the small holdings they had got.

(c) Socialism in Russia:

George Plekhanov a follower of Kari Marx formed the Russian Social Democratic Party in 1883. Many there socialist groups later joined this organization and were known as the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party in 1898. However the party soon split into two groups over questions of organization and policy. They were known as the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks. Differences between these two groups were as follows:

(i) The minority group, led by Plekhanov, was known as the Mensheviks. they wanted to bring changes through peaceful and constitutional means, favored the parliamentary system of government.

(ii) The minority group consisted of extreme socialists who were called the Bolsheviks. Lenin was their leader.

(d) A Turbulent time: the 1905 Revolution:

Tsar was not subject to parliament. Liberals, Social Democrats and socialist Revolutionaries worked with peasant and workers during the Revolution of 1905 to demand a constitution. They were supported by nationalists and in Muslim - dominated areas by Judasts prices of essential goods rose, 110,000 workers in St. Petersburg went on strike demanding a reduction in the working day to eight hours, an increase in wages and improvement in working conditions.

Bloody Sunday:

On January 9, 1905 a body of peaceful workers led by Father Gapon, with their wives and children was fired at in St. Petersburg. They were on their way to present a petition to the Czar there. Over a thousand of them were killed and many more wounded in the firing. This day came to be known as ‘Bloody Sunday’ as the massacre had taken place on Sunday.

A dress Rehearsal:

The 1905 revolution proved to be a dress rehearsal of the revolution that came in 1917. The incident of Bloody Sunday caused widespread disturbances all over Russia. Strikes took place in many Russian towns. Mutinies or rebellions broke out in the navy and the army. The sailors of the battleship ‘Potemkin’ joined the revolutionaries. The work in trade and industry came to a standstill. Workers in factories, docks and railways also went on a strike. The soldiers and the representatives of the non-Russian nationalities came into close contact with the revolutionaries (Bolsheviks) in the country.

The Czar’s Manifesto:

Forced by the revolution Czar issued a manifesto in October, 1905. He promised to grant freedom of speech, press and assembly. Also promised a constitution and an elected body called the ‘Duma’ to make the laws. The implementations of the proposals given in the manifesto were not implemented effectively and the Czar reversed his decision

Formation of Soviets:

The 1905 revolution gave birth to a new form of organization, called the ‘Soviet’. It was the council of workers representatives to conduct strikes, but soon it became the instruments of political power. Soviets played a decisive role, particularity in the 1917 October Revolution.

The Tsar dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and the re-elected second Duma within three months. He changed the voting laws and packed the third Duma with conservative politicians. Liberals and revolutionaries were kept out.

(e) The First World War and the Russian Empire:

In Russia, the war was initially popular and people rallied around Tsar Nicholas II. Later Tsar refused to consult the main parties in the Duma. The common people’s support also declined. The Tsarina Alexandra’s German origins and poor advisors, especially a monk called Rasputin, made the autocracy unpopular. Though Russia gained initial success in the war but later lost badly in Germany and Austria between 1914 and 1916. The situation discredited the government and the tsar. Soldiers did not wish to fight such a war. Industries suffered a setback, Railway lines began to break down. As most of the men were fighting on the front, there were labor shortages. Large supplies off grain were sent to feed the army. By the winter of 1916, riots at bread shops were common.

THE FEBRUARY REVOLUTION IN PETROCREAD

In the winter of 1917, conditions in the capital Petrograd were grim. In February 1917, food shortages were deeply felt. On 22 February, a lockout took place at a factory on the right bank of the River Nava. Workers in fifty factories called a strike in sympathy. In many factories, women led the way to strikes. This came to be called the international Women’s day. As the fashionable quarters and official buildings were surrounded by workers, the government imposed a curfew. The government called out the cavalry and police to keep an eye on them. On Sunday, 25 February, the government suspended the Duma .demonstrations returned in force to the streets of the left bank on the $26^{\text {th }}$ On the $27^{\text {th }}$, the Police Headquarters were ransacked. The government tried to control the situation and called out the cavalry, who refused to fire on the demonstrators. By that evening, soldiers and striking workers had gathered to form a ‘soviet’ or ‘council’. This was the Petrograd Soviet. Military commanders advised Tsar to abdicate. He followed their advice and abdicated on 2 March. Soviet leaders and Duma leaders formed a Provisional Govermment to run the country. Petrograd had led the February Revolution the brought down the monarchy in February1917.

(a) After February:

Through the summer the workers movement spread in industrial areas, factory were formed which began questioning the way industrialists run their factories. Trade unions grew in number. Soldiers committees were formed in the army. in June, about 500 Soviets sent representatives to an All Russian Congress of Soviets . As the Provisional Govermment saw its power reduce and Bolshevik influence grew, it decided to stern measures against the spreading discontent. It resisted attempts by workers to run factories and began arresting leaders. Popular demonstrations staged by the Bolsheviks in July 1917 were seemly repressed. Many Bolsheviks leaders had to go into hiding or flee. Meanwhile in the countryside, peasants and their Socialist revolutionary leaders pressed for a redistribution of land. Land committees were formed to handle this. Encouraged by the Socialist Revolutionaries, peasants seized land between July and September 1917.

Contribution of Lenin in the Russian revolution:

Valdimir iliyanov population knows as Lenin is regarded as one of the socialist revolutionist after Marx and Angels. His name has become inseparable from the revolution of 1917.

(i) He organized the Bolshevik party as an instrument for brining about revolution.

(ii) He set fort ’the fundamental laws for a successful revolution’.

(iii) Under Lenin’s leadership Bolshevik party put forward clear policies to end the war and transfer land to the peasants and advance the slogan “All power to the soviets”.

(iv) Lenin proclaimed the right of all people including those under Russian empire, to self determination.

(v) Under the able leadership of Lenin Russia and other soviets were united into USSR and it emerged as a super power.

Lenin’s “Fundamental Law for a successful revolution:

(i) The people should fully understand that revolution is necessary and be ready to sacrifice their lives for it.

(ii) Existing government should be in a state of crisis to make it possible for to be overthrown rapidly.

The four fold demand of the Russian Revolutionaries

(i) Land to the tiller. Land of the nobles, Church and the Czar was to be taken over and transferred to the peasant families for distribution.

(ii) Control of industry was to be handed over to the workers or workers soviets.

(iii) Peace for all, in particular to soldiers who were suffering heavy losses on the front.

(iv) Equal status was to be granted to all non-Russian nationalities living in the Russian territories.

(b) The Revolution of October 1917:

Lenin feared the Provisional government would set up a dictatorship. He began discussion for an uprising against the government. On 16 October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. A Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by the Soviet under Leon Trotsky to organize the seizure. The uprising began on 24 October. Military men loyal on the government seized the buildings of two Bolshevik newspaper Military Revolutionary Committee order its supporters to size government offices and arrest ministers. The ship Aurora shelled the Winter Place. The city was taken under control committee’s control and the ministers surrendered. At a meeting of the All Russian Congress of soviets in Petrograd, the majority approved the Bolshevik action. Uprising took place in other cities.

WHAT CHANGED AFTER OCTOBER?

Congress of the soviets met on the day after the October Revolution and issued a proclamation.

(i) It appe4aled all peoples and states participating in the war to open negotiations for a just peace. it opposed annexation and paying for war damages.

(ii) Russia withdrew form the war. Signed a peace treaty with Germany, it surrendered all its territories which it had acquired since the time of Peter the Great.

(iii) As a result of the decree on land, the estates of the Czar, the Church and the landlords were taken over and transferred to the soviets of the peasants.

(iv) The control of industries was passed over to shop committees or soviets of workers.

(v) banks/insurances, large industries, mines, water transport and railways were nationalized by 1918.

(vi) The new government disowned the foreign debts. it also took possession of foreign investments without payment.

(vii) A declaration of the ‘Rights of People’ was also issued. it gave the right to self-determination to all nonRussian nationalities living within Russian territories.

(viii) The new revolutionary government that came into being was called the Council of People’s Commissars. it was headed by Lenin. Its first act marked the beginning of the ear of socialism in Russia. It later spread to many other countries.

(a) Civil War (1917 - 20):

(i) The autocratic rule of the Czar had ended, but the forces opposing the Russian Revolution had not been completely destroyed. the officers of the fallen Czar’s army organized and revolt against the new government . The nobility, landlords and the Church also supported them in their efforts to capture power once again.

(ii) The imperialist force of the Western powers were determined to overthrow or destroy the world’s first socialist government.

(iii) These countries supported the counter-revolutionary forces and even sent their troops to join them.

(iv) The three year old civil war ended in 1920 with the defeat of the counter-revolutionary forces at the hands of the Red Army of the new state. This army mainly consisted of peasants and workers and was badly equipped. But it succeeded in defeating the far better trained foreign troops.

(b) Making a Socialist Society:

Bolsheviks kept Indus trice and banks nationalized, permitted peasants to cultivate the land that had been socialized. A process of Centralised planning was introduced. Centralized planning led to economic growth.

However, rapid construction lad to poor working conditions. An extended schooling system developed, and arrangements were made for factory workers and personates to enter universities. Cheap public health care were provided. Modal living quarters were set up for workers.

(c) Stalinism and Collectivization:

By 1927-28, the towns in Soviet Russia were facing an acute problem of grain supplies . stain believed that the rich person and traders in the countryside were holding stocks in the hope of higher prices. Raids were made on ‘Kulaks’ -the well -to -do peasants. as shortages continued, the decision was taken to collectivise farms. From 1929 the party forced all forced all peasants to cultivate in collective forms (kolkhoz). The bulk of land and implements were transferred to the ownership of collective farms. Those who resisted collectivization were severely punished . many inside the party critised the confusion in industrial production under the Planned Economy and the consequences of collectivization, but were charged with conspiracy against socialism. a large number were forced to make false confessions under torture and were executed, several among them were talented professionals.

(d) Consequence of the Russian Revolution on Russia:

The immediate consequence of the Russian Revolution were as follows:

(i) The autocratic rule of the Czar ended for ever. the revolution destroyed the power of both aristocracy and the church.

(ii) Russia became the world’s first socialist society. The Czarist Empire changed into a new state called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or the Soviet Union.

(iii) It withdrew from the First World War.

(iv) The new government signed a peace treaty with Germany. it concede the territories demanded by its old enemy as a price for peace.

(v) In order to establish peace, law and order in the new society, Lenin was forced to adopt some drastic measures. these steps were taken under a policy called ‘War Communism’.

(vi) It was during this period (1917-20) that a large scale nationalization of various enterises, as described under the proclamation of the Congress of Soviets, took place.

THE GLOBAL NELUENCE THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND THE USSR

The possibility of a worker’s state, fired people’s imagination across the world. In many countries, communist parties were formed-like the Communist Party of Great Britain. The Bolsheviks encouraged colonial peoples to follow their expereriment. Many non-Russians from outside the USSR participated in the conference of the peoples of the East (1920) and the Bolsheviks socialist parties). Some received education in the USSR’s Communists University of the Workers of the East. By the time of the outbre4ck of the Second World War, the USSR had given socialism a global face and world stature. The Bolshevik Revolution contributed greatly to the liquidation of imperialism. The Bolshevik government granted freedom to all its colonies immediately after coming to power. The new Soviet Union came forward as a friend of the subjugated people and proved to be a source of great inspiration to the freedom movements of various Asian and African countries.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP- 2.1

1 The Russian revolution which affected the course of world history broke out in -

(A) 1915

(B) 1917

(D) 1920

2 In 1883 the Russian Social Democratic Party was formed by-

(A) Kari Marx

(B) Engels

(D) George Plekhanov

3 The Russian Revolution broke out during of -

(A) Peter

(B) Fredrick

(D) Tsar Nicholas II

4 One of the greatest thinks of the Socialist movement, and the leader of the Bolsheviks was -

(A) Kari Marx

(B) Engels

(D) George Plekhanov

5 a new form or organization developed in the 1905 Revolution was called -

(A) Trade Union

(B) Triple Alliance

(D) Mensheviks

6 Rasputin was -

(A) Popularly called the ‘holy devil’ (C) a friend of the Tsar

(B) a minister of the Tsar’s cabinet

(D) an advisor to the Tsar

7 After the fall of the Tsar Nicholas II provisional government was established under the leadership of -

(A) Lenin

(B) Stalin

(D) Mayakovsky

8 The Russian Parliament under the Tsars was called -

(A) Congress

(B) Duma

(D) Nassat

SUBJECTIVE DPP -2.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1 Socialist ware against private property, and saw it as the root of all social evils of the time. why?

2 What was Second international?

3 Describe the Bloody Sunday.

4 Describe the immediate cause of the Russian Revolution of 1905.

Short Answer Type Questions:

5 How did the Revolution of 1905 prove to be a dress rehearsal for the 1917 Revolution?

6 Examine the role of Lenin in Russian Revolution.

7 Write a few lines to describe the women workers is Russia.

8 Why the Tsar Nicholas II of Russia unpopular? Give two reasons?

9 Differentiate between the two classes into which the Russian society was divided in the $19^{\text {th }}$ century.

10 Which event in the Russian history is known as ‘Bloody Sunday’?

11 Describe two reforms introduced by the Russian Tsar Nicholas II after the 1905 Revolution.

12 What new form of organization developed in the 1905 revolution? What role did it play as an instrument? of power in future?

13 What wrong decision of Tsar Nicholas II finally ends the power of the Russian autocracy?

14 What two conditions according to Lenin were necessary to make the Russian Revolution a success?

15 Write two basic demands of the Russian Revolution in 1917.

16 What were the causes of the failure of the interim government formed (in 1917) under the leadership of Kerensky? Mention any two.

17 Why did Russian withdraw form the First World War?

Long Answer Type Questions:

18 What were the affects of the October Revolution?

19 Discuss the impact of the Russian Revolution on the world.

20 Describe the social and economic conditions of Russia before the Revolution of 1917.

21 In what ways the working population in Russia different from other countries in Europe, before 1917?

22 Name the political parties of Russia that represented the industrial workers. How did they differ in their policies?

23 Give an account of the rise of socialism in Europe.

24 Discuss the developments between 1905 and 1916 that led to the Russian Revolution of 1917.

25 Describe four major demands of the Russian revolutions before the October Revolution of 1917.

26 Describe the immediate consequence of the October Revolution on Russia’s participation in the First World War, the ownership of land, and position of the non-Russian nationalities of the Russian empire.

27 Describe the immediate consequences of the Russian Revolution (1917) on Russia.

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 2.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
Ans	B	D	D	C	C	A	C	B

NAZISM AND THE RISE OF HITLER

SL - 03 (H)

In the First World War which continued for nearly four long years, Germany suffered defeat. Germany was forced to sign the treaty of Versailles and Germany became a Republic. Hitler stirred up the emotions of the Germans by condemning the treaty of Versailles. Hitler becomes the Chancellor of Germany in 1933 and President in 1934. He cancelled the civil liberties, abolished the frees and radio and controlled all educational institutions. He tortured and executed millions of Jews in Germany. Hitless was determined to make Germany a might power and conquer all of Europe. With surprising rapidity Germany rose from ashes. German forces attacked Poland on 1 September 1939. Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September in order to protect Poland. World War II began in September 1993. Germany was defeated in this war. Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered to the Allies in May 1945.

BIRTH OF THE WEIMER REPUBLIC

The defeat of imperial Germany and the abdication of the emperor gave an opportunity to parliamentary parties to recast German polity. a national Assembly met at Weimer and established a democratic constitution with a federal structure. Deputies were now elected to the German Parliament or Reichstag. On the basis of equal and universal votes cast by all adults including woman. This republic, however, was not received well by its own people largely because of the terms it was forced to accept after Germany’s defeat at the end of the First World War.

(a) Treaty of Versailles:

Germany signed a peace treaty with the Allies at Versailles according to which -

(i) Germany lost its overseas colonies, a tenth of its population, 13 percent of its territories, 75 present of its iron and 26 percent of its coal to France, Poland, Denmark and Lithuania.

(ii) The Allied Powers demilitarized Germany to w taken its power.

(iii) The War Guilt clause held Germany responsible for the war damages the Allied countries suffered. Germany was forced to pay compensation amounting to 6 billion pound.

(iv) The Allied armies also occupied the occupied the resource-rich Rhineland for much of the 1920s.

(b) The Effects of the War:

The war had a devastating impact on the entire continent both psychologically and financially. From a continent of creditors, Europe turned into one of debtors. The Weimer republic carried the burden of war guilt and national humiliation and was financially crippled by being forced to pay compensation.

The First World War left a deep imprint on European society and polity. Soldiers came to be placed above civilians. Politicians and publicists laid great stress on the need for men to be aggressive, strong and masculine. However soldiers lived miserable lives in trenches, trapped with rate feeding on corpses. They faced poisonous gas and enemy shelling, and witnessed their ranks reduce rapidly. Democracy was indeed a young and fragile idea, which could not survive the instabilities of inte4rwar Europe.

(c) Political Radicalism and Economic Crises:

(i) Soviets of workers and sailors were established in many cities. The political atmosphere in Berlin was charge with demands for Soviet-style conveyance. Those opposed to this-such as the socialists, Democrats and Catholics - met in Weimar to give shape to the democratic republic. The Weimar Republic crushed the uprising with the help of a war veteran’s organization called Free Crops.

The anguished Spartacists later founded the Communist Party of Germany. Communists and Socialists henceforth became irreconcilable enemies and could not make common cause against Hitler. Both revolutionaries and militant nationalists craved for radical solutions.

(ii) Germany had fought the war largely on loans and had to pay reparations in Gold. In 1923 Germany refused to pay, and the French occupied its leading industrial area, Ruhr, to claim their coal. Germany retaliated with passive resistance and printed paper currency recklessly. With too much printed money in circulation, the value of the German mark fell. As the value of the mark collapsed, prices of goods soared. This crisis came to be known as hyperinflation, a situation when prices rise phenomenally high.

(d) The years of depression:

German investments and industrial recovery were totally dependent on short tern loans, largely from the USA. On one singly day, 24 October, 13 million shares were sold in Wall Street Exchange. This was the start the Great Economic Depression. The German economy was the worst hit by the economic crisis. Workers lost their jobs or were paid reduced wages. As jobs disappeared, the youth took to criminal activities and total despair became a commonplace. The economic crisis created deep anxieties and fears in people. The currency lost its value. Sections of society were filled with the fear of proletarianisation, an anxiety of being reduced to the ranks of the working class, or worse still, the unemployed. The large mass of peasantry was affected by a sharp fall in agricultural prices and women, unable to fill their children’s stomachs, were filled with a sense of deep despair. Politically too the Weimer Republic was fragile. The Weimer constitution had some inherent defects, which made it unstable and vulnerable to dictatorship. Proportional representation and Article 48 were its major shortcomings. People lost confidence in the democratic parliamentary system, which seemed to offer no solutions.

HITLER’S RISE TO POWER

(i) Born in Austria in 1889, Hitler spent his youth in poverty. During the First World War, he enrolled in the German army, acted as a messenger at the front, became a corporal and earned medals for bravery.

(ii) In 1919, he joined a small group called the German Workers Party; subsequently took control of this party, renamed it as the National Socialist German Workers Party. This party came to be known as the Nazi Party. In 1923, Hitler planned to seize control of Bavaria, march to Berlin and capture power. He failed, was arrested and tried for treason, and later released. The Nazis could not effectively mobilize popular support till the early 1930s. It was during the Great Depression that Nazism became a mass movement. In 1928, the Nazi Party got no more then 2.6 percent votes in the Reichstag - the German parliament. By 1932, the Nazi Party had become the largest party with 37 percent votes.

(iii) Hitler was a powerful speaker. His passion and his words moved people. He promised them a strong nation, employment, secure future for the youth and to restore the dignity of the German people. He devised a new style of politics. Nazis held massive rallies and public meetings to demonstrate the support for Hitler and instill a sense of unity among the people.

(iv) Nazi propaganda skillfully projected Hitler as a messiah, a saviour, as someone who had arrived to deliver people from their distress. it is an image that captured the imagination of a people whose sense of dignity and pride had been shattered, and who were living in a time of act economic and political crises.

(a) The Destruction of Democracy:

On 30 January 1933, President Hindenburg offered the chancellorship, the highest position in the cabinet of ministers, to Hitler. A mysterious first that broke out in the German Parliament building in February facilitated his move to dismantle the structures of democratic rule. The Fire Decree of February 1933 indefinitely suspended civic rights like freedom of speech, press and assembly that had been guaranteed by the Weimer constitution. The Communists were hurriedly packed off to the newly established concentration camps. On 3 marches 1933, the famous Enabling Act was passed, which established dictatorship in Germany. It gave Hitler all powers to sideline Parliament and rule by decree. All political parties and trade union were banned except for the Nazi Party and its affiliates. special surveillance and security forces like, Gestapo (secret state police), the SS (the sotection squads), criminal police and the Security Service (SD) were created to control and order society in ways that the Nazis wanted. The police forces acquired powers to rule with impunity.

(b) Reconstruction:

(i) Hitler assigned the responsibility of economist Hjalmar Schacht who aimed at full production and full employment through a state-funded work-creation programme.

(ii) In foreign policy also Hitler acquired quick successes. He pulled out of the League of Nations in 1933, reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936, and integrated Austria and Germany in 1938 under the slogan, one people, One empire, and One leader. He then went on to wrest German-speaking Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia, and gobbled, and gobbled up the entire country.

(iii) Hitler chose war as the way out of the approaching economic crisis. In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. This started a war with France and England. In September 1940, a Tripartite Pact was signed between Germany, Italy and Japan, strengthening Hitler’s claim to international power. By the end of 1940, Hitler was at the pinnacle of his power.

(iv) Hitler wanted to ensure food supplies and living space for Germans. He attacked the Sovie Union in June 1914. The Soviet Red Army inflicted a crushing and humiliating defeat on Germany at Stalingrad. When Japan extended its support to Hitler and bombed the US base at Pearl Harbor, the US entered the Second World War. The war ended in may 1945 with Hitler’s defeat and the US dropping of the atom bomb on Hiroshima in Japan.

THE NAZI WORLDVIEW

Nazi ideology was synonymous with Hitler’s worldview. According to this there was no equality between people, but only a racial hierarchy. Hitler’s racism borrowed from thinkers like Canes Darwin and Herbert Spencer. Darwin explained the creation of plants and animals through the concept of evolution and natural selection. Herbert Spencer later added the idea of survival of the fittest. The Nazi argument was simple: the strongest race would survive and the weak ones would perish. The Aryan race was the finest. It had to retain its purity, become stronger and dominate the world. The Hitler’s ideology related to the geopolitical concept of Lebensraum, or living space. He believed that new territories had to be acquired for settlement. Hitler intended to extend German boundaries by moving eastwards, to concentrate all Germans geographically in one place. Poland became the laboratory for this experimentation.

(A) Establishment of the Racial State:

Nazis wanted only a society of pure and healthy Nordic Aryans’. They alone were considered ‘desirable’. Only they were seen as worthy of prospering and multiplying against all others who were classed as ‘undesirable’. Under the Euthanasia Programme, Nazi officials had condemned to death many Germans who were considered mentally or physically unfit. Jews were not the only community classified as ‘undesirable’. Many Gypsies and blacks living in Nazi Germany were considered as racial ‘inferiors; Russians and Poles were considered subhuman, and hence undeserving of any humanity. Nazi hatred of Jews had a precursor in the traditional Christian hostility towards Jews. They had been stereotyped as killers of Christ and usurers (moneylenders charging excessive interest). Hitler’s hatred of Jews was based on pseudoscientific theories of race, which held that conversion was no solution to ’the Jewish problem’. It could be solved only thought their total elimination.

(b) The Racial Utopia:

Occupied Poland was divided up. Poles were forced to leaves their homes and properties behind to be occupied by ethnic Germans brought in from occupied Europe. Poles were herded like cattle in the other part called the General Government, the destination of all ‘undesirables’ of the empire. Polish children who looked like Aryans were forcibly snatched and examined by ‘race experts’. If they passed the race tests they were raised in German families and if not, they were deposited in orphanages where most perished. With some of the largest ghettos and gas chambers, the General Government also served as the killing fields for the Jews.

YOUTH IN NAZI CERMANY

(i) Hitler was fanatically interested in the youth of the country. The schools under Nazism were ‘cleansed’ and ‘purified’. Teachers who were Jews or seen as ‘politically unreliable ‘were dismissed. Germans and Jews could not sit together or play together. ‘Unreliable children ‘- Jews the physically handicapped. Gypsies - were thrown out of schools. And finally in the 1940 ’s they were taken to the gas chambers.

(ii) ‘Good German’ children were subjected to a process of Nazi Schooling. School textbooks were rewritten. Racial science was introduced to justify Nazi ideas of race. Children were taught to be loyal and submissive, hate Jews, and worship Hitler. Hitler belived that boxing could make children iron hearted, strong and masculine.

(iii) Youth organizations were made responsible for educating German youth in ’the spirit of National socialism’. Ten-year-olds had to enter Jungvolk. At 14, all boys had to join the Nazi youth organizations Hitler youth. After a period of rigorous ideological and physical training they joined the Labor services, usually at the age of 18 . Then they had to serve in the armed forces and enter one of the Nazi organizations.

(iv) The youth League of the Nazis was founded in 1922. four years later it was renamed Hitler youth. All other youth organizations were systematically dissolved and finally banned.

(a) The Nazi Cult of Motherhood:

(i) Children in Nazi Germany were repeatedly told that women were radically different from men. The fight equal rights for men and women was wrong and it would destroy society. girls were told that they had to become good mothers and rear pure-blooded Aryan children. Girls had to maintain the purity of the race, distance themselves from Jews, look after the home, and teach their children Nazi values. they had to be the bearers of the Aryan culture and race.

(ii) women who bore racially undesirable children were punished and those who produced racially desirable children were awarded . To encourage women to produce many children, Honour Crosses were awarded. A bronze cross was given for four children, silver for six and gold for eight or more. all ‘Aryan ’ women who deviated from the prescribed code of conduct were publicly condemned and severely punished, were paraded though the town with shaved heads, blackened faces and placards hanging around their necks announcing ‘I have sullied the honour of the nation’. Many received jail sentences and lost civic honour as well as their husbands and families for this ‘criminal offence’.

(b) The Nazi regime used language and media with care, and often to great effect, the terms they confined to describe their various practices are not only deceptive. They are chilling. Mass killing were termed special treatment, final solution (for the Jews), euthanasia (for the disabled) selection and disinfections. Gas chambers were labeled ‘disinfection-area’. Media was carefully used to win support for the regime and popularize its worldview. The most infamous film was The Etemal Jew. Orthodox Jews were stereotyped and marked. They were referred to as vermin, rats and pests. Their movements were to those of rodents. Nazism worked on the minds of the people, tapped their emotions, and turned their hatred and anger at those marked as ‘undesirable’.

ORDINARY PEOPLE AND THE CRIMES ACANTNS HUMANITY

Many saw the world through Nazi eyes, and spoke their mind in Nazi language. They felt hatred and anger surge inside, marked the houses of Jews and reported suspicious neighbors, belived Nazism would bring prosperity and improved general well-being. The large majority of Germans, however, were passive onlookers and apathetic witnesses. They were too scared to act, to differ, to protest. Pastor Niemoeller, a resistance fighter, observed an absence of protest, an uncanny silence, amongst ordinary Germans in the face of brutal and organized crimes committed people in the Nazi empire. Charitte Beradt secretly recorded people’s dreams in her diary and later published them in a highly disconcerting book called the Third Reich of Dreams. The stereotypical image publicized in the Nazi press haunted the Jews. They troubled them even in their dreams. Jew died many deaths even before they reached the gas chamber.

Exercise

Objective DPP- 3.1

1 After the abdication of William Kaiser II, what kind of government was established in Germany?

(A) Autocratic Government

(B) Republican Government

(D) Capitalist Government

2 which of the following was the political party led by Adolf Hitler?

(A) The German Democratic Party

(B) People German Socialist Party

(D) Federal German Republic Party

3 Adolph Hitler was born on -

(A) 1887

(B) 1888

(D) 1890

4 By 1932, Nazy Party had become the largest party in the Reichstag with votes.

(A) 26 per scent

(B) 30 per scent

(D) 37 per scent

5 Hitler was a bitter enemy of:

(A) Democracy

(B) Dictatorship

(D) Racism

6 The Weimer Republic in Germany was formed after the:

(A) Battle of Water Loo

(B) Death of Bismark

(D) Break of the Second World War

7 assigned the responsibility of economic recovery to the economist Hjalmar Schacht.

(A) Anton Drackser

(B) Adolf Hitler

(D) Kaiser William II

8 Hitler was imprisoned in 1923 for a term of:

(A) Seven years

(B) six years

(D) Ten years

9 The German parliament was known as:

(A) Diet

(B) Duma

(D) Reichstag

10 The peace treaty of Versailles contained proposals for Germany:

(A) Very beneficial

(B) Encouraging

(D) Contradictory

11 Which of the following areas of coal mines of Germany were occupied by France on account of non- payment of war indemnities?

(A) Ruhr

(B) Nuremberg

(D) Leipzieg

12 Hitler’s hatred of Jews was based on theories of race.

(A) Lebensraum

(B) Pseudoscientific

(D) Special treatment

13 Killing on large scale leading to destruction of large section of people in Germany was termed as:

(A) Special treatment

(B) Final solution

(D) All of the above

14 Hitler reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936, and integrated Austria and Germany in 1938 under the slogan:

(A) One party, one power

(B) One leader one state

(D) One nation, one government

15 Many blacks living in Germany and considered as inferiors by Nazi were called:

(A) Gypsies

(B) Black Aryans

(D) Nordic Germans

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 3.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1 Mention two steps taken by the Weimar Republic in 1923 to acquire political stability in Germany.

2 Who was Adolf Hitler? What was the main reason for his popularity?

3 What is referred to as the ‘Great Depression’?

4 Why did Germany attack Poland? What were its consequences?

5 Why did Germany attack the Soviet Union?

6 When did the Second World War end in Europe?

Short Answer Type Questions:

7 Explain any two problems face by the Weimer Republic from the very beginning.

8 Explain the major consequences of the War on Germany on the light of the Treaty of Versailles.

9 Explain the major causes of the Great Economic Depression in USA in 1929.

10 What is hyperinflation?

11 Discuss why Nazism became popular in Germany by 1930.

12 What was the effect of Nazism on Germany?

13 What were the inherent defects of the Weimer Constitution?

14 What was the new style of politics devised by Hitler?

15 What were the provisions of the enabling Laws?

16 How did the common people react to Nazism? What are the peculiar features of Nazi thinking?

Long Answer Type Questions:

17 Explain by Nazi propaganda was effective in creating a hatred for Jews?

18 Were the Jews the only section of society which earned the displeasure of the Nazi Party?

19 Explain what role women had in Nazi society. Compare the role of women in this period to that of women in the French Revolution.

20 In what ways did the Nazi state seek to establish total control over the people?

21 How did the Nazi seek to implement a pure German racial state?

22 Give an account of the rise of Hitler.

23 Trace the events that led to the surrender of Germany in 1945.

24 Describe the main provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 3.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	1	15
Ans	A	C	B	D	A	C	B	C	D	C	A	B	C	C	C

$»$ FOREST SOCIETY AND COLONIALIM $«$

SL - 04 (H)

ADVANTAGES OF FOREST

(i) Play a major role in improving the quality of environment, modify the local climate, controls soil erosion, regulate stream flow, support a variety of industries, provide livelihood for many communities and after opportunities for recreation .

(ii) Forest adds to the floor large quantities of leaves, twigs and branches which after decomposition forms humus.

(iii) Provided industrial wood, limber, fuel wood, fodder and several other minor products of great economic value.

(iv) They also provide natural environment for wild life, play an important role in maintaining the life support system.

WHY DEFORESTATION?

The disappearance of forest is referred to as deforestation .deforestation is not a recent problem. The process began many centuries ago; but under colonial rule it became more systematic and extensive.

(a) Land to be improved:

(i) As population increased over the centuries and the demand for food went up, peasants extended the boundaries of cultivation, clearing forests and breaking new land.

(ii) The British directly encouraged production of commercial crops like jute, sugar, wheat and cotton. the demand for these crops increased in nineteenth-century Europe where foodgrains were needed to feed the growing urban population and raw materials were required for industrial production.

(iii) In the early nineteenth century, the colonial state thought that forests were unproductive. They were considered to be wilderness that had to be brought under cultivation so that the land could yield agricultural products and revenue and enhance the income of the state. so between 1880 and 1920, cultivated area rose by 6.7 million hectares.

(b) Sleepers on the Tracks:

(i) Due to high demand, oak forests in England were disappearing. This created a problem of timber supply for the Royal Navy which required it for building ships. To get the supply of oak for the ship industry British stared exploring Indian forests on a massive scale.

(ii) The spread of railways from the 1850s created a new demand. To run locomotives, wood was needed as fuel. As railway was expanding, the demand for rule also became very high.

(iii) To lay railway lines sleepers were essential to hold the tracks together. Each mile of railway track required between 1760 and 2000 sleepers. to fulfil the demand of sleepers’ tress were felled on massive scale. Up to 1946, the length of the tracks had increased to over $765000 km$. as the railway tracks spread through India, a larger numbers of trees were felled. Forests around the railway tracks started disappearing.

(c) Plantations:

Large areas of natural forests were also cleared to make way for tea, coffee and rubber plantations to meet Europe’s growing need for these commodities. The colonial government took over the forests, and gave vast areas to European planters at cheap at cheap rates. These areas were enclosed and cleared of forests, and planted with tea or coffee.

THE RISE OF COMMERCIAL FORESTARY

In India colonial rulers needed huge supplies of wood for railways and ship. This led to widespread deforestation. The British government got alarmed. The government invite Dietrich Brandis,a German expert on forests, for advice, he was appointed as the First inspector General of Forests in India. Brandis emphasized that rules need be framed about the use of forest wealth. Brandis realized that a proper system had to be introduced to mange the forests and people had to be scienc of conservation. This system needed legal sanction. It was at his initiatives that;

(i) Indian Forest Service was set up in 1864.

(ii) Indian Forest Act was enacted in 1865

(iii) Imperial Forest Research institute was set up in 1906. The system they taught here was called ‘scientific forestry’.

The 1878 Act divided forests into three categories: reserved, protected and village forests. The best forests were called ‘reserved forestry’. Villagers could not take anything from these forests, even for their own use. For house building or fuel, they could take wood from protected or village forests.

(a) How were the Lives of People Affected?

The Forest Act meant severs hardship for villagers across the country. After the Act all their everyday practice cutting wood for their houses, grazing their cattle, collecting fruits and roots, hunting and fishing $n$ - became illegal. People were now forced to steal wood from the forests, and if they were caught, they were at the mercy of the forest guards who would take bribes from them. Women who collected fuel wood were especially worried. It was also common for police constables and forest guards to harass people by demanding free food from them.

(b) How did Forest Rules Affect Cultivation?

One of the major impacts of European colonialism was off the practice of shifting cultivation or swidden agriculture. Shifting cultivation as a system of agriculture has the following features:

(i) Parts of forests are cut and burnt in rotation

(ii) Seeds are sown in the ashes sifter the first monsoon rains.

(iii) Crop is harvested by October-November.

(iv) Such plots are cultivated for a couple of years and then left-fallow for 12 to 18 years for the forest to grow back. Shifting cultivation has been practiced in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America. In India, it is known by different names, such as dhya, panda, bewar, nevad, jhum, podu, khandad and kumri

The colonial government banned this practice of shifting cultivation. They felt that land which was used for cultivation every few years could not grow trees for railway timber. When a forest was burnt, there was the added danger of the flames spreading and burning valuable timber. Shifting cultivation also made it harder for the government to calculate taxes .therefore, the government decided to ban shifting

(c) Who could Hunt?

(i) Before the forest laws, many people who lived in or near forest had survived by deer, partridges and a variety of small animals. This customary practice was prohibited by the forest laws. Those who were caught hunting were now punished for poaching.

(ii) While the forest laws deprived people of their customary right to hunt, hunting of big game became a sport. Under colonial rule the scale of hunting increased to such an extent that various species became almost extinct. The British saw large animals as signs of a wild, primitive and savage society. They believed that by killing dangerous animals the British would cavil India. They gave rewards for killing big animals on the grounds that they pose a threat to cultivators. Initially certain areas of frosts were reserved for hunting. Only much later did environmentalists and conservators begin to argue that all these species of animals needed to be protected, and not killed.

(d) Affects of the new forest laws on nomadic and pastoralist communities:

Nomadic and pastoral communities do not maintain a permanent place of residence. they own a herd of cattle and keep moving from one place to another in search of food and shelter for thernselves and for themselves and for their cattle wealth. Under colonial rule, the life of these communities changed dramatically.

(i) Their grazing grounds shrank.

(ii) Their movements were regulated.

(iii) The revenue they had to pay increased.

(iv) Their agricultural stock declined

(v) Their trades and crafts were adversely affected.

(e) Affects of the new forest taws on firms training in timber/forest produce:

(i) The new forest policy of the British ruined the prospects of several firms trading in tiber and forest produce.

(ii) Through various laws, many restrictions were imposed on th local firms.

(iii) With the coming of the Brites, tread was completely regulated by the govermment. the trading rights were given to many large European firms.

(iv) The local people of the firms which were the real owner of the forests were forced to work for large European traders and firms

(f) Affects of the new forest laws on Plantation owners:

(i) Large areas of forests were cleared to make way for tea, coffee and rubber plantation.

(ii) Most of the plantation estates were owned by the European traders.

(iii) These European traders started making huge profit.

(iv) The Indian traders and plantation workers were left at the mercy of the European plantation owner.

(g) Impact a various Forests Laws on the Colonial People:

(i) Various restrictions: The forest act meant severe hardships for villagers across the country. After the act, all their forest activates like cutting wood for their houses, grazing their cattle, collecting fruits and roots, hunting and fishing became illegal.

(ii) Impact on cultivators shifting cultivation was the most common cultivation practiced by the people, But this was banned because European foresters regarded this’d harmful for the forests.

(iii) Displacement of the people. To protect the forests, the Europeans started displacing villagers without any notice or compensation.

(iv) Various taxes. The Europeans started imposing heavy taxes on the forest people.

(v) Loss of livelihood: the European started giving large European trading firms the sole rights to trade in the forests. Grazing and hunting by local people were restricted in the process, many pastoralists and nomadic communities lost their livelihood.

REBELLION IN THE FOREST

In many parts of the India, and across the world, forest communities rebelled against the changes that were being imposed on them. The leaders of these movements against the British like Sidhu and Kanu in the Santhat Santinal Pargans, Birs Munda of Chottanagur or Alluri Sitaram Raju of Andhra Pradesh are still remembered today in songs and stories.

(a) The People of Bastar:

Bastar is located in the southernmost of Chhattisgarh and borders of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Maharashtra. A number of different communities live in Bastar such as Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras and Halbas . The tribal people had formulated strict rules and regulations about how to manage and use the forests. They believed that each village was given its land by the earth , and in return, they look after the earth by making some offerings at each agricultural festival. Since each village knows where is boundaries lie, the local people look after all the natural resources within that boundary. It people from a village want to take some wood from the forests of another village, they pay a small fee called Devsari, dand or man in exchange. Some villages also protected their forests by engaging watchmen .

(b) The Fears of the People:

(i) In 1905 British Government proposed to reserve two-third of the forests, to stop shifting cultivatation, hunting and collection of forest produce, the people of Bastar were very worried. For long, villagers had been suffering from increased land rents and frequent demands for free labor and goods by colonial officials. Then came the terrible famines, in 1899-1900 and again in 1907-1908. Reservations proved to be the last straw.

(ii) The initiative was taken by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest, where reservation first took place. Although there was no single leader, many people speak of Gunda Dhur, from village Nethanar, as an important figure in the movement in 1910, mango boughs, a lump of earth, chilies and \tos, began or culating between villages. These were actually messages inviting villagers to rebel against the British. Every village contributed something to the rebellion expenses. Bazaars were looted, the houses of officials and traders, schools and police station were burnt and robbed, and grain redistributed. Most of those who were attacked were in some way associated with the colonial state and its oppressive laws.

(iii) The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion. The adivasi leaders tried to negotiate, but the British surrounded their camps and fired upon them. After that they marched through the villages flogging and punishing those who had taken part in the rebellion. Most villages were deserted as people fied into the jungles. It took three months for the British to regain control. However, they never managed to capture Gunda Dhur.

(iv) In an major victory for the rebels, work on reservation was temporarily suspended, and the area to be reserved was reduced to roughly half of that planned before 1910. The revolt also inspired the other tribal people to rebel against the unjust policies of the British Government.

FOREST TRANSFORMATION IN JAVA

Java in Indonesia is where the Dutch started forest management. Like the British, they wanted timber from Java to build ships .in 1600 the population of Java was an estimated 3.4 million. There were many villages in the fertile plains, but there were also many communities living in the mountains and practicing shifting cultivation.

(a) The Woodcutters of Java:

The Kalangs of Java were a community of skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators. When the Dutch began to gain control over the forests in the eighteenth century, they tried to make the Kalangs work under them. In 1770, the Kalangs resisted by attacking a Dutch fort at Joana, but the uprising was suppressed.

(b) Dutch Scientific Forestry:

The Dutch enacted forest laws in Java, restricting villagers access to forests. Now Wood could only be cut for specified purposes only from specific forests under close supervision. Villagers were punished for grazing cattle in young stands, transporting wood without a permit, or traveling on forest roads with horse carts or cattle. The Dutch first imposed rents on land being cultivated in the forest and then exempted some villages from the rent on land if they worked collectively to provide free labor and buffaloes for cutting and transporting timber. This was known as the Blandongdiensten. Later, instead of rent exemption, forest villagers were given small wages, but their right to cultivate forest land was restricted.

(c) Samin’s Challenge:

Around 1890, Surontiko Samin of Randublatung village, a teak forest village, began questioning state ownership of the forest. he argued that the state had not created the wind, earth and wood, so it could not own it Soon a widespread movement developed. Amongst those who helped organise it were Samin’s sonsin-laws. By 1907, 3000 families were following his ideas. Some of the Saminists protested by lying down on their land when the Dutch came to survey it, while others refused to pay taxes or fines or perform labor.

(d) War and Deforestation:

(i) The First World War and the Second Word War had a major impact on forests. in India, working plans were abandoned at this time, and the forest department cut trees freely to meet British war needs. (ii) In Java, the Dutch destroyed sawmills and burnt piles of giant teak logs so that they would not fall into Japanese hands. The Japanese then exploited the forests recklessly for their own war industries, forcing forest villagers to cut down forests.

(iii) Many villagers used this opportunity to expand cultivation in the forest. After the war, it was difficult for the Indonesian Forest Service to get this land back.

(e) New Developments in Forestry:

(i) Conservation of forests rather then collecting timber has become a more important goal. The government has recognised that in order to meet this goal, the people who live near the forests must be involved.

(ii) in many cases, across India, from Mizoram to Kerala,dense frosts have survived only because villages protected them in sacred grooves known as samas, devarakudu, kan, rai, etc. some villages have been patrolling their own forests, with each household taking it in turns, instead of leaving it to the forest guards.

(iii) Local forest communities and environmentalists today are thinking of different forms of forest management.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP- 4.1

1 In 1600, approximately one-sixth of was under cultivation.

(A) Asia’s landmass

(B) India’s landmass

(D) Britain

2 By the search parties were sent to explore the forest resources of India.

(A) $1790 S$

(B) 1800

(D) $1820 S$

3 Which German expert was invited in India by the British for advice and was wade the first inspector General of Forests in India?

(A) Tuscany

(B) Dietrich Brandis

(D) George Yule

4 In this type of cultivation parts of the forest are cut and burnt in rotation. Seeds are sown in the ashes after the first monsoon rains, and the crop is harvested by October-November.

(A) Shifting cultivation

(B) Commercial cultivation

(D) None of the above

5 The American-owned limited fruit company acquired much power over the government of Central America to draw which of the following fruits:

(A) Banarias

(B) Grapes

(D) Cherry

6 Singhum forests are located in:

(A) Himalayas

(B) Chhotanagpur

(D) Andhra Pradesh

7 As early as in 1850 in the Madras Presidency alone were being cut annually for railway sleepers:

(A) 40,000 trees

(B) 20,000 trees

(D) 35,000 trees

8 What was the name of the railways constructed between Sultan and Sukkur during British time?

(A) Sutiuj Valley railway

(B) North West railway

(D) Punjab Railway

9 The 1878 Act divided forests into:

(A) Four categories

(B) Two categories

(D) Five categories

10 Which of the following is used for making ropes?

(A) Simur

(B) Mahua

(D) All the above Cherry

11 Oil for cooking and to light lamps can be pressed from the fruit of the:

(A) Bamboo

(B) Tendu

(D) All the above

12 Dhya, panda, bewar, nevad, jhum, podu, khaded and Kashmir are some of the local names used for which types of agriculture in India:

(A) Intensive Agriculture

(B) Swidden Agriculture

(D) Subsistence Agriculture

13 How much number of tigers and leopards were killed by Maharaja of Sarguja alone by 1957?

(A) 2157 tigers and 3000leopards

(B) 1057 tigers and 1500 leopards

(D) 1957 tigers and 2400leopards

14 Which of the following were the pastoralist and nomadic communities of Madras Presidency?

(A) Korava, Karach and Yirukula

(B) Santhals Bhuls and Oraons

(D) Saharias, Garasias and Meenas forests

15 Who of the following were the rebels of Santhal paragana to lead movement against the British?

(A) Alluri, Sitaram and Raju

(B) Bisva, soran and shibu

(D) Marande Raju and Sahil

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 4.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1 “The ship industry of England was also responsible for deforestation in India”. Give one reason.

2 Who was Dietrich Brandis? What were his achievements?

3 What were the provisions of the b1878 Forest Act?

4 Why was scientific forestry introduced by the British?

5 Why did the Bastar Rebellion take place?

6 Who were the Kalangs? Why were they important?

7 What was Blandongdiensten system?

8 Who was Surontiko Samin? What did he do?

Short Answer Type Questions:

9 What do you mean by deforestation? Why deforestation does take place?

10 Who was Dietrich Brandis? Why was he invited to India?

11 What do you mean by the term ‘Banana Republic’?

12 Explain scientific forestry? Why it was introduced by the British?

13 Name the Act which was enacted to protect the forests. Name the categories of forests under this Act.

14 How did the new forest laws affect plantation owners?

15 Where is Bastar located? Name any four local communities of Bastar.

16 Mention any three factors which prompted the people of Bastar of rebel against the British.

17 What was blandongndeinsten system?

18 Describe in brief the forest rebellion in Java.

19 What are the similarities between colonial management of the forests in Bastar and in Java?

20 Who were Kalangs? Mention any four characteristics of this community?

Long Answer Type Questions:

21 State in brief the major causes of deforestation in India during the British rule.

22What do you mean by shifting cultivation? How the changes in forest management affect it?

23 Explain the impact of various forest laws and policies which were adopted by the colonial rulers over the colonial people.

24 “While people lost out in many ways after the forest department took control of the forests, some people benefited from the new opportunities that had opened up.” Explain by giving examples.

25 Describe in brief the traditional beliefs of the various communities living in Bastar.

26 Explain the rebellion of Bastar people against the British.

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP4.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15
Ans	B	D	B	A	A	B	D	C	C	D	C	B	C	A	C

$»$ PASTORALISTS IN THE MODERNWORLD $«$

PASTORAL NOMADS AND THEIR MOVEMENTS

(i) Main occupation: Nomad people depend primarily on animal rearing. Goats, sheep, camels and buffaloes are the main animals reared by the nomads. Some of the nomads also cultivate crops.

(ii) Movements: Nomads do not move randomly across the landscape but have a strong sense of territoriality. They are aware of physical and cultural characteristics of the region of their movement.

(iii) Food: Pastoral nomads consume mostly grain rather than meet. They consume wheat, rice, bajra and malze. Some of the food grains are grown by themselves and some are arranged from the path of their movement.

(iv) Economic life: Most of the nomadic people follows barter system, though some use money also. They exchange animals for food or grains.

(v) Selection of animal: Nomads selects the type and number of animal for the herd according to local cultural and physical characteristics. The choice depends on the relative prestige of animals and the ability of species to adapt to a particular climates and vegetation. The camel is most frequently desired in North Africa and the Middle East, followed by sheep and goats.

(vi) Changing life: The life of the nomads was affected by the spread of European settlers during the $19^{\text {th }}$ century. The Europeans took and fenced land for their own use. Due to this the traditional way of life for the native people was changed for ever. The European drove the original inhabitants of their land or areas.

(a) In the Mountains:

(i) The Gujjar Bakarwals: Gujjar Bakarwals migrated to Jammu and Kashmir in the $19^{\text {th }}$ century in search of pastures for their animals. Gradually, over the decades, they established themselves in the area, and moved annually between their summer and winter grazing grounds. In winter, when the high mountains were covered with snow and there was lack of pasture at the high altitude they moved to low hills of the Shiwalik. The dry scrub forests here provided pastures for their herds. By the end of April they began their northem march for their summer grazing grounds. They crossed the Pir Panjal passes and entered the valley of Kashmir. With the onset of summer, the snow melted and the mountainsides become lush green. By the end of September the Bakarwals started their backward journey.

(ii) The Gaddi shepherds: Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh spent their winter in the low hills of Shiwalik range, grazing their flocks in scrub forests. by April they moved north and spent the summer in Lahul and Spiti. When the snow melted and the high passes were clear, many of them moved on to higher mountain meadows. By September they began their return movement. On the way they stopped once again in the villages of Lahul and Spiti, reaping their summer harvest and sowing their winter crop. Then descended with their flock to their winter grazing ground on the Shiwalik hills. Next April, once again, they began their march with their goats and sheep, to the summer meadows.

(iii) Movement in Garhwal and Kumaon: The Gujjar cattle herders come down to the dry forests of the bhabar in the winter, and went up the high meadows - the bugyals - in summer. many of them were originally from Jammu and came to the UP hills in the nineteenth century in search of good pastures.

(iv) Other Pastoral nomads: cyclical movement between summer and winter pastures is typical of many pastoral communities of the Himalayas, including the Bhotiyas, Sherpas and Kinnauris. All of them had to adjust to seasonal changes and make effective use of available pastures in different places.

(b) On the Plateaus, Plains and Deserts:

(i) The Dhangars: the Dhangars were an important pastoral community of Maharashtra. They used to stay in the semi-arid central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoon. Due to the low rainfall only dry crops could be grown there. In the monsoon these regions become a vast grazing ground for the Dhangars flocks. By October the Dhangars harvested their dry crops. During this season there was shortage of grazing ground so Dhangars had to move towards west. After about a month, they reached Konkan. In this region the locals used to welcome as the flocks of Dhangars provided manure to the field and fed on the stubble.

With the onset of the monosoon the Dhangars, after collecting supplies of rice and other food grains, used to leave the Konkan and returned to their settlements on the dry plateau.

(ii) The Gollas, Kurmas and Kurubas: in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh the dry central plateau was covered with grass, inhabited by cattle, goat and sheep herders. The Gollas herded cattle. The Kurmas and Kurubas reared sheep and goats and sold woven blankets. They lived near the woods; cultivated small parches of land, engaged in a variety of petty trades and took care of their herds. The seasonal rhythms of their movement was decided by the alternation of the monosoon and dry season. In the dry season they moved to the coastal tracts, and left when the rains came.

(iii) The Raikas: Raikas were the nomads of Rajasthan. They were divided into two groups. One group of Raikasknown as the Maru Raikas-herded camels and another group reared sheep and goats. Cultivation and pastoralism were their primary activities. During the monsoon they stayed in their home villages where pasture was available. By October, when these grazing grounds were dry and exhausted, they moved out in search of other pastures and water.

(c) “The Pastoral groups had sustained by a careful consideration of a host of factors.”:

(i) Climatic Factors: they had to judge the climatic conditions of the regions where they wanted to move. They had to judge how long the herds could stay in one area and where they could find water and pasture.

(ii) Timing: they needed to calculate the timing of their movements and ensure that could move through different territories.

(iii) Relationship: they had to set up a relationship with farmers so that herds could graze in harvested fields and manure the soil.

(iv) Different activities: they combined a range of different activities - cultivation, trade and herding to make their living.

COLONIAL GOVERNMENT

Colonial government enacted different laws that had adversely affected the living conditions of nomadic tribes and pastoral communities. The colonial government was driven by the following motives:

(i) The government wanted to convert all grazing into cultivated farms. This way, they wanted to raise more revenue in the form of taxes.

(ii) The government wanted to protect forests, as forests were required to meet their own urgent needs of railways, shipbuilding, etc.

(iii) British officials were suspicious of nomadic people. They were stated to be criminal by nature and birth.

(iv) To expand its revenue income, the government looked for every possible source of taxation. So tax was imposed on land, on canal water, on salt, on traded goods, and even on animals.

The measures led to a serious shortage of pastures. When grazing lands were taken over and turned into cultivated fields, the available area of pasture land declined. Similarly, the reservation of forests meant that shepherds and cattle herders could no longer freely pasture their cattle in the forests. As pasturelands disappeared under the plough, the existing animal stock had to feed on whatever grazing land remained. This led to continuous intensive grazing of these pastures. This in turn created a further shortage of forage for animals and the deterioration of animal stock. Underfed cattle died in large numbers during scarcities and famines.

(a) The impact of Forest Acts on the Nomads or Pastoralists:

(i) Through these Acts some forests which produced commercially valuable timber like deodar or Sal were declared reserved. Access to these forests was not allowed.

(ii) These Forests Acts changed the lives of pastoralists. They were now prevented from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle. Even in the areas they were allowed entry. Their movements were regulated. They needed a permit for entry. The timing of their entry and departure was specified, and the number of days they could spend in the forest was limited.

(iii) Pastoralists could no longer remain in an area even if forage was available, the grass was succulent and the undergrowth in the forest was ample. They had to move because the Forest Department permits that had been issued to them now ruled their lives.

(iv) The permit specified the periods in which they could be legally within a forest. if they overstayed they were liable to fines.

Waste Land Rules:

Under the Waste Land Rule uncultivated land was brought under cultivation. the basic aim was to increase land revenue because by expanding cultivation Government could increase its revenue collection . Crops like jute, cotton and indigo were used as raw material in England. So the British government wanted to bring more and more areas under these crops.

Impact on the lives of the pastoralists:

(i) After the Act pastoral movements were restricted.

(ii) Under the Act the grazing land was given to big landlords. Due to this nomads grazing grounds shrank.

(iii) Due to shrinking grazing grounds the agricultural stock of the nomads declined and their trade and crafts were adversely affected.

Criminal Tribes Act:

In 1871, the colonial government in India passed the Criminal Tribes Act. By this Act many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as Criminal tribes. They were stated to be criminal by nature and birth. Once this Act came into force, these communities were expected to live only in notified village settlements. They were not allowed to move out without a permit. The village police kept a continuous watch on them. This restricted their grazing grounds. Their agricultural stock declined and their trades and crafts were adversely affected.

Grazing Tax:

Grazing tax was imposed on the pastoralists. Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures. In most pastoral tracts of India, grazing tax was introduced in the mid-nineteenth century. The tax per head of cattle went up rapidly and the system of collection was made increasingly efficient. In the decades between the 1850s and 1880s the right to collect the tax was auctioned out to contractors. These contractors tried to extract as high a fax as they could to recover the money they had paid to the state and earn as much profit as they could within the year. By the 1880s the government began collecting taxes directly from the pastoralists. Each of them was given a pass. To enter a grazing tract, a cattle herder had to show the pass and pay the tax. The number of cattle heads he had and the amount of tax he paid was entered on the pass.

Impact in the lives of pastoralists:

(i) As the tax had to be paid in cash so pastoralists started selling their animals

(ii) The heavy burden of taxes had an adverse impact on their economic status. Now most of pastoralists started taking loans from the money leaders.

(b) How did the Pastoralists cope with the changes?

Pastoralists reduced to these changes in a variety of ways:

(i) Some reduced the number of cattle in their herds, since there was not enough pasture to feed large numbers.

(ii) Others discovered new pastures when movement to old grazing grounds became difficult.

(iii) Over the years, come richer pastoralists began buying land and setting down, giving up their nomadic life.

(iv) Some became settled peasants cultivating land, others took to more extensive trading. Many poor pastoralists, on the other hand, borrowed money from moneylenders to survive.

(v) At times they lost their cattle and sheep and became labourers, working on fields or in small towns.

PASTORALISM IN AFRICA

Over 22 million Africans depend on some form of pastoral activity for their livelihood. They include communities like Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran and Turkana. Most of them now live in the semi-arid grasslands or arid deserts where rain fed agriculture is difficult. They raise cattle, camels, goats, sheep and donkeys; and they sell milk, meat, animal skin and wool. Some also earn through trade and transport, others combine pastoral activity with agriculture; still others do a variety of odd jobs to supplement their meager and uncertain earnings from pastoralism.

(a) Where have the Grazing Lands Gone?

Before arrival of the colonial rulers, the Maasaliand spread over a vast area from North Kenya to the steppes of northem Tanzania. This gradually shrank due to the following reasons:

(i) The colonial powers were hungry for colonial possession in Africa. Once they reached Africa, they began to cut it down in different colonies.

(ii) The best grazing lands were gradually taken over for white settlement. Massai were pushed into a small area in south Kenya and north Tanzania.

(iii) The colonial government promoted cultivation. Local peasant communities began to take control over the pastoral lands. Pastoral lands further fell.

(iv) Large areas of land were also turned into game reserves. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter these reserves; they could neither hunt animals nor graze their in these areas. Very often these reserves were in area that had traditionally been regular grazing grounds for Maasai herds.

(v) The loss of the finest grazing lands and water resources created pressure on the small area of land that the Maasai were confined within. Continuous grazing within a small area inevitably meant a deterioration of the quality of pastures. Fodder was always in short supply. Freeding the cattle became a persistent problem.

(b) The Borders are Closed:

(i) From the late nineteenth century, the colonial government began imposing various restrictions on the mobility of the pastures. Special permits were issued to the people. They were not allowed to move out with their stock without special permits. And it was difficult to get permits without trouble and harassment. (ii) Pastoralists were also not allowed to enter the markers in white areas. in many regions, they were prohibited from participating in any form of trade. So now they were fully dependent on their stock.

(iii) When restrictions were imposed on pastoral movements, grazing lands came to be continuously used and the quality of pastures declined. This in turn created a further shortage of forage for animals and the deterioration of animal stock.

(iv) Now most of the nomads were forced to live within a semi-arid tract prone to frequent droughts.

(c) When Pastures Dry:

(i) Traditionally pastoralists are nomadic; they move from place to place. This nomadism allows them to survive bad times and avoid crises.

(ii) From the colonial period, the Maasai were bound down to a fixed area, prohibited from moving in search of pastures. They were cut off from the best grazing lands and forced to live within a semi-arid tract prone to frequent droughts. Since they could not shift their cattle to palaces where pastures were available, large numbers of Maasai cattle died of starvation and disease in these years of drought.

(iii) As the area of grazing lands shrank, the adverse effect of the droughts increased in intensity. The frequent bad years led to a steady decline of the animal stock of the pastoralists.

(d) Not All were Equally Affected:

(i) In pre-colonial times Maasai society was divided into two social categories-elders and warriors. The elders formed the ruling group and met in periodic councils to decide on the affairs of the community and settle disputes. The warriors consisted of younger people, mainly responsible for the protection of the tribe. They defended the community and organized cattle raids. Young men came to be recognized as members of the warrior class when they proved their manliness by raiding the cattle of other pastoral groups and participating in wars. They, however, were subject to the authority of the elders.

(ii) After the arrival of Britishers there was a change in the political set up of the tribes. The British started appointing chiefs of different sub-groups and imposed various restrictions on raiding and warfare. With the passage of time these chiefs started accumulating wealth and became very rich and started lending money to poor class. Many of these chiefs started living in towns and got themselves involved into other economic actives. The life of the poor pastoralists was miserable. They did not have resources to tide over bad times.

In times war and famine, they lost nearly ever thing. Most of them started working as labourers.

(iii) The social changes in Massai society occurred at two levels. first, the traditional difference based on age, between the elders and warriors, was disturbed, though it did not break down entirely. Second, a new distinction between the wealthy and poor pastoralists developed.

(e) Conclusion:

(i) Pastoral community is different parts of the world were affected in a variety of different ways by changes in the modem world. New laws and new borders affect the patterns of their movement. With increasing restrictions on their mobility, pastoralists find it difficult to move in search of pastures. as pasture lands disappear grazing becomes a problem. Pastures that remain deteriorate through continuous over grazing. Times oaf drought become times of crisis, when cattle die in large numbers.

(ii) Pastoralists do adapt to new times. They change the paths of their annul movement, reduce their cattle numbers, press for rights to enter new areas, exert political pressure on the government for relief, subsidy and other forms of support and demand a right in the management of forests and water resources. Pastoralists are not relics of the past. They are not people who have no place in the modern world. Environmentalsits and economists have increasingly come to recognise that pastoral nomadism is a form of life that is perfectly suited to many hilly and dry regions of the world.

Exercise

Objective DPP- 5.1

1 Which of the following vast natural pastures are on the high mountains, above $12000 ft$ ?

(A) Bhabar

(B) Bugyals

(D) Satpuras

2 Kafila refers to -

(A)A fort of Kafils

(B) Boat of sailors

(D) Group of pastoralists moving together

3 Group of Raikas, that herded camels were known as -

(A) Maru Raikas

(B) Balu Raikas

(D) Maldhani Raikas

4 Konkan is located on the -

(A) West coast of our country

(B) East coast of our country

(D) On Kerala coast

5 Camel grazing in western is practiced by -

(A) Bhils

(B) Meenas

(D) Raikas

6 Gollas of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are -

(A) Cattle herders

(B) Goat and Sheep herders

(D) Blanket weavers

7 Kurumas and Kurubas are the pastoralists of :

(A) West Bangal

(B) Orissa

(D) Tamil Nadu

8 Through various Forest Acts, some forest which produced commercially valuable timber like deodar and Sal were declared:

(A) Protected

(B) Unclassified

(D) None of the above

9 The reserved forest has mainly the trees of following types:

(A) Khezri

(B) Keekar

(D) Deodar and Sal

10 The main areas of Maasai cattle herders of Africa are -

(A) Egypt

(B) Nigeria

(D) Kenya & Tanzania

11 The Maasaliand was cut into half with an Intemational boundary by British in -

(A) 1880

(B) 1885

(D) 1886

12 Criminal Tribes Act was passed in -

(A) 1881

(B) 1871

(D) 1861

13 Which of the following areas is hardest hit by drought and food shortage in Africa?

(A) Vicinity of Amboseli National Park

(B) Vicinity of Sambura National Park

(D) Al of the above

14 Massai society of Africa was divided into two groups known as-

(A) Hares and Harenots

(B) Capitalist and Labours

(D) cultivators and Merchants

15 Garhwal, Kumaon, Sahil and Shili are in the states of -

(A) Assam and Meghalaya

(B) U.P and Merchants

(D) Mizoram and Tripura

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 5.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1 Who are nomads? Name any more animals which are reared by them.

2 Mention any two factors which are responsible for the annual movement to the pastoral communities. 3 Name any three pastoral communities of Kamataka and Andhra Pradesh. What was their occupation?

4 Where are the Raikas to be found? why are they both cultivators and pastoralists?

5 How did the life of the pastoralists change under colonial rule?

6 What are the impacts of the various Forest Acts passed during this time on the lives of the pastoralists?

7 What does the word Massai mean? Where are they found?

8 What changes occurred in Massai society during colonial rule?

9 What measures were introduced by the British to administer the affairs of the Massai?

10 How have pastoralsits adapted to changing times?

Short Answer Type Questions:

11 What similarities do you notice in the lifestyles of the Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir and the Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh?

12 What factors had to be kept in mind by the pastoralists in order to survive?

13 How did the various laws by the British affect the Indian pastoralists?

14 How did the Pastoralists cope with these changes?

15 What restriction were imposed by the colonial government on the African Pastoralists?

16 Why did the cattle stock of the Massai’s under colonial rule?

17 Describe the social organizations of the Massai’s in the pre-colonial times.

18 How did the Massai’s chiefs appointed by the British benefit economically?

Long Answer Type Questions:

19 Give reasons to explain why the Massai community lost their grazing lands.

20 Discuss why the colonial government in India brought in the following laws. in each case, explain how the law changed the lives of pastoralists :

(A) Waste Land Rules

(B) Forest Acts

(D) Grazing Act

21 Explain why nomadic tribes to move form one place to another. What are the advantages to the environment of this continuous movement?

22 There are many similarities in the way in which the modem world forced changes in the lives of pastoral communities in India and East Africa. Write about any two examples of changes which were similar for Indian pastoralsits and the Massai herders.

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP4.1)

Que.	$\mathbf{1}$	$\mathbf{2}$	3	4	5	6	7	$\mathbf{8}$	$\mathbf{9}$	$\mathbf{1 0}$	$\mathbf{1 1}$	$\mathbf{1 2}$	$\mathbf{1 3}$	$\mathbf{1 4}$	$\mathbf{1 5}$
Ans	B	D	A	A	D	A	C	C	D	D	B	B	A	C	B

$»$ Pleasants & Farmers $«$

THE TIME OF OPEN FIELDS AND COMMONS

(i) Before late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries in large party of England the countryside was open. It was not partitioned into enclosed lands privately owned by landlords. Peasants cultivated on strips of land, around the village they lived in. each villager was allocated a number of strips to cultivate. Usually, these strips were of varying quality and often located in different places, to ensure that everyone had a mix of good and bad land. Beyond these strips of cultivation lay the common land. All villagers had access to the commons. Here they pastured their cows and grazed their sheep, collected fuel wood for fire and berries and fruit for food. They fished in the rivers and ponds, and hunted rabbit in common forests. For the poor, the common land was essential for survival. It supplemented their meager income, substantiated their cattle, and helped them tide over bad times when crops failed.

(ii) From about the sixteenth century, when the price of wool went up in the world market, rich farmers wanted to expand wool production to earn profits. They were eager to improve their sheep breeds and ensure good feed for them. They were keen on controlling large areas of land in compact blocks to allow improved breeding. So they begar dividing and enclosing common land and building hedges around their holdings to separate their property from that of others. They drove out villagers who had small cottages on the commons, and they prevented the poor from entering the enclosed fields. Between 1750 and 1850, 6 million acres of land was enclosed. The British Parliament passed 4,000 Acts legalising these enclosures.

NEW DEMANDS FOR GRAIN

(i) English population between 1750 and 1900, multiplied over four times, mounting from 7 million in 1750 to 21 million in 1850 and 30 million in 1900. This meant an increased demand for foodgrains to feed the population. Moreover, Britain at this was industrializing. More and more people began to live and work in urban areas. Men from rule areas migrated to towns in search of jobs. To survive they had to buy foodgrains in the market. As the urban population grew, the market for foodgrains expanded, and when demand increased rapidly, foodgrain prices rose.

(ii) By the end of the eighteenth century, France was at war with England. Prices of foodgrains in England sky rocketed, encouraging landowners to enclose lands and enlarge the area under grain cultivation.

THE AGE OF ENCLOSURES

(i) In the nineteenth century, grain production grew as quickly as population. Even though the population increased rapidly, in 1868 England was producing about 80 per cent of the food it consumed.

(ii) This increase in food-grain production was made possible by bringing new lands under cultivation. Landlords sliced up pasturelands, carved up open fields, cut up forest commons, took over marshes, and turned larger and larger areas into agricultural fields.

Importance of turnip and clover for farmers:

In about the 1660s farmers in many parts of England began growing turnip and clover these crops improved the soil and made it more fertile. Turnip was a good fodder crop relished by cattle. These crops became part of the cropping system. These crops had the capacity to increase the nitrogen content of the soil. Nitrogen was important for crop growth. Cultivation of the same soil over a few years depleted the nitrogen in the soil and reduced its fertility. By restoring nitrogen, turnip and clover made the soil fertile once again.

Enclosures were now seen as necessary to make long-tern investments on land and plan crop rotations to improve the soil. Enclosures also allowed the richer landowners to expand the land under their control and produce more for the market.

THE CONDITIONS THE POOR

When fences came up, the enclosed land became the exclusive property of one landowner. The poor could no longer collect their firewood from the forests, or graze their cattle on the commons. They could no longer collect apples and berries, or hunt small animals for meat. Nor could they gather the stalks that lay on the fields after the crops were cut. Everything belonged to the landlords; everything had a price which the poor could not afford to pay. In places where enclosure happened - the poor were displaced from the land . They found their customary rights gradually disappearing. Deprived of their rights and driven off the land, they tramped in search of work. From the Midlands, they moved to the southem counties of England. But nowhere could the poor find secure jobs. Labourers were being paid wages and employed only during harvest time. As landowners triad to increase their profits, they cut the amount they had to spend on their workmen. Work became insecure, employment uncertain, income unstable. For a very large part of the year the poor had no work.

THE INTRODUCTION OF THRESHING MACHINES

(i) During the Napoleonic Wars prices of foodgrains were high and farmers expanded production vigorously. Fearing a shortage of tabour, they began buying the new threshing machines that had come into the market.

(ii) After the Napoleonic Wars had ended, thousands of soldiers returned to villages. They needed alternative job to survive. But this was a time when grain from Europe began flowing into England, prices declined, and as Agricultural Depression set in. Anxious, landowners, tried to cut wages and the number of workmen they employed.

(iii) The Captain Swing riots spread in the countryside at this time. For the poor the threshing machines had become a sign of bad times.

BREAD BASET AND DUST BOWL

(i) At the end of the eighteenth century, settled agriculture had not developed on any extensive scale in the USA. Forests covered over 800 million acres and grasslands 600 million acres.

(ii) Most of the landscape was not under the control of white Americans. Till the 1780s, white American settlements were confined to a small narrow strip of coastal land in the east. Native American groups in the country were nomadic, some were settled. Many of them lived only by hunting, gathering and fishing; others cultivated com, beans, tobacco and pumpkin.

(iii) By the early twentieth century, this landscape had transformed radically. White Americans had moved westward and established control up to the west cost, displacing local tribes and carving out the entire landscape into different agricultural betts. The USA had come to dorninate the world market in agricultural produce.

THE WESTWARD MOVE AND WHEAT CULTIVATION

(i) After the American War of independence from 1775 to 1783 and the formation of the United States of America, the white Americans began to move westward. By the time Thomas Jefferson befferson became President of the USA in 1800, over 700,000 white settlers had moved on to the Appalachian plateau through the passes. Seen from the east coast, America seemed to be a land of promise. Its wilderness could be trued into cultivated fields. Forest timber could be cut for export, animal hunted for skin, mountains mined for gold and animals.

(ii) In the decades after 1800 the US government comment committed itself to a policy of driving the American Indians westward, first beyond the river Mississippi, and then further west. As the Indians retreated, the settler’s poured in. they settled on the Appalachian plateau by the first decade of the eighteenth century, and then moved into the Mississippi valley between 1820 and 1850 . Then they cleared larger areas, and erected fences around the fields. They ploughed the land and sowed corn and wheat. When the soil became impoverished and exhausted in one place, the migrants would move further west, to explore new lands and raise a new crop. It was, however, only after the 1860s that settlers swept into the Great Plains across the River Mississippi.

THE WHEAT FARMERS

(i) From the late nineteenth century there was a dramatic expansion of wheat production in the USA. The rising urban population, export market was becoming ever bigger and rise in what prices, encouraged farmers to produce wheat. The spread of the railways made it easy to transport the grain from the wheat growing regions to the eastern coast for export. By the twentieth century the demand became even higher, and during the First World War the world market boomed.

(ii) In 1910, about 45 million acres of land in the USA was under wheat. Nine years later, the area had expanded to 74 million acres, an increase of about 65 per cent. In many cases, big farmers - the wheat barons - controlled as much as 2,000 to 3,000 acres of land individually.

THE COMING OF NEW TECNNOLOGY

(i) This dramatic expansion was made possible by new technology. Through the nineteenth century, as the settlers moved into new habitats and lands, they modified their implements to meet their requirements.

(ii) The prairie was covered with a thick mat of grass with tough roots. To break th sod and turn the soil over, a variety of new ploughs were devised locally. By early twentieth century, farmers in the Great Plains were breaking the ground with tractors and disk ploughs, clearing vast stretches for wheat cultivation.

In 1831, Cyrus McCormick invented the first mechanical reaper. By the early twentieth century, most farmers were using combined harvesters to cut grain. With one of these machines, 500 acres of wheat could be harvested in two weeks.

(iii) For the big farmers of the Great Plains these machines had many attractions. The price of wheat was high and the demand seemed limitless.

(v) With power driven machinery, four men could plough, seed and harvest 2,000 to 4,000 acres of wheat in a season.

WHAT HAPPENED TO THE POOR ?

For the poorer farmers, machines brought misery. They borrowed money on loan to buy machines but found it difficult to pay back their debts. Many of them deserted their farmers and looked for jobs elsewhere. Mechanization reduced the need for labor. After 1920’s most farmers traced troubles. Production had expanded so rapidly during the war and post-war years that there was a large surplus. Unsold stocks piled up, storehouses overflowed with grain, and vast amounts of corn and wheat were turned into animal feed. Wheat prices fell and export markets collapsed. This created the grounds for the Great Agrarian Depressions of the 1930s that ruined wheat farmers everywhere.

DUST BOWL

In the 1930s, terrifying dust storms began to blow over the southem plains. Black blizzards rolled in, very often 7,000 to 8,000 feet high, rising like monstrous waves of muddy water. As the skies darkened, and the dust swept in, people were blinded and choked. Cattle were suffocated to death; their lungs caked whit dust and mud. Sand buried fences, covered fields, and coated the surfaces of rivers till the fish died. Dead bodies of birds and animals were strewing all over the landscape. Tractors and machines that had ploughed the earth and harvested the wheat in the 1920s were now clogged with dust, damaged beyond repair. They came because the early 1930s were years of persistent drought. Ordinary duststorms became black blizzards only because the entire landscape had been ploughed over, stripped of all grass that held it together. When wheat cultivation had expanded dramatically in the early twentieth century, zealous farmers had recklessly uprooted all vegetation, and tractors had expanded dramatically in the early twenties century, zealous farmers had recklessly uprooted all vegetation, and tractors had turned the soil over, and broken the sod into dust. The whole region had become a dust bowl.

THE INDIAN FARMER AND OPIUM PRODUCTION

Over the period of colonial rule, the rural landscape was radically transformed. as cultivation expanded, the area under frosts and pastures declined . In the colonial period, rural India also came to produce a range of crops for the world market. In the early nineteenth century, indigo and opium were two of the major commercial crops. By the end of the century, peasants were producing sugarcane, cotton, jute, wheat and several other crops for export.

A TASTE FOR TEA : THE TRADE WITH CHINA

(i) In the eighteenth century, the English East India Company was buying tea and silk from China for sale in England .As tea became a popular English drink, the trade became more and more important in fact the profits of the East India Company came to depend on the tea trade.

(ii) England at this time produces nothing that could be easily sold in China. In such a situation, how could Western merchants finance the tea trade? They could buy tea only by paying in silver coins or bullion. This meant an outflow of treasure from England, a prospect that created widespread anxiety. Merchants therefore looked for ways to stop this loss of sliver. They searched for a commodity they could sell in China, something they could persuade the Chinese t6o buy. Opium was such a commodity.

(iii) The Chinese were aware of the dangers of opium addiction, and the Emperor had forbidden its production and sale except for medicinal purposes. But Western merchants in the mid-eighteenth century began an illegal trade in opium.

(iv) While the English cultivated a taste for Chinese tea, the Chinese became addicted to opium. People of all classes took to the drug-shopkeepers and peddlers, officials and army men, aristocrats and paupers:

As China became a country of opium addicts, British trade in tea flourished. The returns from opium sale financed the tea purchases in China.

THE OPIUM CAM FROM

When the British conquered Bengal, they, made a determined effort to produces opium in the lands under their control. Before 1767, no more then 500 chests were being exported from India. A hundred years later, in 1870, the government was exporting about 50,000 chests annually.

FARMERS WERE UNSILLING TO TURN THEIR FIELDS OVER T POPPY

First the crop had to be grown on the best land, on fields that near villages and well matured. Second, many cultivators owned no land. To cultivate, they had to pay rent and lease land landlords. Third, the cultivation of opium was a difficult process.

Finally, the price the government paid to the cultivators for the opium they produced was very low.

UNWILING WATORS WERE MADE OPPRODUCE OPIUM

(i) In the rural areas of Bengal and Bihar, there were large numbers of poor peasants. from the $1780 s$ such peasants found their village headmen (mabato) giving them money advances to produce opium.

(ii) By taking the loan, the cultivator was forced to grow opium on a specified area of land hand over the produce to the agents once the crop had been harvested.

(iii) The problem could have been partly solved by increasing the price of opium. The prices given to the peasants were so low that by the early eighteenth century angry peasants began agitating for higher prices and refused to take advances.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP- 6.1

1 Over the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in the English countryside at the beginning of each year, at a public meeting each villager was allocated a number of -

(A) Animals to rear

(B) Strips to cultivate

(D) Slaves

2 Till the middle of the eighteenth century the enclosure movement proceeded -

(A) Very fast

(B) at the same rate

(D) not at all

3 $\ldots$ was the year of Great Agrarian depression.

(A) 1930

(B) 1935

(D) 1920

4 Findings showed the planting of tumip & clover increase the content of the soil.

(A) Nitrogen

(B) Oxygen

(D) Lime

5 After the end of the Napoleonic wars grain from Europe began flowing into England, Prices declined and an -

(A) Industrial revolution set in

(B) Industrial depression set in

(D) Agricultural revolution set in

6 Till the 1780s, White American settlements were confined to a small narrow strip of coastal land in the -

(A) East

(B) West

(D) South

7 Who was the special commissioner at Canton, instructed to stop the Opium trade?

(A) Mao- Tse- Tung

(B) Lin Ze-xu

(D) Ho - Chi- Minh

8 In 1870, the government was exporting about chests of opium annually.

(A) 5000

(B) 25000

(D) 100000

9 In 1910, about of land in the USA was under wheat cultivation.

(A) 40 million acres

(B) 45 million acres

(D) 55 million acres

10 In 1831 invented the first mechanical reaper.

(A) Cyrus McCormick

(B) Sir George Yull

(D) Fred Hultstrand

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 6.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1 What is strip cultivation?

2 What do you mean by term ‘Open Field System’?

3 Explain the importance of the village common to common folk.

4 Why did the rich farmers use the threshing machines?

5 How did food production increase in the 19th century?

6 What were the occupations of the Native Americans?

7 Why and how were the Native Americans driven westwards?

8 What problems did expansion of wheat agriculture in the Great Plain cause?

9 What items did the British merchants buy from China? Why did they start smuggling opium into China?

Short Answer Type Questions:

10 Explain the importance of the village commons to a labourer and a poor man. 11 Why were the threshing machine opposed by the poor in England?

12 Who was Captain Swing? What did the name symbolize or represent?

13 Briefly summaries the impact of introduction of modern agriculture in England.

14 when did the westward movement of the white settlers took place in America and how?

15 What was the impact to the westward expansion of settlers in the U.S.A.?

16 What lessons can we draw from the conversion of country side in the USA from a bread basket to a dust bowl?

17 Write a paragraph on why the British insisted on farmers growing opium in India.

18 Why were Indian farmers reluctant to grow opium?

19 What changes occurred due to the coming of modern agriculture in England?

Long Answer Type Questions:

20 How were the poor affected by the Enclosure Movement?

21 Explain the factors that led to the enclosures in England.

22 What were the advantages and disadvantages of the use of mechanical harvesting machines in the USA?

23 What factor led a dramatic expansion in American wheat production?

24 What was the ‘Opium War’? What were its consequences? Consequences?

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 6.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
Ans	B	C	A	A	C	A	B	C	B	A

$»$ HISTORY & SPORTS: THE SPORTI OF CRICKET $«$

SL - 07 (H)

THE MPORTANCE OF CRICKET IN THE MODERN TIMES

Cricket as a sport has one of the largest followings in the world. Anyone who knows to speak the word ‘Cricket’ can assume himself to be an expert in the game.

(i) It is the most widely played game, especially in the former Commonwealth countries. Its range includes from Gully- Mohalla cricket to international test matches.

(ii) It is the biggest source of entertainment, not only for thousands and thousands of the spectators at the playing grounds but also other millions who watch a ball-by-ball progress on TV sets, etc.

(iii) Every single ball generates passion.

(iv) It is one way in which people compete with each other, stay fit and express their social loyalties.

(v) Cricket matches are organized to establish friendship between Nations; cricketers are seen as ambassadors of the country.

(vi) Cricket has come to represent the unity of the country.

(vii) Cricket has emerged as the biggest commercial venture; it is a whole big industry which generates jobs and income on a large scale.

(a) Invention of Cricket and its spread:

(i) Cricket was invented in Southeastern England in the 19th century. The Britishers took the game to all those places where they went, i.e., to their colonies in Asia and Africa. This is now cricket became a popular game in the former colonies of Great Britain.

(ii) After these colonies gained independence from their former rulers, they were organized in want came to be known as the Commonwealth. The game of cricket, therefore, is limited to the members of the Commonwealth. Important cricket playing countries are India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Australia, New Zealand, England, West Indies, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Kenya.

(c) Cricket represent’s:

Cricket had been invented in England; it became intimately linked to the culture of the 19 th century Victorian society. The game was expected to represent all that the Englishmen were supposed to value and respect, i.e.,

(i) Fair play,

(ii) Discipline, and

(iii) Gentlemanliness.

It was in this spirit that game was played till recent times, before commercialization took over the game. With commercialization, money has become the ruling deity of game.

THE PECULIARITIEST CRICKET

Modern cricket has different varieties; among these the two important ones are:

(i) Test matches, and

(ii) one-day matches. Test matches are played over a longer period often (five days presently), whereas a oneday match is restricted to a limited of overs that each side is to bowl to other side. Originally, cricket developed in the form of test matches.

(a) There were certain features of this game that made it different then other games:

(i) Test matches were open-ended games. There was no time defined. they would go on till the result was decided (presently a test match is a five day game, if no result is achieved in five days it is declared a drawn game). There is no other game with such a larger time span.

(ii) In cricket, the length of the pitch is specified-22 yard-but the size or shape of the ground is not defined. This is not so any other game.

(iii) In cricket, all important tools are made of natural materials, unlike golf and tennis where man-made materials are used.

(iv) In cricket, a player is a member of a team. he plays for the team and not for individual laurels.

(b)Peculiarities of cricket are shaped by its historical beginnings as a village game:

One, cricket’s rules were made before the industrial Revolution. The rhythms of village life were slower. A match could go on and on till was decided. Games that were codified after the Industrial Revolution were strictly timelimited to fit the routines of industrial city life.

Two, cricket was originally played on common lands in the countryside. The size of the common lands varied from village, and region to region. Therefore, it was left open to decide the boundaries of the ground in the area in which the match was being played.

There, unlike other games cricket’s most important tools are all made of natural, pre-industrial materials. The bat is made of wood as are the stumps and the bails. The ball is made with leather twine and cork.

In the matter of protective equipment has been influenced by technological change. The invention of vulcanized rubber led to the introduction of pads in 1848. Protective gloves were introduced soon thereafter. Helmets made out of metal and synthetic lightweight materials became an important part of protective equipment.

but technological change did not materially alter the essence of the basic tools of the game, viz.,

(i) Bat,

(ii) Stumps,

(iii) Bails, and

(iv) Ball. These continue to be made out of natural materials.

LAWS OF CRICKET

(a) The first written ‘Laws of Cricket’:

The first written ‘Laws of Cricket’ were drawn up in 1744. They stated, the principals shall choose from amongst the gentlemen present two umpires who shall absolutely decide all disputes. The stumps must be 22 inches high and the bail across them six inches. The ball must be between 5 and 6 ounces, and the two sets of stumps 22 yards apart. There were no limits on the shape or size of the bat.

(b) Major changes that took amine to the game of cricket during the 1760s and 1770s:

During the 1760s and 1770s many changes took place in the game of cricket. it became common to pitch the ball through the air, rather then roll it along the ground . This change gave bowlers the options of length, deception through the air, plus increased pace. It also opened new possibilities for spin and swing. In responses, batsmen had to master timing and shot selection. One immediate result was th replacement of the curved bat with the straight one. All of this raised the premium on skill and reduced the influence of rough ground brute force.

(i) The weight of the ball was limited to between $5 \frac{1}{2}$ to $5 \frac{3}{4}$ ounces, and the width of the bat to four inches. The latter ruling followed an inning by a batsman who appeared with a bat as wide as the wicked. (ii) In 1774 , the first leg-before law was published.

(iii) A third stump became common.

(iv) By 1780 , three days had become the length of a major match, and this year also saw the creation of the first sixseam cricket ball.

(c) Important changes that occurred in the game of cricket during the 19 th century:

During the 19 th century the important changes that occurred in the game of cricket can be briefly stated as follows:

(i) The rule about wide ball was applied.

(ii) The exact circumference of the ball was specified.

(iii) Protective equipment like pads and gloves became available.

(iv) Boundaries were introduced; earlier all runs were scored by running between the stumps. over am bowling became legal.

CRICKET AND VICTORIAN ENGLAND

The organization of cricket in England reflected the nature of English society. The players were divided into two groups: (A) Professionals and (B) Amateurs.

(i) Those persons who played cricket for a living were called professionals. The wages of professionals were paid by patronage or subscription or gate money. the game was seasonal and did not offer employment the year round.

Most professionals worked as miners or, in other forms of working class employment in winter, the off-season.

(ii) The rich who could afford to play for pleasure were called amateurs and the poor who played it for a living were called professionals.

(a) The rich were amateurs for two reasons:

One, they considered sport a kind of leisure. To play for the pleasure of playing and not for money was an aristocratic value. Two, there was not enough money in the game for the rich to be interested.

(i) The social superiority of amateurs was built the customs of cricket. Amateurs were called Gentlemen while professionals had to be content with being described as Players.

(ii) They entered the ground from different entrances.

(iii) Amateurs tended to be batsmen, leaving the energetic, hardworking aspects of the game, like fast bowling, to the professionals. That is partly why the rules of the game always give the benefit of the doubt to the batsman.

(b) Cricket a batsman’s game:

Cricket is a batsman’s game because its rules were made to favour ‘Gentlemen’, who did most of the batting. The social superiority of the amateur was also the captain of a cricket team was traditionally a batsman: not because batsmen were naturally better captains but because they were generally Gentlemen. Captains of teams, whether club teams or national sides, were always amateurs. It was not till the 1930s that the English Test team was led by a professional, the Yorkshire batsman, Len Hutton.

(c) “Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton”:

In actual fact the Napoleonic wars were won because of the economic contribution of the iron works of Scotland and Wales, the milis of Lancashire and the financial houses of the City of London. it was the English lead in trade and industry that made Britain the world’s greatest power, but it suited the English ruling class to believe that it was the superior character of its young men, built in boarding schools, like Eton, playing gentlemanly games like cricket, that tipped the balance.

THE SPREFAD OF CRICKET

(i) In colonies, cricket was established as a popular sport either by white settlers (as in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Australia, New Zealand, the West Indies and Kenya) or by local elites who wanted to copy the habits of their colonial masters, as in India.

(ii) While British imperial officials brought the game to the colonies, they made little effort to spread the game, especially in colonial territories.

(iii) Playing cricket became a sign of superior social and racial status, and the Afro-Caribbean population was discouraged from participating in organised club cricket, which remained dominated by white plantation owners and their servants.

(iv) The first non-white club in the West Indies was established towards the end of the nineteenth century, and even in this case its members were light-skinned mulattos.

(v) Despite the exclusiveness of the cricket elite in the Wheat Indies, the game became hugely popular in the Caribbean.

(vi) At the time of their independence many of the political leaders of Caribbean countries like Forbes Burnham and Eric Williams saw in the game a chance for salt-respect and international standing.

(vii) When the West Indies won its first Test series against England in 1950s, it was celebrated as a national achievement, as a way of demonstrating that West Indians were the equals of white Englishmen.

(viii) The first time a black pack led the West Indies Test team was in 1960 when Frank Worrell was named captain.

(ix) Through the early history of Indian first class cricket, teams were not organized on geographical principles and it was not till 1932 that a national tern was given the right to represent India in a Test match.

(a) Cricket, Race and Religion:

(i) Cricket in colonial India was organised on the principle of race and religion. The first record we have of cricket being played in India is from 1721. The first Indian club, the Calcutta Cricket Club was established in 1792. Through the eighteenth century cricket in India was almost wholly a sport played by British military men and civil servants in all-white clubs and gymkhanas. Indians were considered to have no talent for the game and certainly not meant to play it. But they did.

(ii) The origins of India cricket, that is, cricket played by Indian are to be found in Bombay and the first Indian community to start playing the game was the small community of Zoroastrians, the Parsis .the Parsis founded the first Indian cricket club , the Oriental Cricket Club in Bombay in 1848. The white cricket elite in India offered no help to the enthusiastic Parsis. In fact, there was a quarrel between the Bombay Gymkhana, a white-only club, and Paris cricketers over the use of a public park. When it became clear that the colonial authorities were prejudiced in favour of their white compatriots, the Parsis built own gymkhana to play cricket in. a Parsis team beat the Bombay Gymkhana at cricket in 1889, just four years after the foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885.

(iii) By the 1890s, Hindus and Muslims were buys gathering funds and support for a Hindu Gymkhana and an Islam Gymkhana. In the late nineteenth century, many Indian institutions and movements were organised around the idea of religious community because the colonial state encouraged these division and was quick to recognise communal institutions. Applications that used the communal categories favoured by the colonial state were likely to be approved.

(iv) This history of gymkhana cricket led to first-class cricket being organised on communal and racial lines. The toumament was initially called Quadrangular, because it was played by four teams: the Europeans, the Parsis, the Hindu and the Muslims. It later became the Pent angular when a fifth team was added, namely, the Rest, which comprised all the communitles left over, such as the Indian Christians.

(v) By the late 1930s and early 1940s, journalists, cricketers and political leaders had begun to criticize the racial and communal foundations of the Pent angular torment. They condemned the Pent angular as a communally divisive competition that was out of place in a time when nationalists were trying to unite India’s diverse population. a rive first-class tournament on regional lines, the National Cricket Championship (later named the Ranji Trophy), was established but not until independence did it properly replace the Pent angular . Pent angular was a colonial toumament and it died with the Raj.

(b)Mahatma Gandhi’s views on cricket.

Mahatma Gandhi believed that sport was essential for creating a balance between the body and the mind. However, he often emphasized that games like cricket and hockey were imported into India by the British and were replacing traditional games. Suck games as cricket, hockey, football and tennis were for the privileged, he belived. They showed a colonial mindset and were a less active education then the simple exercise of those who worked on the land.

THE MODERN TRANSFORMATION

(i) Modern cricket is dominated by Tests and one day internationals, played between national teams.

(ii) The players Indian fans remember from the ear of the Pent angular and the quadrangular are those who were fortunate enough to play Test cricket.

(iii) C.K.Nayudu, an outstanding Indian batsman of his time, lives on in the popular imagination when some of his great contemporaries like Palwanker Vithal and Palwanker Baloo have forgotten because his career lasted long enough for him to play Test cricket for India while theirs did not.

(iv) Nayudu has past his cricketing prime when he played for India in its first Test matches against England starting in 1932; his place in India’s cricket history is assured because he was the country’s first Test captain.

(v) Indica entered the world of Test cricket in 1932s,a decade and a half before it became an independent nation. This was possible because Test cricket from its origins 1877 was organised as a contest between different parts of the British empire, not sovereign nations.

(vi) he first Test was played between England and Australia when Australia was still a white settler colony, not even a self-governing dominion.

(a) The name of ICC was changed from the Imperial Cricket Conference to the International Cricket Conference:

The imperial Cricket Conference was responsible for the regulation of the game of cricket throughout the world. it was dominated by two nations, England and Australia. they had the veto rights.

With the disappearance of the British empire, the organization of world cricket was also undergoing a change. Two major changes suggestive of decolonization and deimperialism were:

(i) The name of Imperial Cricket Conference was changed into the international Cricket Conference.

(ii) The veto right were abolished. Equal membership was introduced.

The significance of the shift of the ICC headquarters from London to Dubai.

The shift the ICC headquarters from London to Dubai signified that the balance of power in cricket was shifting from ex-colonial power and white men to South Asis, who have come to dominate the world cricket.

(b) The impact of decolonization on cricket:

Cricket had developed as a game in colonial countries. It spread to those countries where the colonial rulers went. In course of time, colonies began to produce better played of cricket then were available with the colonial power themselves. But the colonial powers could successfully curb the growth of such talent. With decolonization, all such restriction $s$ on the growth of cricket stood removed. Some significant changes began to take place in the organization of cricket:

(i) The name of the Imperial Cricket Conference was changed into the Intemational Cricket Conference.

(ii) The headquarters of the ICC were shifted from London to Dubai. (iii) Veto right of England and Australia in ICC were removed . all members got equal rights.

(iv) England had to boycott South Africa who did not permit non-white players to represent their country.

(v) It came to be accepted that the laws of cricket could not continue to be framed for British or Australian conditions of play. The techniques of ‘doosra’ and ‘reverse swing’ evolved by the Asian bowlers to suit their conditions, came to be accepted and endorsed.

COMMERUES MEDIA AND CRICKET TODY

Advances in technology had a dramatic effect on the game of cricket .

on-field, the concept of ‘Third Umpire’ was put in practice. a number of major decisions on field could be referred to him as he had the benefit of replays of every event from all possible angles. stumps carried cameras; umpires could talk direct to the ground staff and others from their radios. score - boards became more functional and informative.

off-field, organization of matches became much more convenient with easy free flow required information. with the advent of television , cricket became a marketable game which could generate huge revenues.

(i) Cricket boards became rich by selling television rights to television companies.

(ii) Television channels made money by selling television spots to companies who were happy to pay large sums of money to air commercial for their products to cricket’s captive television audience.

(iii) Continuous television coverage made cricketers celebrities who, besides being paid better by their cricket boards, now made even large sums of money by making commercials for a wide range of products, from tyres to colas, on television.

(iv) Television coverage expanded the audience for the game by beaming cricket into small towns and villages.

(v) It also broadened cricket’s social base. Children who had never previously had the chance to watch international cricket because they lived outside the big cities, where top-level cricket was played, could now watch and learn by imitating their heroes.

(vi) The technology of satellite television and the world wide reach of multinational television companies created a global market for cricket.

Contribution of Kerry Packer in development of cricket

Kerry Packer was an Australian television tycoon. He saw the money-making potential of cricket as a television sport. He introduced ‘World Series Cricket’. He signed up fifty-one of the world’s leading cricketers against the wishes of the national cricket boards and for about two years staged unofficial Tests One-Day internationals. The innovations he introduced during this time to make cricket more attractive to television audiences endured and changed the nature of the game.

Coloured dress, protective helmets, filed restrictions, cricket under lights, became a standers part of the postPacker game. Crucially, Packer drove home the lesson that cricket was a marketable game, which could generate huge revenues.

(a) The centre of gravity in cricket has shitted away from the old:

(i) A more impotent sign that the centre of gravity in cricket has shifted away from the old, Anglo-Australian axis is that innovations in cricket technique in recent years have mainly come from the proactive of sub continental terns in countries like India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

(ii) Pakistan has pioneered two great advances in bowling: the doosra and the; rivers swing’.

(iii) Initially, both innovations were greeted with great suspicion by countries like Britain and Australia which saw them as an underhanded, illegal bending of the laws of cricket.

(iv) In time, it came to be accepted that the laws of cricket could not continue to be framed for British or Australian conditions of play, and they became part of the technique of 11 bowlers, everywhere in the world.

(v) Today, the global marketplace has made Indian players the best-paid, most famous cricketers in the game, men for whom the world is a stage.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP-7.1

1 The length of a cricket pitch is specified as

(A) 12 yards

(B) 22 yards

(D) 42 yards

2 The first written ‘Laws of Cricket ‘were drawn up in

(A) 1714

(B) 1724

(D) 1744

3 In 1788 the published its first revision of the laws and became the guardian of cricket’s regulations.

(A) Calcutta Cricket Club

(B) Marylebone Cricket Club

(D) Melboum Cricket Club

4 Cricket’s most important tools are all made of pre-industrial materials.

(A) Synthetic

(B) Artifical

(D) Cotton

5 The invention of vulcanished rubber led to the introduction of pads in 1848 ans soon afterwards.

(A) Protective gloves

(B) Helmet

(D) Chest guard

6 The rich who could afford to play cricket for pleasure were called

(A) Professionals

(B) Amateurs

(D) Competitors

7 Australian Cricket Dennis Lillie tried to play an innings with an bat, only to have it outlawed by the umpires.

(A) Willow

(B) Iron

(D) Aluminium

8 Amateurs tended to be leaving the energetic, hardworking aspects of the game, to the professionals.

(A) Bowler

(B) Fielders

(D) Umpires

9 In actual fact the Napoleonic wars were won because of the contribution of iron works of Scotland and Wales, the mills of Lancashire and the financial houses in the city of London.

(A) Political

(B) Economic

(D) Individual

10 The pre-industrial oddness of cricket it a hard game to export. it took root only in countries that the conquered and ruled.

(A) Japan

(B) French

(D) Dutch

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 7.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1 What were the earliest cricket bats of the same shape as hockey sticks?

2 Where was the game of cricket represent?

3 What did the game of cricket represent?

4 Why where the rich who played cricket called amateurs?

5 How did cricket become popular in the colonies?

6 How were the professionals paid?

7 Who started the World Series Cricket?

8 What are qualities expected of a capital of a cricket team?

9 What items does the sports curriculum of a 19 th Century girls school tells us about the behavior considered proper for girl at that time?

10 When the West Indies won its first test series against England in 1950, what were two remarkable features?

Short Answer Type Questions:

11 Describe one way in which, the 19 th century technology brought about a change in equipment and give one example where no change in equipment took place.

12 What important change occurred in the game of cricket during the 19 th century?

13 Why is cricket called a batsman’s game?

14 “Cricket in colonial India was organized on the principle of race and religion”. Elaborate.

15 How has cricket’s equipment with the times and yet remained true of its village origins?

16 Mention the main provisions of the Cricketing Laws drawn of in 1744.

17 What were the differences between amateur’s ans professional?

18 ‘The history of Gymkhana cricket led to first class cricket being organised on communal and racial lines. Explain

19 What innovations did Kerry Packed introduce which changed the nature of the game?

20 What changes in bowling have been pioneered by Pakistan and with what results?

Long Answer Type Questions:

21 Test Cricket is a unique game in many ways. Discuses some of the ways in which it is different from other games. How are the peculiarities of Test Cricket shaped by its historical beginnings as a village game?

22 How have advances in technology especially television technology affected the development of contemporary cricket?

23 What innovations did Kerry Packer introduce which changed the nature of the game?

24 “The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton”. Explain

25 What was the impact of decolonization on cricket?

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 7.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
Ans	B	D	B	C	A	B	D	C	B	B

$»$ CLOTHING : ASOCIAL HISTORY. $«$

(i) From about 1294 to the time of the French Revolution in 1789, the people of France were expected to strictly follow ‘sumptuary laws’ which tried to control the behaviour of those considered social inferiors, preventing them from wearing certain clothes, censuring certain foods and beverages and hunting game in certain areas. According to the ‘sumptuary laws’, only royalty could wear expensive materials like ermine and fur, or silk, velvet and brocade. Other classes were debarred from clothing the selves with materials that were associated with the aristocracy.

(ii) The French Revolution ended these distinctions. From now on, both men and women began wearing clothing that was loose and comfortable. The colours of France - blue, white and red - became popular as they were sign of the patriotic citizen. Other political symbols too became a part of dress: the red cap of liberty, long rouses and the revolutionary cockade pinned on to a hat. The simplicity of clothing was meant to express the idea of equality.

CLOTHING AND NOTIONS OF BEAUTY

(i) The end of sumptuary laws did not mean that everyone in European societies could now dress in the same way, differences between the social strata remained. The poor could not dress like the rich, nor eat the same food. But laws no longer barred people’s right to dress in the way they wished. Differences. In earning, rather than sumptuary laws, now defined what the rich and poor could wear. The notion of what was beautiful or ugly proper or improper, decent or vulgar differed,

(ii) Styles of clothing emphasized differences between men and women in Victorian England were groomed from childhood to be docile and dutiful. Submissive and obedient. The ideal woman was one who could bear pain and suffering. While men were expected to be serious, strong, independent and aggressive, women were seen as frivolous, delicate, passive and docile. Norms of clothing reflected these ideals. From childhood, girls were tightly laced up and dressed in stays. The effort was to restrict the growth of their bodies, contain them within small moulds. When slightly older, girls had to wear tight fitting corsets. Tightly laced, small-wasted women were admired as attractive, elegant and graceful Clothing thus played a part in creating the image of frail, submissive Victorian women.

(a) How Did Women React to These Norms?

(i) Many women believed in the ideals of womanhood. The ideals were in the air they breathed, the literature they read, the education they had received at school and at home.

(ii) But not everyone accepted these values. By the 1830s, women in England began agitating for democratic rights. As the suffrage movement developed, many began campaigning for dress reform. Women’s magazines described how tight dresses and corsets caused deformities and lines among young girls. Doctors reported that many women were regularly complaining of actual weakness, felt languid, and fainted frequently. Corsets then became necessary to hold up the weakened spine.

(iii) In America, a similar movement developed amongst the white setters on the east coast. Traditional feminine the position of women. If clothes were comfortable and convenient, then women could work, earn their living and become independent. In the 1870s, the National Woman Suffrage Association headed by Mrs. Stanton, and the American Woman Suffrage Association dominated by Lucy Stone both campaigned for dress reform. The argument was: simplify dress, shorten skirts, and abandon corsets. On both sides of the Atlantic, there was now a movement for rational dress reform.

(iv) The reformers did not immediately succeed in changing social values. They had to face ridicule and hostility. Conservatives everywhere opposed change. Faced with persistent attacks, many women reformers changed back into traditional clothes to confirm to conventions.

(v) By the end of the ninetieth century, however, change was clearly in the air. Ideals of beauty and styles of clothing were both transformed under a variety of pressures. People began accepting the ideas of reformers they had earlier ridiculed. With new times came new values.

NEW TIMES

Many changes were made possible in Britain due to the introduction of new materials and technologies. Other changes came about because of the two world wars and the new working conditions for women.

(a) New Materials:

(i) After 1600, trade with India brought cheap, beautiful and easy - to - maintain Indian chintzes within the reach of many Europeans who could now increase the size of their wardrobes.

(ii) During the industrial Revolution, in the nineteenth century, Britain began the mass manufacture of cotton textiles which became more accessible to a wider section of people in Europe. By the early twentieth century, artificial fibers made clothes cheaper still and easier to wash and maintain.

(iii) In the late 1870s, heavy restrictive underclothes, which had created such a storn in te pages of women’s magazines, were gradually discarded. Clothes got lighter, shorter and simpler.

(iv) Yet until 1914, clothes were ankle length, as they had been since the thirteenth century. by 1915, however, the hemline of the skirt rose dramatically to mid-calf.

(b) The Wars:

Changes in women’s clothing came about as a result the two World Wars.

(i) Many European women stopped wearing jewellery and luxurious clothes. As upper-class women mixed with other classes, social barriens were eroded and women began to look similar.

(ii) Number of women workers multiplied fast. A job, they wore a working uniform. Shorter skirts and trousers became common dresses for women.

(iii) Bright colours faded; only sober colours were worn. Skirts became shorter. Soon trousers became a vital part of Waster women’s clothing; women took to cutting their hair short for convenience.

(iv) By the twentieth century, a plain and austere style came to reflect seriousness and professionalism. New schools for children emphasized the importance of plain clothing. As women took to sports, they had to wear clothes that did not hamper movement. When they went out to work they needed clothes that were comfortable and convenient.

TRANSE ORMATIONS IN COLONIAL INDIA

During colonial period there were significant changes in male and female clothing in India. This was a consequence of the influence of Western dress forms and missionary activity and due to the effort by Indians to fashion clothing styles that embodied and indigenous tradition symbols of the national movement. When western- style clothing came into India in the nineteenth century, Indians reacted in three different ways:

(i) There was a section of society to whorn western clothes were assign, of modernity and progress. They adopted these dresses. There was another section of society, who found western style clothing as symbolic of liberation. Among these, the important ones were the dalits who had converted to Christianity.

(ii) Another group of people were convinced that western culture would lead to a lose of traditional cultural identity. These people kept away from western clothes.

(iii) Another group of people began to wear western clothes without giving up their Indians ones. They would wear western style clothes when out on work, and would to back to more comfortable Indian clothes when relaxing at home.

(a) Caste Conflict and Dress Change:

(i) India had own strict social codes of food and dress. The caste system clearly defined what subordinate and dominant cast Hindus should wear, eat, etc, and these codes had these codes had the force of law. Change in clothing styles that threatened these norms therefore often created violent social reactions.

(ii) The Shiners (also called Nadirs) were a community of toddy tappets who migrated to southern Travancore to work under Nair Landlords. As they were considered a ‘subordinate caste’, they were prohibited from using umbrellas and wearing shoes or golden ornaments. Men and women were also expected to follow the local custom of never covering their upper bodies before the upper castes.

(iii) Under the influence of Christian missionsm, Shanar women converts began in the 1820s to wear tailored blouses and cloths to cover themselves like the upper castes. Soon Nairs attacked these women. Complaints were also filed in court against this dress change.

(iv) At first, the Government of Travancore issued a proclamation in 1829 ordering Shanar women ’to abstain in future from covering the upper parts of the body’. But this did not prevent Shanar Christian women, and even Shanar Hindus, from adopting the blouse and upper cloth.

(v) The abolition of slavery in Travancore in 1855 led to even more frustration among the upper castes who felt them losing control. In October 1859, riots broke out as Shanar women were attacked in the market place and stripped of their upper cloths. Houses were looted and chapels burned. Finally, the government issued another proclamation permitting Shanar women, whether Christian and Hindu, to wear a jacket, or cover their upper bodies ‘in any manner whatever, but not like the women of high caste’.

(b) British Rule and Dress Codes:

In different cultures, specific items of clothing often convey meanings. This frequently leads to misunderstanding and confect. Styles of clothing in British India changed through such conflicts.

(i) When European traders first began frequenting India, they were distinguished from the Indian ’turban wearers’ as the ‘hat wearers..’ these two headgears not only looked different , they also signified different things. The turban in India was not just for protection from the heat but was a sign of respectability, and could not be removed at will. In the Western tradition, the hat had to be removed before social superiors as a sign of respect. This cultural difference created misunderstanding. The British were often offended if Indians did not take off their turban when they met colonial officials. Many Indians on the other hand wore the turban to consciously assert their regional or national identity.

(ii) Another such conflict related to the wearing of shoes. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, it was customary for British officials to follow Indian etiquette and remove their footwear. In the courts of ruling kings or chiefs. In 1824-1828, Governor-General Amherst insisted that Indians take their shoes off as a sign of respect when they appeared before him, but this was not strictly followed. By the mid-nineteenth century, when Lord Dalhousie was Governor General, ‘shoe respect’ was made stricter, and Indians were made to take off their shoes when entering any government institution; only those who wore European clothes were exempted from this rule. Many Indian government servants were increasingly getting uncomfortable with these rules.

“Women in nineteenth century India were obliged to continue wearing traditional Indian dress even when men switched over to the more convenient Western clothing.”

It is doubtful if men changed over to western dresses out of reasons of convenience. They changed over to western dresses for different reasons. And these reasons were not applicable to women.

(i) Men had to go out to work and interact with their western bosses and native subordinates. These men would were western clothes to please their western bosses and carry fevour with them; and to show off their borrowed authority to their subordinates. The women had not to go for work. There was no0 need for them to change to new dress.

(ii) Social interactions of women were limited to closed family gatherings. They were more comfortable in their own traditional dresses.

(iii) Western dresses were not easily available, and these were costly. it is obvious that women were stay-athome type, had little say in out-the -home affairs, and were conservative and little responsive to changes.

DESIGNING THE NATIONAL DRESS

(i) As nationalist feelings swept across India by the late nineteenth century; Indians began devising cultural symbols that would express the unity of the nation.

(ii) The Tagore family of Bengal experimented, beginning in the 1870s, with designs for a national dress for born man and women in India. Rabindranath Tagore suggested that instead of combining Indian and European dress, India’s national dress should combine elements of Hindu and Muslim dress. Thus the chapkan (a long buttoned coat) was considered the most suitable dress suitable dress for men.

(iii) In the late 1870s, Janandanadini Devi, wife of Satyendranath Tagore, the first Indian member of the ICS, returned from Bombay to Calcutta. She adopted the Parsi style of wearing the sari pinned to the left shoulder with a brooch, and worn with a blouse and shoes. This was quickly adopted by Brahmo Samaji women and came to be known as the Brahmika sari. This style gained acceptance before long among Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh Brahmos, as well as non-Brahmos.

(iv) Women of Gujarat, Kogadu, Kerala and Assam continue to wear different types of sari.

(a) The Swadeshi Movement:

(i) India accounted for one-fourth of the world’s manufactured good in the seventeenth century. There were a million weavers in Bengal alone in the middle of the eighteenth century.

(ii) The Industrial Revolution in Britain, which mechanized spinning and weaving and greatly increased the demand for raw materials such as cotton and indigo, changed India’s status in the world economy.

(iii) Political control of India helped the British in two ways: Indian peasants could be forced to grow crops such as indigo, and cheap British manufacture easily replaced coarser Indian one. large numbers of Indian weavers and spinners were left without work, and important tactile weaving centers such as Muslimabad, Machilipatham and Surat declined as demand tell.

(iv) In the middle of the $20^{\text {th }}$ century, large numbers of people began boycotting British or mill-made cloth and adopting khadi, even bough it was coarser, more expensive and difficult to obtain.

(v) The Swadeshi movement developed in reaction to this measure. People were urged to boycott British goods of all kind and start their own industries for the manufacture of goods such as matchboxes and cigarettes. Mass protests followed, with people vowing to cleanse themselves of colonial rule. The use of khadi was a patriotic duty.

(vi) The change of dress appeared largely to the upper castes and classes rather then to those who had to make do with less and could not afford the new products.

(vii) Though many people called to the cause of nationalism at this time, it was almost impossible to compete with cheap British goods that had flooded the market.

(viii) The experiment with Swadeshi gave Mahatma Gandhi important ideas about using cloth as a symbolic weapon against British rule.

(b) Mahatma Gandhi’s Experiments with clothing:

Mahatma Gandhi made spinning on the charkha and the daily use of khadi, or coarse cloth made from homespun yam, very powerful symbols. These were not symbols of self-reliance but also of resistance to the use of British mili-made cloth.

(i) As a young boy, Mahatma Gandhi wore a shin with a dhoti or pajama and sometimes a coat. When he went to study law in London he dressed in western salts so he would not be laughed at.

(ii) Deciding that dressing ‘unsuitably’ was a popular political segment; Gandhi appeared in Durban in 1913 clad in a lungi and Kuna. He also shaved his head as a sigh of mourning to priest against the shooting of Indian coal miners.

(iii) In 1915, he decided d to dress like a Kahiawadi peasant. in 1921, he decided to adopt the short dhoti, a form of dress he wore till his death.

(iv) He consciously rejected the well-known cloths of the Indian ascetic and adopted the dress of the poorest Indian.

(v) Khadi to him was a sign of purity, simplicity and poverty. wearing it became a symbol of nationalism and a rejection of western mill-made cloth.

(vi) He wore the short dhoti without a shirt when he went to England for the Round Table Conference in 1931. He refused to compromise and wore it even before King George V at Buckingham Palace.

(c) Nor All could Wear Khadi

Mahatma Gandhi dream was to clothe the whole nation in khadi. Though he succeeded using khadi as a source to inspire the Indian people but there were many different opinions.

(i) The British machine made clothes were much cheaper as compared to khadi. Poverty rate was very high in India, so most of the poor started adopting foreign clothes.

(ii) The wealthy Parsi’s of western India were among the first to adapt Western-style clothing because western clothes were a sign of modernity and progress.

(iii) Though Moti Lal Nehru gave up his expensive Western-style suits and adopted the Indian dhoti and kurta but these were not made up of coarse material as suggested by Gandhiji.

(iv) As the casts system in India was very rigid and western dress style was for all, So many people adopted it for self-respect and equality.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP-8.1

1 According to sumptuary laws in France, only could wear expensive materials like ermine & fur, or silk, velvet & brocade.

(A) Clergy

(B) Royalty

(D) Women

2 In England from childhood, girls were tightly laced up dressed in stays. When slightly older, girls had to wear tight fitting

(A) Jeans

(B) Skirts

(D) Shirts

3 By the 1930’s women in England began agitating for democratic right. As the movement developed, many began campaigning for dress reform.

(A) Social

(B) Religious

(D) Suffrage

4 If clothes were then women could work, earn their living and become independent.

(A) Tight and smartly stitched

(B) Uncomfortable

(D) Comfortable and convenient

5 By the end of the $19^{\text {th }}$ century, however, change was clearly in the air. People began accepting the ides of they had earlier ridiculed. With new times came new values.

(A) Capitalists

(B) Socialists

(D) Reformers

6 After 1600, trade with indica brought cheap, beautiful and easy to maintain Indian within the reach of many Europeans who could now increase the size of their wars robes.

(A) Cotton

(B) Silk

(D) Jute

7 Changes in women’s clothing came about as a result of the

(A) Two world wars

(B) American Revolution

(D) Aluminium Revolution

8 During the First World War clothes became plainer and simpler. Skirts became shorter. Soon became a vital part of western women’s clothing, giving them greater freedom of movement.

(A) Skirt

(B) Trousers

(D) Short Shirts

9 During the Industrial Revolution, in the 19 th century, Britain began the mass manufacture which it exported to many parts of the world, including India.

(A) Cotton

(B) Silk

(D) Synthetic fiber

10 By the twentieth century, a style came to reflect seriousness and professionalism.

(A) Luxurious

(B) Traditional

(D) Plain & Austere

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 8.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1 What were the sumptuary laws in France?

2 How did the social hierarchy influence the clothing pattern in France?

3 What was the impact of the France Revolution on the clothes? What political significance did it have?

4 Why were the traditional feminine clothes criticized in the 1830’s in England?

5 Why were the traditional feminine clothes criticized in America?

6 What was the movement for Rational Dress Reform?

7 What where the suggestion made by Rabindranath Tagore about Indian dresses?

8 What was the Brahmika sari?

9 What is Gandhian Cap?

10 What was peta, fez and Chapkan?

Short Answer Type Questions:

11 Did everyone begin to dress alike after the French Revolution? Why or not?

12 Did the Victorian women accept this clothing code without protest?

13 Explain the reasons for the changes in clothing patterns and materials in the eighteenth century.

14 How did change in clothing after the Franc Revolution express the idea of quality?

15 How did styles of clothing emphasis differences between men and women?

16 Clothing played a part in creating the image of frail, submissive Victorian women”. Explain.

17 Did the Victorian women accept this clothing code without protest?

18 How did the clothing pattern change for the western women in the 20 th century?

19 How did Indians react to western style clothing?

20 How did the British rule affect the Indian textile industry?

Long Answer Type Questions:

21 Give any two examples of the ways in which European dress codes were different from Indian dress codes?

22 Suggest reasons why women in 19 th century India were obliged to continue wearing traditional Indian dress even when man switched over to the more convenient Western clothing . what does this show about the position of women in India?

23 Why did Mahatma Gandhi’s dream of clothing the nation in khadi appeal only to some sections of society?

24 How did Indians react to the introduction of western clothes in 19 th century India?

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 8.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
Ans	B	C	D	D	D	C	A	B	A	D

$»$ India: Size And LOCATION $«$

Location

India is a vast country. LYING ENTIRELY IN THE Northern hemisphere the main land extends between latitudes $84^{\prime} N$ and $37^{\circ} 6^{\prime}$ and longitudes $68^{\circ} 7^{\prime}$ E $97^{\circ} 25^{\prime}$ E. the Tropic of Cancer ( $23^{\circ} 30^{\prime} N$ ) divides the country into almost two equal parts. To the southeast and southwest of the mainland, lie the Andaman and Nicobar islands in Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep islands in the Arabian Sea.

Size

the land mass of India has an area of 3.28 million square $km$. India’s total areas accounts for about 2.4 per cent of the total geographical area of the world. India is the seventh largest country of the world. India has a land boundary of about $15200 km$ and the total length of the coast line of the mainland including Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep is $7516.6 km$.

(a) India has a distinct physical and cultural identity:

Notwithstanding wide diversity, the Indian society has fostered unity and homogeneity. To a large extent this unity and homogeneity has been promoted by the geographical features of the country.

(i) On its north, India is bounded by lofty mountains. These mountains run east-west for thousands of kilometers. These provide a natural wall against all possible intrusions.

(ii) On the south, India is surrounded by the seas and the ocean from three sides. It means, the land is protected from outside intrusions.

Theses geographical features have ensured that:

(i) people from outside could come only through well-defined routes, whether by sea or through passes in mountains.

(ii) People who came from outside brought with them their cultural elements. these elements came to be assimilated in Indian culture.

(iii) Indian society adapted itself to the new norms.

(iv) Thus, by adopting new norms and values and accepting them as their own, unity and homogeneity came to ‘be promoted.

Location and Extent of India.

(b) “The north-south extent of India is larger than its east-west extent even through the country’s latitudinal and longitudinal extent in degree es is of the same value.”

The north-south distance between two successive latitudes remains the same or constant, and it is $3214 km$ is this case. But the east-west distance between the two successive longitudes goes on progressively decreasing from the equator to the poles. This is because all the meridians merge into a single point at the poles. in India the maximum east-west extent therefore is much less than $km$. it is $2933 km$ only.

(c) Impact of the longitudinal extent of India:

The earth takes 24 hours to corrupted one rotation $(360^{\circ})$ about its axis. It means the earth rotates at the pace of 15 per hour $(360^{\circ} / 24)$ As the longitudinal extent of India is about 30 longitude the time lag between easternmost and westernmost points of India is of two hours. When it is 6.00 a.m at eastern extremity of India it is still $4.00 a . m$. at the westernmost point of India. To avoid this time confusion, time along the Standard Meridian of India ( $82^{\circ} 30^{\prime} E$ ) passing through Mizapur (in Uttar Pradesh) is taken as the standard time for the whole country. the latitude with an odd value of $82^{\circ} 30^{\prime} E$ has been selected as the Standard Meridian of India as -

(i) It is well divisible by $7 o 30^{\prime}$, a standard adopted by almost all the countries of the world.

(ii) It lies almost in the middle of India, and as such, it suits us the most.

(d) Impact of the Latitudinal extent of India:

Kanyakumari is situated near Equator. here days and nights are almost equal, the maximum difference is 45 minutes only. but as we move farther towards north or south of the Equator, the difference between the length of the day and night becomes progressively larger. in north Kashmir it is as much as 5 hours, as it is far away from the equator.

INDIA AND THE WORED

(a) Significance of India’s Location:

(i) Very thickly populated parts of the world such as China, Japan and Southeast Asia lie very close to India. This has helped in developing trade and other relations with them.

(ii) The oil rich countries of the Persian Gulf not far from us. we receive bulk of our supplies from them.

(iii) Being at the head of the Indian Ocean, the country occupies a strategic position and commercially favorable location in respect of Africa, Asia Australia.

(iv) The Suez sea-route provides us the shortest route to industrial Europe and America.

(v) The busy air-routes pass through India, connecting east, South East Asia and Australia on the one hand and Europe and America on the other.

(vi) The third largest ocean in the world came to be known as the Indian Ocean because the subcontinent of India stands at the head of this ocean. India was the favorite destination of the traders of the world.

Indian on International Highway of Trade and Commerce

(b) India’s Contacts with the outside World in Ancient and Medieval Times:

India belongs to the Eastern Hemisphere, which contains the oriental world. In ancient times, the sea played an important role in determining the nature of interaction. The central location of India at the head of the Indian Ocean was of great advantage. Countries of East Africa, West Asia, South and South-East

Asia, and East Asia could reached be through sea routes. Hence, India established close cultural and commercial contacts with these countries.

India’s contacts with the outside world have continued through the ages:

(i) The exchanges of ideas and commodities dates back to the ancient times.

(ii) The ideas of the Upanishads, and the Ramayana, the stories of Panchatantras, the Indian numerals and the decimal system could reach many parts of the world.

(iii) The spices, muslin and other Indian goods were taken to different countries.]

(iv) The influence of Greek sculpture, and the architectural styles of dome and minarets from West Asia can be seen in India.

INDIA’S NEGIGHBOLIRS

To the north of India are China, Nepal and Bhutan, and to the east, Bangladesh and Myanmar, to the west and northwest are Pakistan and Afghanistan. In the south, separated from India by the Palk Strait, lies the island country of Sri Lanka. To the south of Lakshadweep lies Maldives, Not far the Andaman and Nicobar islands lie our closest South-East Asian neighbours: Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand.

India and Adjacent Countries

(a) The Indian Subcontinent:

India is called a subcontinent because of its vastness and distinct physical and cultural identity. The countries that form the Indian subcontinent are Pakistan in the northwest, India at the core, Nepal in the north, Bhutan in the northeast and Bangladesh in the east.

SOME INTERESTING KNOWLWDGE

(i) The southernmost point of the Indian Union - ‘Indira Point’ got submerged under the sea water in 2004 during the Tsunami.

(ii) Since the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, India’s distance from Europe has been reduced by $7000 km$.

(iii) Before 1947, there were two types of states in India - the provinces and the princely states. Provinces were ruled directly by British officials who were appointed by the Viceroy. Princely states were ruled by local, hereditary rulers, who acknowledged sovereignty in return for local autonomy.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP- 1.1

1 The tropic of Cancer does not pass through -

(A) Rajasthan

(B) Orissa

(D) Tripura

2 The easternmost longitude of India is -

(A) $977^{\circ} 5^{\prime} E$

(B) $68^{\circ} 7^{\prime} E$

(D) $82^{\circ} 32^{\prime} E$

3 What per cent of the world’s land area is with India?

(A) $0.42 %$

(B) $1.42 %$

(D) $3.42 %$

4 What is the length of the land boundary of India?

(A) $5200 km$

(B) $15200 km$

(D) $52000 km$

5 Name the parallel of latitude which divides India into almost two equal parts.

(A) Tropic of Cancer

(B) Tropic of Capricorn

(D) Arctic Circle

6 Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim have common frontiers with -

(A) China

(B) Bhutan

(D) Myanmar

7 If you intend to visit Kavarati during your summer vacations, which one of the following Union Territories of India you will be going to

(A) Pondicherry

(B) Lakshadweep

(D) Diu and Daman

8 My friend hails from a country which does not share land boundary with India. Identify the country.

(A) Bhutan

(B) Tajakistan

(D) Nepal

9 Name the group of islands lying in the Arabian Sea.

(A) Andaman and Nicobar

(B) Lakshadweep

(D) None of these

10 Which of the following country is not larger than India?

(A) Russia

(B) USA

(D) France

11 Which island group of India lies to its southeast?

(A) Andaman And Nicobar

(B) Lakshadweep

(D) None of these

12 Which Longitude represents the Standard Meridian of India?

(A) $97^{\circ} 25^{\prime} E$

(B) $8^{\circ} 7^{\prime} E$

(D) None of these

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1 Which is the southernmost tip of Indian Union?

2 What are the degrees of latitude of the northern extremity of India?

3 Which island group of India lies to its southwest?

4 What is the north-south and east-west distance of India?

5 What is the total length of the coast line of the mainland of indica including its islands?

6 Name the two routes by which India is connected with Europe, North America and South America.

Short Answer Type Questions:

7 What is the longitudinal and latitudinal extension of India? What is its importance?

8 Latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India is about 30. Then why is North-south extent bigger than East-west extent?

9 Why we have selected a standard meridian with an odd value of $82030 E$ ?

10 The sun rises two hours earlier in Arunachal Pradesh as compared to Gujarat in the west but the watches show the same time. How does this happen?

11 Why the difference between the duration of day and night hardly felt at. Kanyakumari but not so in Kashmir ?

12 What is the total land of India? Which countries of the world are bigger than India ?

Long Answer Type Questions:

13 What is the significance of Indian’s location?

14 Describe how geographical of India have fostered unity and homogeneity in the Indian society.

15 Give a brief account of India’s contacts with the outside world in ancient and medieval times.

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 1.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
Ans	B	A	C	B	A	C	B	B	B	D	A	A

$»$ PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA $«$

THEORY OF PLATE TECTONIL

Our Country has practically all major physical features of the earth i.e. mountains, plains, deserts, plateaus and islands. India is a large landmass formed during different geological periods which has influenced her roller. Besides geological formations, a number of processes such as weathering, erosion and deposition have created and modified the relief to its present form.

earth scientists have attempted to explain the formation of physical features with the help of “Theory of Plate Tectonics”. According to this theory, the crust (upper part) of the earth has been formed out of seven major and some minor plates.

The movement of the plates results in the building of stresses within the plates and the continental rocks above, leading to folding, fruiting and volcanic activity. broadly, these plate movements are classified into three types.

(i) While some plates come towards each other form convergent boundary. in the event of two plates coming together they may either collide and crumble, or one may slide under the other.

(ii) Some plates move away from each other and form divergent boundary.

(iii) At times, they may also move horizontally past each other and from transform boundary.

The movement of these plates has changed the position and size of the continents over millions of years. such movements have also influenced the evolution of the present landform features relief of India.

(a) Formation of Himalayas:

The convectional currents split the crust into a number of pieces, thus leading to the drifting of the indoAustralian after being separated from the Gondwana land, towards north. the northward drift resulted in the collision of the plate with much larger Eurasian plate. due to this collision, the sedimentary rocks which were accumulated in the geosynclines know as the Tethys were folded to form the mountain system of Western Asia and Himalaya.

(b) Formation of Northern plains:

The Himalayan uplift out of the Tethys Sea and subsidence of the northern flank of the peninsular plateau resulted in the formation of a large basin. in due course of time this depression, gradually got filled with deposition of sediments by the rivers flowing from the mountains in the north and the peninsular plateau in the south. a flat land of extensive alluvial deposits led to the formation of the northern plains of India.

(c) “The land of India displays great physical variation.” :

(i) Geologically, the Peninsular Plateau constitutes one of the ancient landmasses on the earth’s surface. it was supposed to be one of the most stable land blocks. the peninsular plateau is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks with gently rising hills and wide valleys.

(ii) The Himalayas and the Northern Plains are the most recent landforms. From the view point of geology, Himalayan Mountains form an unstable zone. The whole mountain system of Himalayas represents a very youthful topography with peaks, deep valleys and fast flowing rivers.

(iii) The northern plains are formed of alluvial deposits.

MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION

(a) The Himalayan Mountains:

The Himalayas, geologically young and structurally fold mountains stretch over the Northen borders of India. These mountain ranges run in a west-east direction from the Indus to the Brahmaputra. They form an arc, which covers a distance of about 2,400km. Their width varies from 400km in Kashmir to $150 km$ in Arunachal Pradesh. The altitudinal variations are greater in the eastern half then those in the western half.

The Latitudinal parallel ranges of Himalayas:

(i) The northern most range is known as the Great or inner Himalayas or the ‘Himadri’. it is the most continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks with an average height of 6,000 meters. It contains all the prominent Himalayas peaks. the core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite. it is perennially snow bound, and a number of glaciers descend from this range.

(ii) The range lying to the south of the Himadri forms the most rugged mountain system and is known as Himachal or lesser Himalaya. The ranges are mainly composed of highly compressed and altered rocks. The altitude varies between 3700 and 4500 meters and the average width is $50 km$. the prominent ranges over here are Pir Panjal, Dhaula Dhar and Mahabharata ranges. This range consists of the famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh. This region is well known for its hill stations.

(iii) The outer most range of the Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks. They extend over a width of $10-50 km$ and have an altitude varying between 9000 and 1100 meters. These ranges are composed of unconsolidated sediments brought down by rivers from the main Himalayan ranges located farther north. These valleys are covered with thick gravel and alluvium.

The longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya and the Shiwaliks are known as Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are some of the well-known Duns.

Division of Himalayas on the basis of regions from west to east:

These divisions have been demarcated by river valleys.

(i) The part of Himalayas lying between Indus and Satluj has been traditionally known as Punjab Himalaya, also known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya from west to east respectively.

(ii) The part of the Himalayas lying between Satluj and Kali rivers is known as Kumaon Himalayas.

(iii) The Kali and Tista rivers demarcate the Nepal Himalayas.

(iv) The part lying between Tista and Dihang rivers is known as Assam Himalayas.

Purvanchal or the Eastern hills and mountains:

Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply to the south and spread along the eastern boundary of India. They are known as the Purvanchal or the Eastern hills and mountains. These hills running through the northeastern states are mostly composed of strong sandstones which are sedimentary rocks, Covered with dense forests, they mostly run as parallel ranges and valleys. The Purvanchal comprises the Patkai hills, the Naga hills, Manipur hills and the Mizo hills.

(b) The Northen Plains:

The Northen plain has been formed by the interplay of the three major river systems, namely - the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra along with their tributaries. This plain is formed of alluvial soil. it spreads over an area of 7 lakh sq. $km$. the plain being about $2400 km$ long and 240 to $320 km$ broad, is a densely populated physiographic division. with a rich soil cover combined with adequate water supply and favorable climate it is agriculturally a very productive part of India. the rivers coming from northern mountains are involved in depositional work. in the lower course, due to gentle slope, the velocity of the river decreases which results in the formation of riverine islands. The rivers in their lower course split into numerous channels due to the deposition of silt. These channels are known are known distributaries.

Divisions of Northern Plains:

(i) Punjab Plains: The western part of the Northen Plain, is formed by the Indus and her tributaries, the larger part of this plain lies in Pakistan. The Indus and its tributaries - the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj originate in the Himalaya. this section of the plain is dominated by the doabs.

(ii) Ganga Plain: Extends between Ghaggar and Tista rivers. it is spread over the states of north India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, party Jharkhand and West Bengal.

(iii) Brahmaputra Plain: Lies in the east of Ganga plain, particularly in Assam.

Divisions of Northern Plains on the basis of relief features :

(i) The rivers, after descending from the mountains deposit pebbles in a narrow belt of about 8 to $16 km$ in width lying parallel to the slopes of the Shiwaliks. It is known as bhabar. All the streams disappear in this bhabar belt.

(ii) South of bhabar belt, the streams and rivers reemerge and create a wet, swampy and marshy region known as terai. This was a thickly forested land full of wildlife. The forests have been cleared to create agricultural land and to settle migrants from Pakistan after partition.

(iii) The largest part of the northern plain is formed of older alluvium. They lie above the flood plains of the rivers and present a terrace like feature. This part is known as bhangar. The soil in this region contains calcareous deposits locally known as kankar.

(iv) The newer, younger deposits of the flood plains are called khaddar, They are renewed almost every year and so are fertile, thus, ideal for intensive agriculture.

	Bhangar	Khaddar
1	Old alluviam	New alluviam
2	Is always above the level of the flood pains	Is finer, more sandy & free from kanker modules
3	Flood plains	more fertile
4	Found away from the river-bed	found near river channels in deltas & floud
5	clayey & dark	sandy & light in colour

(C) The peninsular plateau :

The Peninsular Plateau is a tableland composed of the old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks. It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land and thus, making it a part of the oldest landmass. The plateau has broad and shallow valleys and rounded hills. One of the distinct features of the peninsular plateau is the black soil area known as Deccan Trap. This is of volcanic origin hence the rocks are igneous. Actually these rocks have denuded over time and are responsible for the formation of black soil. The Aravali Hills lie on the western and northwestern margins of the peninsular plateau. These are highly eroded hills and are found as broken hills. They extend from Gujarat to Delhi in a southwest-northwest direction .

The Central Highlands:

The part of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of the Narmada river covering a major area of the Malwa plateau is known as the Central Highlands. The Vindhayan range is bonded by the Central Highlands on the south and the Aravallis on the northwest. The further westward extension gradually merges with the sandy and rocky desert of Rajasthan. The flow of the river draining this region, namely the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and Ken is from southwest to northeast, thus indicating the slope. The Center Highlands are wider in the west but narrower in the east. The eastward extensions of this plateau are locally known as the Bundelkhand and Beghelkhand . The Chotanagpur plateau marks the further eastward extension drained by the Damodar river .

The Deccan Plateau :

The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass that lies to the south of the river Narmada. The Satpura range flanks its broad base in the north while the Mahadev , the Kaimur hills and the Maikal range form its eastern extension. The Deccen Plateau is higher in the west and slopes gently eastwards.

The Northwestern Plateau :

The Northeaster plateau is an extension of the Deccan Plateau in the northeast -locally known as the Meghalaya and Kabi-Anglong Plateau. It is separated by a fault from the Chotanagpur Plateau. Three Prominent hill ranges from the west to east are the Garo, he Khasi and the Jaintia Hills.

	Western Ghats	Eastern Ghats
1	Runs parallel to western coast & forms the western of deccan plateau	Runs parallel to the eastern coast , stretch from the Mahanadi Valley to the Nilgiris in the south
2	Are higher, average height 900-1600 metres	Lower that western ghats, average height 600 metres.
3	Are like a continuous wall can be crossed through passes only (Thal ghat, Borg hat and Pal ghat )	Are discontinuous & irregular, have been dissected by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal.
4	Is the source of many large rivers for e.g. Godavri, Krishna and Kaveri	No big river originates from here.
5	Causes orographic rain by facing the rain bearing moist winds to rise along the western slopes of the Ghats	Receivers rainfall only in winter season thought the North-eastern monsoon.
6	The height of the Western Ghats progressively increases from north to south. Highest peaks include the Anai Mudi (2695 mt.) and the Doda Betta (2637 mt.)	Mahendragiri (1501 mt.) is the highest peak in the Eastern the southeast of the Eastern Ghats.

(d)the Indian Desert :

To the northwest of the Aravalli hills lies the Great Indian Desert. It is a land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans. This region receives low rainfall below $150 mm$ per year ; hence, it has arid climate with low vegetation cover. It is because of these characteristic features that this is also known as Marusthali. Though the underlying rock structure of the desert is an extension of the peninsular plateau, yet due to extreme arid conditions, its surface features have been carved by physical weathering and wind actions. Some of the well renowned desert land features present have are mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis mostly in its southern part). On the basis of the orientation, the desert can be divided into two parts : the northern part is sloping towards Sindh and the southern towards the Rann of Kachch. Most of the fivers in this region are non-perennial . The Luni River flowing in the southern part of desert, the only large river in this region, is of some significance. Barchans (crescent shaped duned) cover largers areas but longitudinal dunes become more prominent near the Indo-Pakistan boundary .

(e) The Coastal Plains :

Indian has a long coastline. On the basis of the location and active geomorphologic processes, it can be broadly divided into two : (i) the western coastal plains; (ii) the eastern coastal plains.

The western coastal plains are an example of submerged coastal plain. Kandla, Mazagoan, Jawahar Lal Nehru port at Navha Sheva, Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin, etc, are some of the important natural ports located along the west coast, Extending from the Gujarat coast in the north to the Kerala coast in the south , the western coast may be divided into following divided into following divisions-the Kachchh and Kathiwar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast in Maharashtra, Goan coast and Malabar coast in Karnataka and Kerala respectively . The western coastal plains are narrow in the middle and get broader towards north and south. The rivers flowing through this coastal plain do not form any delta. The Malabar coast has got certain distinguishing features in the form of ‘Kayals’ (backwaters), which are used for fishing, inland navigation and also due to its special attraction for tourists. Every year the famous Nehru Trouphy Vallamkali (boat race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala.

As compared to the western coastal plain, the eastern coastal plain is broader and is an example of an emergent coast. These include the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishana and the Kaveri. Because of its emergent nature, it has less number of ports and harbours. The continental shelf extends up to $500 km$ into the sea, which makes it difficult for the development of good ports and harbours.

(f) The Islands :

There are two major island groups in India-one in Bay of Bengal and the other in the Arabian Sea. The Bay of Bengal island groups consist of about 200 islands. These are situated roughly between $6^{\circ} N-14^{0} N$ and $92^{\circ} E-94^{\circ} E$. The entire group of island is divided into two broad categories-the Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the south. They are separated by a water body which is called the Ten degree channel . It is believed that these islands are an elevated portion of submarine mountains. However, some smaller islands are volcanic in origin. Barren Island, the only active volcano in India is also situated in the Nicobar Islands.

The islands of the Arabian Sea include Lakshadweep and Minicoy. These are scattered between $8^{0} N-12^{0} N$ and $71^{\circ} E-74^{\circ} E$ longitude. These islands are located at a distance of $280 km-480 km$ off the Kerala coast. The entire island group is built of coral deposits. There are approximately 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited. Minicoy is the largest island with an area of $453 sq$. $km$. The entire group of islands in broadly by the Eleventh degree channel, north of which is the Amini Island. Kavaratti island is the administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep.

Physical divisions of India -Each region complements each other

(i) The northern mountains are the major sources of water and forest wealth.

(ii) The northern plains are the granaries of the country. They provide the base for early civilizations.

(iii) The plateau is a storehouse of minerals, which has played a crucial role in the industrialization of the country.

SOME INTERESTING KNOWLEDGE

(i) Most volcanoes and earthquakes in the world are located at plate margins, but some do occur within the plates.

(ii) Gondwanaland is the southern part ancient super continent Pangea with Angara Land in the northern part.

(iii) Majuli, in the Brahmaputra river is the largest riverine island in world.

(iv) ‘Doab’ is made up of two words-‘do’ meaning two ‘ab’ meaning water. Similarly ‘Punjab’ is also made up of two words. ‘Punj’ meaning five and ‘ab’ meaning water.

(v) The Chilka Lake is the largest salt water lake in India. It lies in the state of Orissa, to the south of Mahanadi delta.

(vi) India’s only active volcano is found on Barren Island in Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP - 201

1 A landmass bounded by sea on three sides is referred to as -

(A) Coast

(B) Island

(D) None of the above

2 Mountain ranges in the eastern part of India forming its boundary with Myanmar are collectively called as -

(A) Himachal

(B) Uttaranchal

(D) None of the above

3 The western coastal strip, south of Goa is referred to as -

(A) Coromandal

(B) Konkan

(D) Northern Circar

4 The southern most tip of India Union is -

(A) Indira Point

(B) Tuticorin

(D) Kanya kumari

5 Name the types of plate movements.

(A) Convergent

(B) Divergent

(D) All of the above

6 Name the oldest landmass of the Indian subcontinent.

(A) The Himalayas

(B) Northern Plains

(D) Island groups

7 The average height of the Hamadri is -]

(A) 5000 meters

(B) 6000 meters

(D) 5500 meters

8 The average width of the Himachal or lesser Himalaya is -

(A) $5 km$

(B) $50 km$

(D) 5500 meters

9 The Nepal Himalayas lies between -

(A) Indus and Satluj

(B) Satluj and Kali

(D) Tista and Dihang

10 The total length of the Northern Plains is -

(A) $2400 km$

(B) $3400 km$

(D) $5000 km$

11 Part of the Northern Plains, which was a thickly forested region full of wildlife, where the forests have been cleared to create agricultural land and to settle migrants from Pakistan after partition.

(A) Bhabar

(B) Terai

(D) Coastal Plains

12 A table land composed of crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks.

(A) Himalayas

(B) Northern Plains

(D) Coastal Plains

13 The part of the Peninsular Plateau lying to the north of the Narmada River covering a major rea of the Malwa plateau is known as -

(A) Eastern Ghats

(B) Western Ghats

(D) Central Highlands

14 The area where the Himalayas stand today was occupied by and ancient sea called the :

(A) Panthalasa ocean

(B) Red sea

(D) Dead Sea

15 Name the island group of India that is of coral origin :

(A) Lakshadweep

(B) Rameshwaram

(D) Andman and Nicobar

SUBJECTIVE DPP -2.2

very short answer type question :

1 What are tectonic plates?

2 Which continents of today were part of the Gondwanaland ?

3 Which is the highest range of the Himalayas? Mention its one feature.

4 What is the width of the northern plains?

5 How is the northern plain divided on the basis of the differences in the relief ?

6 What is barchan ?

7 What is the northern and southern extension of western coast called ?

8 Name the island group of India having coral origin.

9 Name the five rivers that makes Punjab.

10 Which is the highest peak of the Deccan pateau ?

Short answer type questions :

11 Which two forces are responsible for shaping present landform features of India ?

12 Write three facts which prove the physiographic divisions are complementary to each other.

13 How are the Himadri Himalayas different from the Himachal Himalayas ?

14 What are Shiwaliks? Write two characteristics of it .

15 Explain for main characteristics of the northern plains of India .

16 Explain how the Himalayas act as a boon for India four different ways.

17 Distinguish between (i) Converging and diverging tectonic pates. (ii) Bhangar and Khadar (iii)Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats

18 Write short notes on the following . (i) The Indian Desert (ii) The Central Highlands (iii) The Island groups of Idia

Long answer type questions :

19 “Our country has practically all major physical features of the earth”. Explain.

20 Describe the formation of Himalayas and the Northern Plains.

21 Describe the division of Himalayas on the basis of regions from west to east.

22 In how many sections the Northern Plains can be divided ? Explain each of them.

23 Differentiate between the two islands groups of India .

ANSWER KEY

(Objective dpp 2.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9		11	12	13	14	15
Ans.	C	C	C	A	D	C	B	B	C	A	B	C	D	C	A

$»$ DRAINAGE $«$

DRAINAGE PATTERS

The term drainage describes the river system of an area. The area drained by a single river system is called a drainage basin. any elevated area, such as a mountain or an upland which separates two drainage basins is known as water divide.

The streams within a drainage basin from certain patters, depending on the slope of land, underlying rock structure as well as the climatic conditions of the area. These are dendrtelc, trellis, rectangular, and radial patterns. The dendritic pattern develops where the river channel follows the slope of the terrain. The stream with its tributaries resembles the branches of a tree, thus the name dendritic. a river joined by its tributaries, at approximately right angles, develops a trellis pattern. A trellis drainage pattern develops where hard and soft rocks exist parallel to each other. A rectangular drainage pattern develops on a strongly jointed rocky terrain. The radial pattern develops when streams flow in different directions from a central peak or dome like structure.

A combination of several patterns may be found in the same drainage basin.

DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN INDIA

The Drainage systems of India are mainly controlled by the broad relief features of the subcontinent. accordingly, the Indian rivers are divided into two major groups : (i) The Himalayan Rivers and (ii) The Peninsular Rivers.

S.No	The Himalayan Rivers	The Peninsular Rivers
1.	These rivers originate from the glaciers.	These rivers originate on the plateau.
2.	Their catchment area is very large.	Their catchment area is very small.
3.	These rivers pass through gorge and carve deep valleys.	These rivers from shallow valleys.
4.	These rivers are young.	These have acquired maturity.
5.	These are engaged in high erosion activity.	These have very little erosional activity.
6.	These are useful for irrigation.	These are of little use for irrigation.
7.	These rivers are perennial, i.e., they flow throughout the year.	These rivers are non-perennial.
8.	Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra Are The Main Rivers.	Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Narmada and Tapti are major rivers.

The major Himalayan Rivers are the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. These rivers are long, and are joined by many large and important tributaries.

(a) The Himalayan Rivers:

The major Himalayan Rivers are the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. These rivers are long, and are joined by many large and important tributaries.

(A) The Indus River system :

The river Indus rises in Tibet, near Lake Mansarowar. Flowing west, it enters India in the Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir. Several tributaries, the Zaskar, the Nubra, the Shyok and the Hunza, Join it in the Kashmir region. The Indus flows through Baltistan and Gilgit and emerges from the mountains at Attock. The Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum join together to enter the Indus near Mithankot in Pakistan. Beyond this, the Indus flows southwards eventually reaching the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi. The Indus plain has a very gentle slope. With a total length of $2900 km$, the Indus is one of the longest rivers of the world. a little over a third of the Indus basin is located in India in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the Punjab and the rest is in Pakistan.

Indus River System.

(i) The Jhelum, an important tributary of the Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of Kashmir.

(ii) The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus. it is formed by two streams, the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh. hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga. The river flows for $1,180 km$ before entering into Pakistan.

(iii) The Ravi is another important tributary of the Indus. it rises west of the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachhal Pradesh and flows through the Chamba valley of the state. (iv) The Beas is another important tributary of the Indus, originating from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of $4,000 m$ above the mean sea level.

(v) The Satluj originates in the Rakas Lake near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 mt.In Tibet, where it is know as Langchen Khambad.

(B) The Ganga System :

(i) The headwaters of the Ganga, called the ‘Bhagirathi is fed by the Gangotri Glacier and Joined by the Alaknanda at Devprayag in Uttaranchal. At Haridwar the Ganga emerges from the mountains on to the plains.

(ii) The Ganga is joined by the many tributaries from the Himalayas such as the Yamuna, the Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi. The river Yamuna rises from the Yamunotri Glacier in the Himalayas and meets the Ganga at Allahabad. The Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi rise in the Nepal Himalaya.

(iii) The main tributaries from the peninsular uplands are the Chambat, the Betwa and the son.

(iv) The Ganga flows eastwards till Farakka in West Bengal, the northemmost point of the Ganga delta. The river bifurcates here; the Bhairathi-Hooghly flows southwards through the deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal. The mainstream, flow southwards into Bangladesh and is joined by the Brahmaputra. Further down stream, it is known as the Meghna and finally flows into the Bay of Bengal. The delta formed by these rivers is known as the Sunderban Delta.

Ganga River System and Brahmaputra River System.

(C) The Brahmaputra System :

(i) The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet east of Mansarovar Lake. It is slightly longer than the Indus. it flow eastwards parallel to the Himalayas.

(ii) On reaching the Namcha Barwa ( $7757 m$ ), it takes a ’ $U$ ’ turn and enters India in Arunachal Pradesh through a gorge. Here, it is called the Dihang and it is Joined by the Dibang, the Lohit, the Kenula and many other tributaries to from the Brahmaputra in Assam.

(iii) In India it passes through a region of high rainfall. Here the river carries a large volume of water and considerable amount of silt. The Brahmaputra has a braided channel in its entire length in Assam and forms many riverine islands (Majuli, in the Brahmaputra River is the largest inhabited riverine island in the world).

(iv) During the rainy season, the river overflows its banks, causing widespread devastation due to floods in Assam and Bangladesh. Unlike other north Indian rivers the Brahmaputra is marked by huge deposits of silt on its bed causing the river bed to rise. The river also shifts its channel frequently.

THE PENINSULAR RIVERS

The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one. This is evident from the broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, and the maturity of the rivers. Peninsular rivers are characterized by fixed course, absence of meanders, small drainage basin and non-perennial flow of water. He main water divide in peninsular Indian is formed by the Western Ghats. Most of the major rivers of the Peninsula flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal. The Narmada and the Tapi which flow through the rift valley are exceptions.

(a) The Narmada Basin:

(i) The Narmada originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau at a height of about $1,057 m$. It falls into the Arabian Sea south of Bharuch. The Sardar sarovar project has been constructed on this river.

(ii) Flowing in rift valley between the satpura in the south and the vindhyan range in the north the Narmada creates many picturesque locations. the ‘Marble rocks’, near Jabalpur where the Narmada flows through a deep gorge, and the ‘Dhuadhar falls’ where the river plunges over steep rocks, are some of the notable ones.

(iii) All the tributaries of the Narmada are very short and most of these join the main steam at right angles. The Narmada basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.

(b) The Tapi Basin:

The Tapi originates from Satpura ranges in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. nearly 79 per cent of its basin lies in Maharashtra, 15 per cent in Madhya Pradesh and the remaining 6 per cent in Gujarat. The Tapi flows in a rift valley parallel to the Narmada but it is much shorter in length.

(c) The Godavari Basin :

(i) The Godavari is the largest peninsular river system. it rises from the slopes of the Western Ghats in the Nashik district of Maharashtra. its length is about $1500 km$.

(ii) Because of its length and the area it covers, it is also known as the Dakshin Ganga. its basin cover parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.

(iii) The Godavari is joined by a number of tributaries such as the Penganga, the Preheat, the Manjira, the Wainganga and the Wardha. It finally drains into the Bay of Bengal.

(d) The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in Raipur district of Chattisgarh and runs through Orissa to discharge its water into Bay of Bengal. fifty three per cent of the drainage basin of this river lies in Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh, while 47 per cent lies in Orissa.

(e) The Krishna is the second largest east-flowing peninsular river which rises near Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri. Its total length is $1,401 km$. the Koyna, the Tungbhadra and the Bhima are its major tributaries.

(f) The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills (3,341m) of Kogadu district in Karnataka. Since the upper catchment area receives rainfall during the southwest monsoon season (summer) and the lower part during the northeast monsoon season (winter), the river carries water throughout the year with comparatively less fluctuation than the other Peninsular rivers. Its important tributaries are the Kabini, the Bhavani and the Amravati.

Peninsular River System.

	East flowing Rivers of Peninsular	West flowing Rivers of Peninsular
1	Rivers - Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri flow from west to east into the Bay of Bengal.	Rivers - Narmada and Tapi flow from East to West into the Arabian Sea.
2	These rivers form fertile deltas along the eastem coast.	These form estuaries on the westem coast.
3	These rivers are longer and drain bigger areas. Their main course is flat area.	These two rivers are shorter as compared to east flowing rivers. They flow through trough and from gorges.
4	They are rain-fed and depend on rainfall and are seasonal.	They are also rain-fed and are seasonal rivers.

LAKES

(i) sambhar Lake is the largest inland salt take of India situated in Rajasthan. Other salt lakes in Rajasthan are Didwana, Degana, Pachadra, Kucha man, Lunkaransar.

(ii) Lunar Lake situated in Maharashtra is a crater lake. (iii) chilka Lake situated in Puri district of Orissa & south of the Mahanadi delth is the biggest lake of the country.

(iv) Kolleru Lake is deltaic Lake of Andhra Pradesh situated between the Krishna & Godavari delth.

(v) Pulicat Lake situated in the north of Chennai is a shallow lagoon. it has been barred by a long sandpit which is actually Sri Harikota lsland.

(vi) Loktak Lake situated in Manipur is the largest fresh water lake in the North East India. Keibul lamjao, the only floating National Park of the country is situated here.

(vii) Vembanad Lake is a lagoon in Kerala and is an important tourist spot. coconut islands are located in it.

(viii) Gohna Lake situated near Devprayag in Garhwal has been formed by a huge landslide across a tributary of the Ganga.

(ix) Wular Lake & Dal Lake are tectonic lakes formed by faulting activities.

(a) Importance of Lakes:

(i) Lakes are very important to man.

(ii) A lake helps to regulate the flow of a river.

(iii) During heavy rainfall they prevent flooding and during the dry season, they help maintain an even flow of water.

(iv) Lakes are also used for developing hydel power.

(iv) Lakes are a valuable source of water.

(v) They moderate the climate of the surrounding areas.

(vi) They maintain the aquatic ecosystem.

(vii) They enhance natural beauty, helps in developing tourism.

(viii) They provide recreation through boating and swimming.

ROLE OF RIVERS

(i) Rivers have formed fertile northem plains and deltas containing alluvial soils which are the most productive agricultural lands of India.

(ii) Water from rivers is a basic natural resource essential for survival of humans, plants and animals, for agricultural and industrial activities.

(iii) The banks of rivers have been cradles of civilization all over the world. For example Indus civilization in India.

(iv) Rivers have provided cultural and economic progress since ancient time.

(v) Rivers provide inland transportation system. They also dilute and transport wastes from settlements.

(vi) Industrial; development has flourished along rivers. Most of industrial processes depend on water as a raw material, as a coolant and for generating of hydroelectricity.

RIVER POLLUTION

Rapidly growing domestic, Municipal, industrial and agricultural demand for water from rivers naturally affects the quality of water. Today more and more water is drained out of the rivers. It has resulted in reducing their volume. A heavy load of untreated sewage and industrial effluents is emptied into the rivers.

(i) This affects not only the quality of water but also the self cleansing capacity of the river. For example, if there is an adequate stream flow, the Ganga water is able to dilute and assimilate pollution loads of large cities within $20 kms$.

(ii) The result is that pollution level of many rivers is rising.

(iii) Concern over rising pollution of our rivers has launching of various action plants to clean the rivers.

NATIONAL RIVER SONSERVATION PLAN (NRCP)

(i) The activates of Ganga Action Plan (GAP) phase-1 were started in 1985.

(ii) They declared closed on 31 $1^{\text {st }}$ March, 2000.

(iii) The steering Committee of the National River Conservation Authority reviewed the progress of the GAP and necessary corrections were made on the basis of lamed and experiences gained from GAP phase 1.

(iv) They have been applied to the major polluted rivers of their country under the NRCP.

(v) The Ganga Action Plan (GAP) Phase-1l has been merged with the NRCP. The expanded NRCP now covers 152 towns located along 27 interstate rivers in 16 states. Under this action plan, pollution abatement work are being taken up in 57 towns. a total of 215 schemes of pollution abatement have been sanctioned. so far, 69 schemes have been completed under this action plan. A million litre of sewage is targeted to be intercepted, diverted and treated.

SOME INTERESTING KNOWLEDGE

(i) The world’s largest drainage basin is of the Nile River in Egypt.

(ii) According to the regulation of the Indus Water Treaty (1960), India can use only 20 per cent of the total water carried by Indus river system. This water is used for irrigation in the Punjab, Haryana and the southern and western parts of Rajasthan.

(iii) The Sundarban Delth derived its name from the Sundari tree which grows well in marshland. it is the would’s largest and fastest growing delta. it is also the home of Royal Bengal Tiger.

(iv) Brahmaputra is known as the Tsang Po in Tibet and Jamuna in Bangladesh.

(v) The river Kaveri makes the second biggest waterfall in India. it is known as Sivasmudram. the fall supplies hydroelectric power to Mysore, Bangalore and the Kolar Gold Field.

(vi) 71 percent of the world’s surface is covered with water, but 97 percent of that is salt water. of the 3 percent that is available as freshwater, three quarters of it is trapped as ice.

(iv) Lakes of large extent are called the seas, like the Caspian, the Dead and the Aral seas.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP - 3.1

1 Which one of the following describes the drainage patterns resembling the branches of a tree ?

(A) Radial

(B) Dendritic

(D) Trellis

2 In which of the following states in $\backslash s$ the Wular lake located?

(A) Rajasthan

(B) Uttar Pradesh

(D) Jammu & Kashmir

3 The river Narmada has its sources at:

(A) Satpura

(B) Brahmagiri

(D) Slopes of the Western ghats

4 Which one of the following lakes is a salt water lake?

(A) Sambhar

(B) Dal

(D) Govind Sager

5 Which one of the following is the largest river of the Peninsular India?

(A) Narmada

(B) Krishna

(D) Mahanadi

6 Which one of the following rivers flows through a rift valley?

(A) Damodar

(B) Tungbhadra

(D) Tapti

7 Which one of the following rivers have Nagarjun Sagar Dam, a river valley project?

(A) Kaveri

(B) Krishna

(D) Mahi

8 What is the name of the river, which rises at Yamunotri glacier?

(A) The Gangas

(B) The Brahmaputra

(D) The Kosi

9 Which of the following rivers rises in Nasik?

(A) Mahanadi

(B) Godavari

(D) Kaveri

10 The area drained by a single river system is called a -

(A) Water shed

(B) Drainage basin

(D) Drainage Line

11 The plains from Ambala to the Sunderban stretch over nearly is -

(A) Nearly $1800 km$

(B) Over $2000 km$

(D) Over $3000 km$

12 Kosi river is the tributary of -

(A) Yamuna

(B) Ganga

(D) Sutlej

13 The Kaveri river rises in the -

(A) Brahmagiri range

(B) Naga Hills

(D) Aravallis

14 Tungbhadra and Bhima rivers are the tributaries River.

(A) Krishna

(B) Kaveri

(D) Narmada

15 What is the Ganga called when it joins the Brahmaputra?

(A) Meghna

(B) Padma

(D) Son

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 3.2

Very short answer type question:

1 What do you mean by the term drainage’?

2 What is ‘drainage pattern’? Explain the major drainage patterns in India.

3 Describe the main rivers of Himalayan river system?

4 Name the two main groups into which the river systems of India are classified.

5 Name the tributaries of river Indus.

6 Which is the largest river of the peninsular India?

7 Which is the main watershed in peninsular India?

8 Which two large rivers of India flow into Arabian Sea?

9 Where are most of the fresh water lakes locates?

10 Write three causes responsible for the increase in demand of water.

Short answer type question:

11 Explain the different drainage patterns formed by the steams.

12 Name the three main Himalayan river systems. Give two tributaries of each.

13 Why does Brahmaputra in its Tibetan part have less silt, despite a longer course?

14 Why are the Himalayan river perennial while the peninsular rivers seasonal?

15 Compare the east flowing and west flowing rivers of the peninsular India?

16 State some economic benefits of rivers and lakes.

Long answer type question:

17 Discuss the main features of the Indus river system.

18 Discuss the main features of the Ganga river basin.

19 Differentiate between Himalayan River and the Peninsular River.

20 Which river is often termed as ‘Dakshin Ganga’? Describe the main features of this river system.

21 Discuss the causes of river pollution. Suggest a few remedies for it.

AN SWER KEY

(Objective DPP 3.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15
Ans	B	D	C	A	C	D	B	C	B	B	A	B	A	A	A

$»$ CLIMATE $«$

SL-04(G)

WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather	Cllmate
(i) Weather is the state atmosphere at any point of time and space, it changes every moment.	(i) Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large areas for a long period of time. it is the sum total of average weather conditions of 30 years.
(ii) Elements of weather are temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation.	(ii) Elements of climate are the same as those of water.
(iii) Example: Cloudy, windy, dry, wet weather.	(iii) Example : Monsoon, equatorial desert, cold climate etc.

(a) India has Diverse Climatic Conditions:

We can take two important elements-temperature and precipitation, and examine how they vary from place to place and season to season.

Temperature -

(i) In summer, the mercury occasionally touches $50^{\circ} C$ in some parts of the Rajasthan desert, whereas it may be around $20^{\circ} C$ in Pahalgam in Jammu and Kashmir. On a winter night, temperature at Drass in Jammu and Kashmir may be as low minus $45^{\circ} C$. Tiruvananthpuram, on the other hand, may have a temperature of $20^{\circ} C$.

(ii) In certain places there is a wide difference between day and night temperatures. In the Thar Desert the day temperature may rise to $50^{\circ} C$, and drop down to near $15^{\circ} C$ the same night. On the other hand, there is hardly any difference in day and night temperatures in the Andaman and Nicobar islands or in Kerala.

Precipitation -

There are variations not only in the form and types of precipitation but also in its amount and the seasonal distribution.

(i) While precipitation is mostly in the form of snowfall in the upper parts of Himalayas, it rains over the rest of the country.

(ii) The annual precipitation varies fro over $400 cm$ in Meghalaya to less than $10 cm$ in Ladakh and western Rajasthan.

(iii) Most parts of the country receive rainfall from June to September. But some parts like the Tamil Nadu coast get most of its rain during October and November.Coastal areas experience less contrast in temperature conditions, seasonal contrast are more in the interior of the country.

CLIMATIC CONTROLS

The climate of a place is determined by the interplay of various factors such as location, altitude, distance from the sea, pressure and winds and upper air circulation.

(i) Due to the curvature of the earth, the amount of solar energy received varies according to latitude. As a result, air temperature decreases from the equator towards the poles.

(ii) As one goes from the surface of the earth to higher to higher altitudes, the atmosphere becomes less dense and temperature decreases. The hills are therefore cooler during summers.

(iii) The pressure and wind system any area depend on the latitude and altitude of the place. Thus it influences the temperature and rainfall pattern.

(iv) The sea exerts a moderating influences on climate: As the distance form the sea increases, its moderating influence decreases and the people experience extreme weather conditions. This condition is known as continentality.

(v) Ocean currents along with onshore winds affect the climate of the coastal areas.

(vi) Relief too plays a major role in determining the climate of a place. High mountains act as barriers for cold or not winds; they may also cause precipitation if they are high enough and lie in the path of rain-bearing winds. The leeward side of mountains remains dry.

FACTORS AFFECTING INDIA’S CLIMATE

(a) Latitude:

Indian is situated roughly between $8^{\circ} N$ and $37^{\circ} N$ latitudes. India is divided in almost two equal parts by the tropic of cancer. The southern half lies in the tropical zone and the western half in the subtropical zone. Therefore, India’s climate has characteristics of tropical as well as subtropical climates.

(b) Altitude:

India has mountains to the north, which have an average height of about 6000 meters. The Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the subcontinent. It is because of these mountains that this subcontinent experiences comparatively milder winters as compared to Central Asia.

(c) Pressure and Winds:

India lies in the subtropical high pressure belt, thus, the winds originate from the land and move outwards towards the equatorial low pressure belt. These winds are known as northeast trade winds and are devoid of any moisture. But due to unequal heating of land and water in the summer, a low pressure develops over the interior of land masses. This low pressure attracts the winds from south of the equator. After crossing the equator the southeast trade winds get deflected and are known as southwest monsoons. The climate of India is also affected by jet streams. This is a fast flowing wind blowing in a narrow zone in the upper atmosphere. The jet streams are responsible for sudden outbreak of monsoons in Northern India. a subtropical westerly jet stream bring in the western disturbances in winter. These disturbances cause heavy snowfall on the mountains and light rains on the northwestern part of India.

THE INDIAN MONSOON

The climate of India is strongly influenced by monsoon winds. the Arabs, who had come to India as traders benefited from the reversal of the wind system as they came by sailing ships at the mercy of winds, they named this seasonal reversal of the wind system ‘monsoon’.

The monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between $20^{\circ} N 20^{\circ} S$. to understand the mechanism of the monsoons, the following facts are important.

(i) The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low pressure on the landmass of India while the seas around experience comparatively high pressure.

(ii) The shift of the position of inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer, over the Ganga plain (this is the equatorial trough normally positioned about $5^{\circ} N$ of the equator - also known as the monsoon-trough during the monsoon season).

(iii) The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at 20o S over the Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of this high-pressure area affects the Indian Monsoon.

(iv) The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong vertical air currents and the formation of high pressure over. The plateau at about $9 km$ above sea-level.

(v) The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer.

Changes in the pressure conditions over the southern oceans also affect the monsoons. Normally when the tropical eastern south Pacific Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure. The difference in pressure over Tahiti (Pacific Ocean, 18. S/149 W) and Darwin in northern Australia (Indian Ocean, $12^{\circ} 30^{\prime} S / 131^{\circ} E$ ) is computed to predict the intensity of the monsoons. if the pressure differences are negative, it means below average and late monsoons.

Atmospheric Conditions over the Indian Subcontinent in the Month of January

THE MONSET OF THE MONSODN AND WITHDRAWAL

The Monsoon, unlike the trades, are not steady winds but are pulsating in nature, affected by different atmospheric conditions encountered by it, on its way over the warm tropical seas. The duration of the monsoon is between 100-120 days from early June to mid-September. The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula generally by the first week of June. Subsequently, it divides in to two - the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch. The Arabian Sea branch reaches Mumbai about ten days later on approximately the $10^{\text {th }}$ of June. The Bay of Bengal branch arrives is Assam in the first week of June. The lofty mountain s cause the monsoon winds to deflect towards the west over the Ganga Plains. By mid-June the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives over Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the central part of the country. The Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal branches of the monsoon merge over the northwestern part of the Ganga plains. Delhi generally receives the monsoon showers from the Bay of Bengal branch by the end of June. By the first week of July, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and eastern Rajasthan experience the monsoon. By mid-July, the monsoon reaches Himachal Pradesh and the rest of the country.

withdrawal or the retreat of the monsoon is a more gradual process. The withdrawal of the monsoon begins in northwestern states of India by early September. By mid-October, it withdraws completely from the northern half of the peninsula. The withdrawal from the southern half of the peninsula is fairly rapid. By early December, the monsoon has withdrawn from the rest of the country.

THE SEASONS

Four main seasons can be identified in India -

(i) Cold weather season	–	December to February
(ii) Hot weather season	–	March to May
(iii) Advancing monsoon season	–	June to September
(iv) Retreating monsoon season	–	October and November

(A) The Cold Weather Season (Winter):

(i) The cold weather season begins from mid-November in India and stays till February.

(ii) December and January are the coldest months in the northem part of India. The temperature decreases as one moves from south to the north.

(iii) Days are warm and the nights are cold. Frost is common in the north and the higher slopes of the Himalayas experience snowfall.

(iv) The northeast trade $\backslash$ winds prevail over the country. They blow from land to sea and hence, for most part of the country, it is a dry season.

(v) In the northern part of the country, a feeble high-pressure region develops, with light winds moving outwards from this area.

(vi) The weather is normally marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity and feeble variable winds.

(vii) Inflow of cyclonic disturbances from the west and the northwest. These low pressure systems originate over the Mediterranean Sea and western Asia and move into India, along with the westerly flow. They cause the much-needed winter rains over the plains and snowfall in the mountains. Locally known as ‘mahawat’ are of immense importance for the cultivation of ‘rabi’ crops.

(viii) The northeast trade winds cause fair amount of rainfall in Chennai or the Coromandel Cast in winter.

(b) Hot weather season (Summer):

(i) Due to the apparent movement of the sun, the global heat belt shifts northward. as such, from March to May, it is not weather season in India.

(ii) Temperature increases from south to north. In peninsular India, temperatures remain lower

(iii) High temperature between $38^{\circ} C$ and $48^{\circ} C$ in the plains.

(iv) Local dust storms accompanied with light rains. (v) Hot dry winds, ’loo’ is common in May and June.

(vi) Kerala and Kamataka coast receivers pre-monsoon showers. (Mango showers)

(vii) West Bengal and Assam are affected by northwesterly winds. (Kalbaisakhi).

(c) Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season):

The climate of India is described as of monsoon type. Derived from an Arabic word ‘mausim’, monsoons refer to the seasonal reversal in the wind direction through the year.

Mechanism of the Monsoon:

The word monsoon denotes a season in which the wind regime is completely reversed. The southeast winds, after crossing the equator in the Indian Ocean, take a southwesterly direction. The dry and hot land bearing trades are thus completely replaced by sea bearing winds full of moisture. This phenomenon of complete reversal of winds is confined to tropical lands lying between $20^{\circ} N$ and $20^{\circ} S$. this phenomenon account for 75 to 90 percent of the annual rainfall just from June to September

Characteristics of the Monsoon:

(i) Almost all over the country, the rains occur from June to September.

(ii) $75 %$ to $90 %$ of the total annual rainfall is concentrated over this period.

(iii) There is great variation in the advance and withdrawal dates of the monsoons.

(iv) The monsoons occur in wet spell, interspersed by dry spells.

(v) The amount of rainfall also varies, causing floods and drought conditions.

“Distribution of rainfall received from the southwest monsoons is governed mainly by the relief of the country.”

(i) The windward side of the Western Ghats receives a rainfall of over $250 cm$. On other hand, the leeward side of the Western Ghats receives less than $50 cm$.

(ii) The heavy rainfall in the northeastern states can be attributed to the hill and mountain ranges.

(iii) Rainfall in the Northern Plains decreases westward.

“Monsoon has a tendency to have breaks in rainfall. Thus it has wet and dry spells”.

Breaks in monsoons are related to the frequency and intensity of tropical depressions. They are formed at the head of the Bay of Bengal and cross over the mainland. The depressions follow the axis of the monsoon trough of the low pressure. For various reasons the trough and its axis keep on moving northward or southward, which determines the spatial distribution of rainfall. When the axis of the monsoon trough lies over the plains, rainfall is good in these parts. on the other hand, whenever the axis shifts closer to the Himalayas, there are longer dry spells in the plains, and widespread rains in the mountainous catchment area of the Himalayan Rivers.

“Rainfall decreases from east to west in the Northern Plains while it increases in the Peninsular India”.

Pattern of Rainfall in the Northern Plains:

(i) The Northern Plains get much of their rainfall by Southwest Monsoons which strike the eastern part of the country first and give heavy rainfall there. so eastern parts of the country like Assam, Meghalaya, Bengal etc. get much rainfall.

(ii) Then the monsoons arising from the Bay of Bengal move westwards along the Himalayas. their capacity to cause rain become lesser and lesser as they move westward because they continue to become drier and drier.

Pattern of Rainfall in Peninsular India:

(i) The Peninsular India also gets much rainfall because of another branch of the South-West Monsoons which rises from the Arabian Sea. These monsoon winds first of all strike the Western Ghats and cause mu8ch rain there.

(ii) These winds while reaching the other side of the Western Ghats become dry and cause less rain. As they go on moving to the eastern side they become drier and drier and so the rain goes decreasing from west to east.

Mumbai receives rainfall in summer while Chennai has in Winter :

Mumbai receives more rainfall in summer as it is situated on the Arabian Sea coast, and receives all its rains from the Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoons from June to September only. Chennai receives two-third of the rainfall from the retreating southwest monsoons aided by cyclones on October to December.

Western Rajasthan has desert type of climate:

(i) Western Rajasthan lies in the rain shadow areas of the Aravalli Mountains. (Leeward side).

(ii) Arabian sea branch of S.W. monsoons blows parallel to the Aravalli range; hence the Aravallis fail to check it.

(ii) By the time the Bay Bengal branch reaches here it is almost dry, moreover it lies on the leeward side of the Aravallis.

(iii) Monsoon winds become warmer and increase their capacity to hold moisture instead of causing rain.

(D) Retreating Monsoons:

During October-November, the monsoon trough of low pressure becomes weaker and is gradually replaced by high pressure. The outreach of te monsoon becomes unsustainable and it starts withdrawing gradually. this is known as the retreat of monsoon.

October Heat:

(i) The retreat of the monsoons is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature.

(ii) The land is still moist.

(iii) Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the weather become oppressive, which is known as October heat in northern India.

Cyclonic Depressions which originate over the Andaman Sea:

In October and November the shift of the low pressure from land to sea is far from smooth. the period is associated with occurrence of cyclonic depressions which originate over the Andaman Sea.

The cyclones affect the eastern coasts of southern peninsular.

The cyclones affect the Sundarban Delta, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri deltas too.

These tropical cyclones cause heavy and widespread rain.

One adverse effect of the cyclones is, it is very often destructive. No year is found disaster free, it affects one or the other deltas of the Eastern Coast.

VARIETIES THE MONSOONS IN INDIA

At times the monsoons come in full swing, or it may fail altogether. Thus, causing the twin problems of floods and famines.

The alternation of dry and wet spells keeps on varying in intensity, frequency and the in duration.

Implications of vagaries of the monsoons:

(i) Due to the late arrival the crops dry up.

(ii) Due to excessive rains floods are caused, leading to destruction.

(iii) The amount of rain may vary causing drought conditions.

(iv) Sometimes the monsoons come early, normal or late.

(v) The monsoons may retreat early, normal or late.

DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION IN THE COUNTRY

Areas of Heavy rainfall: Areas which get rainfall of $200 cms$ and above are Assam, the Ganga Delta, the Western Ghats and the Western Coastal regions and the mountainous regions of Himachal Pradesh.

areas of Moderate Rainfall: Areas which get annual rainfall between $100 cms$ to $200 cms$ are Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Chhota Nagpur, Western Bengal, Bihar, Eastern U.P , North-Eastern Punjab; Eastern parts of Tamil Nadu and Eastern slopes of Western Ghats receive moderate rainfall.

Areas with Low Rainfall: Areas receiving annual rainfall between $50 cms$ to $100 cms$ are the Deccan Plateau, Western U.P, South-Eastern Punjab, Eastern Rajasthan and parts of Kashmir get low rainfall. Areas with Scanty Rainfall: Areas which get less than 50 cms rainfall annually are western Rajasthan, Kutch, Southeastern parts of Haryana, Northeastern Kashmir get scanty rainfall.

Figure : Seasonal Rainfall (June-September)

Consequences of the Uneven Precipitation in India :

(i) If there is too much rain in certain areas they cause floods and havoc all around. many grown up crops, villages, railway lines are washed away resulting in great loss of men and money.

(ii) If there are not sufficient rains even then people are doomed because of drought and hunger. Many people begin to starve and die of hunger. Standing crops dry away thereby bringing doom to the farmers.

Uneven distribution rainfall is due to:

(A) Relief / Orography

(B) Wind direction

(D) Low pressure axis.

Relief / orography largely govern the distribution of rainfall. For instance, the windward side of the Western Ghats registers a rainfall of $250 cms$. on the other hand, the leeward side of this ghat is hardly able to receive $50 cms$.

Again, the heavy rainfall in the northwestern states can be attributed to their hilly ranges and the eastern Himalayas.

Western Rajasthan gets scanty rain because the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon blows parallel to the Aravallis.

Rainfall in the north decreases from east to west. Kolkata situated near the sea receive about $120 cm$, Patna $102 cm$, Allahabad $91 cm$, and Delhi $56 cm$.

MONSOON AS A UNIFYING BOND

(i) There is great diversity in the climatic conditions due to location, extent and relief features.

(ii) But these diversities are subdued by the monsoons, which prevails over the whole country.

(iii) This water scarcity is felt all over country.

(iv) Thus the arrival of the monsoon is most welcome; it changes the Indian landscape, gives impetus to agricultural activities, the total life of the Indian people revolves around the monsoons, including festivals.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER

(a) Mango showers:

(i) Mango showers are pre-monsoon showers.

(ii) This phenomenon is observed in Kerala and coastal Kamataka.

(iii) The mango showers help in the early ripening of, mangoes.

(b) Kalbaisakhi:

Kalbaisakhi means the violent black clouds of the month of Baisakh. This is the name given to the north-westerly and northerly winds in Bengal and Assam. These winds cause very heavy rains and distraction.

(c) Chennai receives more rain in winter:

(i) The northeast winds pick up moisture while crossing Bay of Bengal. these winds are onshore in the winter season.

(ii) In the summer Chennai lies in the rain-shadow of the Western Ghats, moreover the winds are offshore, therefore receives less rainfall.

(d) Break or burst of the monsoon:

The sudden approach of the moisture laden winds is associated with violent thunder and lightening. This is known as “break” or “burst” of the monsoons. The first ‘break’ of monsoons on the south-west-coast of India is around $1^{\text {st }}$ June.

(e) Southern Oscillation:

The pressure systems of Pacific and Indian Oceans are interrelated. When the pressure is high in the pacific, there is low pressure in the Indian Ocean. The winds move from high pressure to low pressure and vice-versa. This causes shifting of winds across the equator in different seasons. this is known as the southern oscillation.

(f) EI Nino Southern Oscillations :

A feature connected with Southern Oscillation is the EI Nino, a warm ocean current that flows past the Peruvian Coast, in place of the cold Peruvian current, every 2 to 5 years. the changes in pressure conditions are connected to the EI Nino, the phenomenon is referred to as ENSO (EI Nino Southern Oscillations).

(g) Mawsynram receives the highest rainfall in the world:

(i) Mawsynram is situated at the head of a funnel shaped valley in the Khasi hills.

(ii) Its unique topographical location together with wind direction is responsible for causing the heaviest rainfall in the world.

(h) The rainfall decreases from South to North :

(i) The S.W. Monsoons originates from the Indian Ocean and divides into branches due to the shape of the Indian peninsular. (ii) Trivandrum gets above $200 cm$.

(iii) Whereas Delhi situated in the interior gets only about $50 cm$.

(iv) The Arabian Sea branch strikes the Western Ghats and causes heavy rainfall.

(v) Whereas another branch of the Arabian Sea monsoon blows parallel to the Aravallis. thus jodhpur gets less than $25 cms$ of rain.

(i) The Western Ghats receive more rain from the southwest monsoons than the Eastern Ghats because:

(i) The Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon is on shore.

(ii) These winds are forced to rise and cause heavy rains.

(iii) By the time these winds reach the east coast, most of the moisture is lost.

(iv) The winds are offshore, so they given less rain.

(v) Eastern Ghats lies on the leeward/rain-shadow area, hence it gets less rain.

(j) Indian would have been an arid land or desert if there had been no phenomena of monsoons :

(i) Indian receives 75 to $90 %$ of the rainfall from the monsoons.

(ii) These monsoons winds occur due to the uneven heating of land and sea.

(iii) The mighty Himalayas check the two branches of southwest monsoons, the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch. These, cover the whole of India thus preventing it from becoming a desert.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

(a) Equable climate & extreme climate:

Equable Climate	Extreme Climate
(i) The climate is moderate, that is neither too hot in summer nor too cold in winter. (ii) The annual and daily range of temperature is low. (iii) Those places situated near the sea coast enjoy equable climate e.g., Mumbai.	(i) The climate is continental, that is very hot in summer and very cold in winter. (ii) The annual and daily range of temperature is high. (iii) Places situated in the interior have extreme climate e.g., Delhi.

(b) Rainfall and precipitation:

Rainfall	Precipitation
(i) It is only form of precipitation.	(i) It is broader term, it includes rainfall, sleet, snow and hail.
(ii) The water vapour condenses and changes into water and falls down as drops of rain.	(ii) The water vapour changes into different forms such as rainfall, snow, sleet or hail.
(iii) It involves a simple process i.e. ascending of air, colling and coming down as rain.	(iii) It is a more comples process.
(iv) Delhi receives rainfall.	(iv) Leh receives snowfall.

(c) South-West Monsoons and Retreating Monsoons:

South-West Monsoons	Retreating Monsoons
(i) These winds blow from June to September.	(i) These winds blow from October to November.
(ii) These are moisture laden winds.	(ii) These winds originate from the land, hence are dry.
(iii) About 75 to 90% of the annual rainfall occurs during these months all over the country.	(iii) These cause rainfall over the south- eastern coast when the winds pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal.
(iv) It is pleasant season of rains and greenery all over the country.	(iv) Due to clear skies, high temperature and high humidity, the weather is oppressive known as ‘October heat’

(d) Loo and Cold wave:

Loo	Cold wave
(i) It occurs in the hot weather season.	(i) It occurs in the cold weather season.
(ii) The hot and dry winds blow in the after-noon and may continue till mid Night	(ii) The western disturbances cause heavy snow fall in the western Himalayas this causes lowering of temperature on the plains.
(iii) It raises the day temperature. the temperature ranges between $40^{\circ} C$ to $50^{\circ} C$	(iii) the temperature falls by $55^{\circ} C$ from the normal

(e) South-West Monsoons and North-East Monsoons:

South-West Monsoons	North-East Monsoons
(i) These are seasonal winds.	(i) These are trade winds.
(ii) Blow during summer, June to September.	(ii) Blow in winter, December to February.
(iii) Blow from sea to land.	(iii) Blow from land to sea.
(iv) Bulk to the annual rainfall received in India is brought by these winds.	(iv) These are dry winds, while crossing the Bay of Bengal they pick up moisture and give rainfall to the Coromandel Coast/Tamil Nadu coast.
(v) High temperature and low pressure.	(v) Low temperature and high pressure.
(vi) High humidity.	(vi) Low humidity.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP - 4.1

1 Weather is the -

(A) condition of atmosphere at a place and also at a particular time

(B) the result of air masses

(D) none of the above

2 Summer season occurs in account of -

(A) the low angle of the sun

(B) the high angle of the sun

(D) none of these

3 Monsoons are -

(A) seasonal winds

(B) permanent winds

(D) local winds

4 A cyclone has a low pressure area in the centre.

(A) Yes

(B) No

(D) Not known

5 The tropical cyclones of the Bay of Bengal are usually called -

(A) typhoons

(B) hurricanes

(D) tornadoes

6 Indian receives most rain from -

(A) the northeast monsoon

(B) the retreating monsoon

(D) the southwest monsoon

7 The phenomenon of the monsoon is only confined to the tropical land lying between -

(A) $20^{\circ} N$ and $20^{\circ} S$

(B) $33^{\circ} N$ and $33^{\circ} S$

(D) $40^{\circ} N$ and $40^{\circ} S$

8 During the cold weather season the temperature decreases from -

(A) north to south

(B) south to north

(D) west to east

9 The western disturbances originate over the -

(A) Mediterranean Sea

(B) Arabian Sea

(D) Bay of Bengal

10 What is the cause of snowfall in the Himalayas during the winter season ?

(A) tropical cyclones

(B) southwest monsoon

(D) northeast monsoons

11 The strong, hot and dry winds called Loo blows over the -

(A) Northern and northwestern plains

(B) Deccan Plateau

(D) Himalayas

12 ‘Kalbaiskhi’ the northwesterly winds cause thunderstorms and sharp showers in

(A) West Bengal

(B) Punjab

(D) Madhya Pradesh

13 Which mountain range acts as a barrier in the path of the Arabian Sea branch ?

(A) Aravallis

(B) Western Ghats

(D) Rajmahal Hills

14 Which hills turn direction of the Bay Bengal branch of the southwest monsoon ?

(A) Aravallis

(B) Nilgiris

(D) Rajmahal Hills

15 How much rainfall occurs during the southwestern monsoon season ?

(A) $85 %$ to $100 %$

(B) $75 %$ to $90 %$

(D) $60 %$ to $70 %$

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 4.2

Very short answer type question:

1 Mention the major factors that control the climate of any place.

2 Where does the low pressure area develop in May?

3 Name the four months in which Indian receives the bulk of rainfall.

4 Why does Tamil Nadu receive winter rainfall?

5 Name two states where mango showers are common.

6 Name some region for which the tropical cyclones are very destructive.

7 What is the name given to the climate of India?

8 From where do western disturbances come into India?

9 Name the hill which deflects the Bay of Bengal branch to India.

10 Write any two parts of India which receive minimum rainfall.

Short answer type question:

11 Name the elements of weather and climate.

12 What are ‘jet Stream’?

13 What meant by the term ’loo’?

14 What are the ‘retreating monsoons’?

15 Define the following terms: (i) Mango showers (ii) Jet Streams (iii) Loo.

16 How does the Himalayan mountain range act as an effective climatic divide?

17 What is meant by ‘Southern Oscillation’? How it affects Indian climate?

18 What is meant by ‘October Heat’? Why is it short lived?

19 How is southwest monsoon different from the northwest monsoon?

20 Describe the winter season in India.

Long answer type question:

21 Describe the regional variations in the climatic condition of India with the help of suitable examples.

22 Describe the factors controlling the Indian weather conditions.

23 Describe how the location and relief are important factors in determining the climate of India.

24 Give an account of the hot weather season in India.

25 Discuss the distribution of precipitation in the country and the consequences of its uneven distribution.

26 Explain how does monsoon act as an unifying bond in the country.

Previously Asked Problems

27 ‘India has diverse climatic conditions’. Support this statement with four examples.

[Delhi $2001 C$ ]

28 Why is rainfall distribution uneven in India? Give four reasons.

[Delhi $2001 C$ ]

29 How is the distribution of rainfall received from southwest monsoon largely governed by the orography in India? Explain with four examples fro $m$ different parts of the country.

[Delhi $2001 C$ ]

30 Examine the role of the Himalayan Mountain Range on the north of India as a climatic divide.

[Delhi $2001 C$ ]

31 How do Western jet stream and Eastern jet-stream affect the climate of India?

[Delhi $2001 C$ ]

32 India would have been an arid land or desert if there had been no phenomena of monsoons”. Explain it by giving four points.

[A 1 1997]

33 Why is the distribution of rainfall in India uneven? Give four reasons.

[Delhi 1996]

34 How is the South-West Monsoon different from the North-East Monsoon? Write any four differences.

[Delhi 1996]

35 “Indian has diverse climate conditions”. Support this statement by giving two examples each of temperature and precipitation.

[A 1 1996]

36 Name the coast where the tropical cyclones that originate in the Bay of Bengal and over the Andaman Sea give rain. Give one adverse effect of these cyclones.

[A 11995 C]

37 Describe three main features of cold weather season.

[A $11994 C$ ]

38 Describe three main features of cold weather season.

[Delhi 1994 C]

39 Mumbai receives more rainfall summer season while Chennai in winter. Give any two reasons for it.

[Delhi $1994 C$ ]

40 What type of climate would India have had, if the Arabian sea, Bay of Bengal and the Himalaya had not been there? Explain it with reference to temperature and precipitation.

[Delhi 1997 C]

41 Describe the factors which influence the climate of India.

[Foreign 1995]

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP # 4.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15
Ans	A	B	A	B	C	D	A	B	A	C	A	A	B	C	B

$»$ NATURAL VEGETATION & WILDLIFE $«$

SL-05 (G)

India is one of the twelve mega bio-diversity countries of the world. With about 47,000 plant species India occupies tenth place in the world and fourth in Asia in plant diversity. There are about 15,000 flowering plants in India which account for 6 per cent in the world’s total number of flowering plants. The country has many nonflowering plants such ass ferns, algae and fungi. India also has 89,000 species of animals as well as rich variety of fish in its fresh and marine waters.

Natural vegetation: Refers to a plant community which has grown naturally without human aid and has been left undisturbed by human for a long time. This is termed a virgin vegetation. thus, cultivated crops and fruits, orchards are a part of vegetation but not natural vegetation. India’s natural vegetation has undergone many changes due to several factors such as the growing demand for cultivated land, development of industries and mining, Urbanisation and over-grazing of pastures. The vegetation cover of India in large parts is on more natural in the real sense. Except in some inaccessible region like the Himalayas, the hilly region of central India and the marusthali, the vegetation of most of the areas has been modified at some places, or replaced or degraded by human occupancy.

Flora: The term flora is used to denote plants of a particular region or period.

Fauna: The species of animals are referred to as fauna.

E OTORS WHICH AFFECT DIVERSITY OF FLORA AND FAUNA

Land: Land affects the natural vegetation directly and indirectly. The nature of land influences the type of vegetation. The fertile level is generally devoted to agriculture. The undulating and rough terrains are areas where grassland and woodlands develop and give shelter to a variety of wild life.

Soil: Different types of soil provide basis for different types of vegetation. The sandy soils of the desert support cactus and thorny bushes while wet, marshy, deltaic soil support mangroves and deltaic vegetation. The hill slopes with some depth of soil have conical trees.

Temperature: the character are extent of vegetation are mainly determined by temperature along with humidity in the air, precipitation and soil. on the slopes of the Himalayas and the hills of the Peninsula above the height of 915 meters, low temperature affects the types of vegetation and its growth. Temperature changes it from tropical, temperature and alpine.

Table : Temperature Characteristics of Vegetation Zones
Vegetation zone	Mean Average Temperature (in ${ }^{\circ} C$ ) (July)	Mean Average Temperature (in $.{ }^{\circ} C)$ (Jan)	Remarks
Tropical	Above $24^{\circ} C$	Above $18^{\circ}$	No frost
Sub-tropical	$17^{\circ} C$ to $24^{\circ} C$	$10^{\circ} C$ to $18^{\circ} C$	Frost is rare
Temperate	$7^{\circ} C$ to $17^{\circ} C$	$-1^{\circ} C$ to $(-10)^{\circ} C$	Frost, sometime snow
Alpine	Below $7^{\circ} C$	Below $7{ }^{\circ} C$	Snow

Sun Light: The variation in Sunlight received at different places is due to difference in latitude, altitude, season and duration of the day. Adequate sunlight in summer causes trees to grow faster.

Precipitation: Precipitation determines the density of vegetation. Areas of heavy rainfall have more dense vegetation as compared to other areas of less rainfall.

Importance of forests for Human life

Forests are renewable resources and play a major role in enhancing the quality of environment. they modify local climate, control soil erosion, regulate stream flow, support a variety of industries, provide livelihood for many communities and offer panoramic or scenic view for recreation. it controls wind force and temperature and causes rainfall. It provides humus to the soil and shelter to the wildlife.

COSYSTEM AND BIOME

Ecosystem: It is an integrated unit consisting of the community of living organisms and the physical environment in a particular area. Plants occur in distinct groups of communities in areas having similar climatic conditions. The nature of the plants in an area, to a large extent, determines the animal life in that area.

Biome: A very large ecosystems on land having distinct types of vegetation and animals life is called a biome. Biomes include both flora and fauna but it is mainly the plant formations which are used as the basis of their grouping. On the basis of the order of availability of soil, water and heat the world is divided into five principle biomes: (i) Forest (ii) Savanna (iii) Grassland (iv) Desert (v) Tundra

TYPES OF VEGETATION

(a) Tropical Evergreen:

(i) They are at their best in areas having more than $200 cm$ of rainfall with a short dry season.

(ii) In these forest trees grow up to $60 m &$ above.

(iii) These forest yield hard wood trees.

(iv) These forest are found in rainy parts of Western Ghats, Assam, West Bengal, Lakshadweep and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

(v) Ebony, Mahogany, Rosewood, Rubber and Cinchona are some of the important trees.

(vi) In these forest large number of plant species are found at one place. it creates difficulty in their commercial exploitation.

(vii) Elephants, Monkey, Lemur and Deer are some common animals found in these forest.

(b) Tropical Deciduous forests:

These are the most widespread forests of India. they are also called the monsoon forests and spread over the region receiving rainfall between $200 cm$ and $70 cm$. trees of this forest-type shed their leaves for a bout six to eight weeks in dry summer. on the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into :-

Moist deciduous:

(i) These forests are found in the areas of $100 cm$ to $200 cm$ of rainfall.

(ii) Due to a longer dry season, the trees shed their leaves during the dry season.

(iii) Shisham, Bamboos, Sandalwood, Khair, Kusum, Arjun, Mulberry and Sal are the common trees found in these forests.

(iv) These forests cover a vast area of the country. Northeastern states, along the foot hills of the Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattisgarh and on the Eastern slopes of the Western Ghats.

Dry deciduous:

(i) These are found in areas having rainfall between $70 cm$ to $100 cm$.

(ii) These are found in the rainier part of the peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar and U.P.

(iii) These are open stretches in which Teak, Sal, Peepal, Neem grow.

(iv) Most of these forests have been cleared for cultivation.

(v) In these forests, the common animals found are lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant. a huge variety of birds, lizards, snakes, and tortoises are also found here.

(c) The Thorn forests and Shrubs:

Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which receive rainfall less than $70 cm$. these consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs. In includes semi-arid areas of south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. In these forests, plants remain leafless for most part of the year and give an expression of shrub vegetation. Important species found are babul, kher and wild Date palm, Kikar, Neem, Khejri, Palas, etc.

Natural Vegetation

(d) Montain Forests:

In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to the corresponding change in natural vegetation.

(i) The wet temperate type of forests are between a height of 1000 and 2000 meters. evergreen broad-leaf tress such as oaks and chestnuts predominate.

(ii) Between 1500 and 3000 meters, temperate forests containing coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce and cedar, are found. These forests cover mostly the southern slopes of the Himalayas, places having high altitude in southern and north-east India. at higher elevations, temperate grasslands are common.

(iii) At high altitudes, generally more than 3600 meters above sea-level, temperate forests and grasslands give way to the Alpine vegetation. Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the common trees of these forests.

(iv) Above Alpine vegetation Alpine grasslands are found. These are used extensively for grazing by nomadic tribes like the Gujjars and the Bakarwals. At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of tundra vegetation.

(v) the common animals found in these frosts are Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard, squirrels, shaggy horn wild ibex, dear and rare red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair.

(e) Mangrove forests:

These are found in the areas which are under $y \backslash$ the influence of tides having accumulated mud and silt. Dense mangrove are the common varieties with roots of plants submerged under water. These forests are found in the deltas of Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari and Kaveri. The most important tree is the Sundari tree after which the Sunderbans are named. The tree provides hard, durable and strong wood which is used for building boats and boxes. Royal Bangal Tiger is the famous animal in these forests. Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and snakes are also found in these forests.

FOREST CONSERVATION

Forests have an intricate interrelationship with life and environment. These provide numerous direct and indirect advantages to our economy and society. Hence, conservation of forests is of vital importance to the survival and prosperity of humankind. Accordingly, the Government of India proposed to have a nationwide forest conservation policy, and adopted a forest policy in 1952, which was further modified in 1988. According to the new forest policy, the Government would emphasis sustainable forest management in order to conserve and expand forest reserve on the one hand, and to meet the needs of local people on the other.

The forest policy aimed at:

(i) Bringing 33 per cent of the geographical areas under forest cover.

(ii) Maintaining environmental stability and to restore forests where ecological balance was disturbed.

(iii) Conserving the natural heritage of the country, its biological diversity and genetic pool.

(iv) Checks soil erosion, extension of the desert lands and reduction of floods and droughts.

(v) Increasing the forest cover through social forestry and afforestation on degraded land.

(vi) Increasing the productivity of forests to make timber, fuel, fodder and food available to rural population dependant on forests, and encourage the substitution of wood.

(vii) Creating of a massive people’s movement involving women to encourage planting of trees, stop falling of trees and thus, reduce pressure on the existing forest.

WILDLIFE

Wildlife of India is a great natural heritage. It is estimated that about 4-5 per cent of all known plant and animal species on the earth are found in India. The main reason for this remarkable diversity of life forms is the great diversity of the ecosystem which this country has preserved and supported through the ages. India has more than 1200 species of birds, 2500 species of fish and between 5 to 8 percent of the world’s amphibians, reptiles and mammals. India is the only country in the world that has both tigers and lions. The Himalayas have a large range of animals that survive the bitter cold. Every species of animal has a role to play in the ecosystem; hence conservation is essential. Hunting and pollution is causing threat to animal species. To protect the flora and fauna of the country, the government has taken many steps. Fourteen biosphere reserves have been set up in the country to protect flora and fauna. 89 national Parks, 49 Wildlife Sanctuaries and Zoological Gardens are set up to take care of natural heritage.

Over the years, their habitat has been disturbed by human activities and as a result, their numbers have dwindled significantly. There are certain species that are at the brink of extinction.

Some of the important reasons for the declining wildlife are as follows:

(i) Industrial and technological advancement brought about a rapid increase in the exploitation of forest resources.

(ii) More and more lands were cleared for agriculture, human settlement, roads, mining, reservoirs, etc.

(iii) Pressure on forests mounted due to lopping for fodder and fuel wood and removal of small timber by the local people.

(vi) Grazing by domestic cattle caused an adverse effect on wildlife and its habital.

(v) Hunting was taken up as a sport by the elite and hundreds of wild animals were killed in a single hunt. now commercial poaching is rampant.

(vi) Incidence of forest fire.

Wildlife Reserves

(a) wildlife conservation in India.

(i) fourteen biosphere reserves have been set up in the country to protect flora and fauna. four out of these, the Sunderbans in the West Bengal, Nanda Devi in Uttaranchal, the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu and the Nilgiris (Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) have been included in the world network of Biosphere reserves.

(ii) financial and technical assistance is provided to many Botanical Gardens by the governmental projects have been introduced.

(iv) 89 National Parks, 492 Wildlife sanctuaries and Zoological gardens are set up to take care of Natural heritage.

BIOSPHERE RESERVES

A Biosphere Reserve is a unique and representative ecosystem of terrestrial and coastal areas which are internationally recognised within the framework of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. The Biosphere Reserve aims at achieving the three objectives as depicted in Figure.

There are 14 Biosphere Reserves in India (Table, Figure). four Biosphere Reserves,namely (i) Nilgiri ; (ii) Nanda Devi; (iii) Sunderbans; and (iv) Gulf of Mannar havebeen recognised by the UNESCO on World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

Table: List of Biosphere Reserves

Figure : Objectives of a Biosphere Reserve

S.No.	Name of the Biosphere Reserve	Total Geographical Area $\mathbf{k m}^{2}$ )	Location (states)
1	Nilgiri	5,520	Part of wynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Mudumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and Siruvani Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka)
2	Nanda Devi	$2,236.74$	Part of Chamoil, Pithoragart and Almora districts (Uttar Prades) and part of Garo Hills (Meghalaya)
3	Nokre	820	Part of Garo Hills (Meghalaya)
4	Manas	2,837	Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barrette, Nalbari, Kamru And Darrang disttircts (Assam)
5	Sunderbans	9,630	Part of delta of Ganges and Brahmaputra river ystem (West Bengal)
6	Gulf of Mannar	10,500	Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between India and sri Lanka(Tamil Nadu)
7	Great Nicobar	885	Southernmost islands of the Andaman and Nicobar (A & N islands)
8	Similiparl	4,374	Part of Mayurbhanj district (Orissa)
9	Dibru-Saikhowa	765	Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts (Assam)
10	Dihang Dibang	$5,111.50$	Part of siang and Debang valley in Arunachal Pradesh
11	Kanchenjunga	$2,619.92$	Part of North and West Sikkim
12	Pachmari	$4,926.28$	Part of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh
13	Agasthyamalai	1,701	Agasthyamalai Hills in Kerala
14	Achanakmar-Amarkar	$3,835.51$	Parts of Anupur and Dindori district of MP and parts of Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh

EXERCISE

Objective DPP-5.1

1 To which one of the following types of vegetation does rubber belong to:

(A) Tundra

(B) Tidal

(D) Tropical Evergreen

2 Cinchona trees are found in the areas of rainfall more than:

(A) $100 cm$

(B) $50 cm$

(D) Less than $50 cm$

3 In which of the following state is the Simlipal Bio Reserve located:

(A) Punjab

(B) Delhi

(D) West Bengal

4 Which of the following bio-reserves of Indian in not included in the world network of bio-reserves?

(A) Manas

(B) Nilgiri

(D) Nanda Devi

5 The distribution of plants and animals on the earth is determined primarily by :

(A) Climate

(B) Drainage

(D) All the above

6 Plant species are called:

(A) Flora

(B) Biome

(D) None of the above

7 Name the habitat of Indian tigers:

(A) Gir

(B) Sunderban

(D) Kerala

8 What is the habitat of the horned Rhinoceros?

(A) Gujarat

(B) Assam

(D) Both B and C

9 Which of the following factors does not affect the distribution of plants and animals ?

(A) Soil

(B) Relief

(D) Drainage

10 Which of the following tree is used for treatment of blood pressure?

(A) Teak

(B) Chestnut

(D) Rosewood

11 Which of these is not a bio-reserve?

(A) Nokrek

(B) Nanda devi

(D) Rantham bhor

12 Who launched the Chipko movement?

(A) Rallan

(B) Ram Lal Bahuguna

(D) Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna

13 Bamboos, Sal, Sandal wood, Teak are the commercially important species of which type of forest ?

(A) Alpine Tundra Vegetation

(B) Tropical rain forests

(D) Temperate forests

14 Where are the Sunderbans located?

(A) West Bengal

(B) Rajasthan

(D) Kerala

15 Where is Nokrek Bio-reserve located?

(A) Uttar Pradesh

(B) Meghalaya

(D) Kerala

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 5.2

Very short answer type question:

1 What is virgin vegetation?

2 What is a eco-system?

3 What is India’s rank in the world and in Asia in plant diversity?

4 Where are evergreen forests found in India?

5 Which natural vegetation is most predominant India?

6 Name useful trees of thorn forests.

7 How many species of birds and fish are found in India?

8 How many national parks and wildlife sanctuaries have been established in India?

9 Name major vegetation regions which the date palm and mahogany trees belong. Name two projects which were established to protect endangered species of wild life.

10 Name two sub-types of tropical deciduous forests. Name one area where wild asses are found. Name the national animal of India.

Short answer type question:

11 What is meant by vegetation? How much natural is the ’natural vegetation’ of the India today?

12 Which factors are responsible for the distribution of plants and animals of India?

13 Explain the significance of flora and fauna in an ecosystem. How are they interrelated?

14 Why there is a need to conserve bio-diversity?

15 Why are the evergreen forests found on western slopes of the Western Ghats?

16 Describe the climatic conditions in which Thom forests and Scrubs are found. Name the plant species found over here.

17 “The Himalayas harbour a hardy range of animals”. Explain

18 Mention the main causes of threat to nature.

19 Distinguish between: Dry deciduous and moist deciduous forests

Long answer type question:

20 Why are tropical evergreen forests not commercially exploited? Give climatic conditions and distribution of these forests.

21 Name the different types of vegetation found in India and describe the vegetation of high altitudes.

22 Quite a few species of plants and animals are endangered in India. Why?

23 Why has India a rich heritage of flora and fauna?

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 5.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15
Ans	D	A	C	B	A	A	A	B	C	C	D	C	C	A	B

$»$ POPULATION $«$

SL -06(G)

The people are important to develop the economy and society. The people make and use resources and are themselves resources with varying quality. Coal was only a piece of rock, until people were able to invent technology to obtain it and make it a ‘resource’. Hence, population is the pivotal element in social studies. it is the point of reference from which all other elements are observed and from which they derive significance and meaning. Their numbers, distribution, growth and characteristics or qualities provide the basic background for understanding and appreciating all aspects of the environment. Human beings are producers and consumers of earth’s resources. Therefore, it is important to know how many people are there in a country, where do they live, how and why their numbers are increasing and what are their charactertics.

Three major aspects of population are of primary concern

(i) Population size and distribution How many people are there and where are they located?

(ii) Population growth and processes of population change How has the population grown and changed through time?

(iii) Characteristics or qualities of the population What are their age, sex-composition literacy levels, occupational structure and health conditions?

Census : A census is an official enumeration of population done periodically? In India the first census was held in the year 1872. The first complete census however was taken in the year 1991. Since then censuses have been held regularly every tenth year. The Indian census is the most comprehensive source of demographic, social and economic data.

POPULAYION SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION

(a) Indian’s Population size and Distribution by Numbers:

(i) Indian’s population as on March 2001 stood at 1028 million, which account for 16.7 per cent of the world’s population. These 1.02 billion people are unevenly distributed over our countr’y vast area of 3.28 million square $km$, which accounts 2.4 percent of the world’s area.

(ii) The 2001 Census data reveals that Uttar Pradesh with a population size of 166 million people is the most populous state of India. Uttar Pradesh accounts for about 16 percent of the country’s population. on the other hand, the Himalayan state Sikkim has a population of just about 0.5 million and Lakshadweep has only 60 thousand people.

(iii) Almost half of Indian’s population lives in just five states. These are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh. Rajasthan, the biggest state in terms of area, has only 6.5 percent of the total population of India.

(b) “A Large population has both Economic Advantages and Disadvantages. ‘:

A large population makes positive contribution to economic growth.

(i) It ensures adequate supply of labor force.

(ii) Large number of people can be trained in all kinds of skills at all levels.

(iii) It provides a ready domestic market for all types of goods. this encourages the producers to produce on large scale.

A large population also work as a serious constraint on economic growth.

(i) National income gets distributed among larger number of people, therefore, per capita income remains low.

(ii) A large part of the national income gets spent on consumption. This reduces the size of savings. Thus, less capital remains available for investment.

(iii) Rising population results in a rise in pressure on land. This adversely affects 7 productivity in agriculture.

(iv) Rising population makes increasing demands on infrastructure, both social and economic.

In short, a large part of the national effort goes to maintain the present standards of living. these do not result in any economic improvement. therefore, poverty and unemployment perpetuate.

(c) Indian’s Population Distribution by Density

Population density is calculated as the number of persons per unit area. India is one of the most densely populated countries of the world. the population density of India in the year 2001 was 324 persons per sq. km. densities vary from 904 persons per sq. $km$ in West Bengal to only 13 persons per sq km in Arunachal Pradesh.

$ \text { Density of population }=\frac{\text { Totalpopulationofthecountry }}{\text { Totallandareaofthecountry }(\text { insq.km. })} $

(i) Low Density: The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Rajasthan And Madhya Pradesh Have Very Low Population Density. Rugged terrain and unfavorable climatic conditions are mainly responsible for the sparse population in these areas.

(ii) Moderate Density: The bulk of the peninsula blocks and Assam have moderate density of population. Distribution of population is influenced here by the rocky mature of the terrain, low to moderate rain, and shallow and less fertile soil.

(iii) High density : They Northem Plains, Tamil Nadu and Kerala have high to very high density of population because of the plain terrain, rice and fertile soil, abundant rainfall and moderate climate.

POPULATION GROWTH AND PROCESSES OF POPULATION CHANGE

population is a dynamic phenomenon. the numbers, distribution and composition of the population are constantly hanging. this is the influence of the three processes, namely - births, deaths and migrations.

(a) Population Growth:

(i) Growth of population refers to the change in the number of inhabitants of a country / territory during a specific period of time. Such a change can be expressed in two ways: in terms of absolute numbers and in terms of percentage change per year.

(ii) The absolute number added each year or decade is the magnitude of increase. It is obtained by simply subtracting the earlier population form the later population. It is referred to as the absolute to as the absolute increase. When a low annual rate is applied to a very large population, it yields a large absolute increase. India’s current annual increase in population of 16.5 million is large enough to neutralize efforts to conserve the resource endowment and environment.

(iii) The rate or the pace of population increase is the other important aspect. it is studied in percent per annum, e.g. a rate of increase of 2 percent per annum means that in a give year, there was an increase of two persons for every 100 persons in the base population. this is referred to as the annual growth rate.

(iv) India’s population has been steadily increasing from 361 million in 1951 to 1028 million in 2001. From 1951 to 1981 , the annual rate of population growth was steadily increasing. Since 1981, however, the rate of growth started declining gradually. During this period, birth rates declined rapidly. The declining trend of growth rate is indeed a positive indicator of the efforts of birth control. Despite that, the total additions to the population base continue to grow, and India may overtake China in 2045 to become the most populous country in the world.

(b) Processes of Population change / Growth :

There are there main processes of population change. They are : (i) Birth rates (ii) Death rates and (iii) Migration.

The natural increase of population is the difference between birth rates and death rates.

Birth rate: Birth rate indicates the number of births in a country during a year per 1,000 population.

Death rate: Death rate indicates the number of deaths in a country during a year per 1,000 population. Main cause of the rapid rate of growth of the Indian population is the fast decline in death rates. Since 1981, birth rates have started declining gradually, resulting in a gradual decline in the rate of population growth. The reasons for this trend are:

(i) Most of the people especially in urban areas have adopted two child norm.

(ii) Birth rate has also declined at a faster rate.

(iii) Standard of living has increased considerably.

(iv) Women folk are more conscious of their health.

(v) Family Welfare Schemes are being adopted in a big way.

(vi) Muslim population is also trying to keep their family small.

Migration: Migration means movement of people across regions and territories. Migration can be internal or international. In India, most migrations have been from rural; to urban areas because of the ‘push’ factor in rural areas. These are adverse conditions of poverty and unemployment in the rural areas and the ‘pull’ of the city in terms of increased employment opportunities and better living conditions. Migration is an important determinant of population change. It changes not only the population size but also the population composition of urban and rural populations in terms of age and sex composition. In India, the rural-urban migration has resulted in a steady increase in the percentage of population in cities and towns. The urban population in has increased from 17.29 percent of the total population in 1951 to 27.28 percent in 2001 . There has been a significant increase in the number of ‘million plus cities’ from 23 to 35 in just one decade i.e. 1991 to 2001.

Impact of Urbanisation in India:

(i) Rapid Urbanisation leads to lack of facilities like housing, sanitation, water, power and education, etc. slums and other social tensions are created. Crime rate increases.

(ii) it puts heavy pressure on transport. Heavy rush on roads creates transport problems traffic jams, accidents, etc. high Urbanisation creates congestion and pollution it reduces forest cover and agricultural land. This leads to ecological imbalance and environmental pollution.

Pollution Growth	Pollution Change
Growth of pollution refers to change in the number of people of a country during a specific period of time.	Change in population is due to birth rates, Death rates and migration.
Pollution growth can be expressed in terms of absolute numbers and in terms of percentage.	If birth rate is high and death rate is low, The population will increase and will bring Change.
Absolute numbers are obtained by the Earlier pollution ( e.g., that of 1991) From the pollution of 2001.	Since 1981 birth rates have also startes Declining gradually, resulting in gradual Decline in absolute numbers.
Pollution growth is also obtained in Per cent per annum, e.g., a rate of increase Of 20% per annum means that there is an Increase of 2 persons for ever 100 persons.	Migration is important determinant of Population change. it changes not only the Populationsize but also the population Composition of urban and rural population in Terms of age and sex composition.
India’s population has been steadily Increasing from 361 million in 1951 to	Due to rural-urban migration, the urban Population in 27.78%. in 2001, “Million plus cities” have increased from

(c) Age composition:

Age composition of a population is the number of people in difference age groups in a country. it is one of the most basic characteristics of a population. A person’s age influences what he needs, buys, does and thinks. Number and percentage of a population found within the children (young), adult (middle aged) and the aged (old) groups determine population’s social and economic structure.

Age composition of population is expressed in terms of three broad age groups -

(i) Children below the working age (below 15 years) - They are economically unproductive and need to be provided with food, clothing, education and medical care.

(ii) Working Age (15 to 59 years) - they are economically productive and biologically reproductive.they comprise the working population.

(iii) aged (above 59 years) - They can be economically productive through they may have retired. They may be working voluntarily but they are not available for employment through recruitment.

The dependent population is either in the age group of below 15 years or in the age group of over 59 years. $41.3 %$ of Indian population who depend on $58.7 %$ of Indian population who are of working age. So the percentage of dependent population is quite large. This is putting heavy burden on the families and State.

(d) Sex Ratio:

Sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males in the population. According to the 2001 census, the sex ratio in India was 933 females per 1000 males. This information is an important social indicator to measure the extent of equality between males and females in a society at a given time. The sex ratio in the country has always remained unfavorable to females. Kerala has a sex ration of 1058 females per 1000 males, Pondicherry has 1001 females for ever 1000 males, while Delhi has only 821 females per 1000 and Haryana has just 861.

(e) Literacy Rates:

Literacy is a very important quality of a population. Low levels of literacy are a serious obstacle for economic improvement. According-to-the Census of 200, a person aged 7 years and above who can read and write with understanding in any language, is treated as literate. The literacy rate is the county as per the Census of 2001 is 64.84 percent; 76026 per cent for males and 53.67 per cent for females.

(f) Occupational structure:

“The distribution of working population of an economy according to different occupations is known as occupational distribution of population or occupational structure. " On the basis of economic activities the Central Statistical Organisation divides the Indian economy into three main sectors:

(i) Primary Sector: Agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, logging, fishery etc. are collectively known as Primary activities. these are primary because production is carried on with the help of nature.

(ii) Secondary Sector: Manufacturing industries are known as Secondary activities. All manufacturing units like small-scale industry, large-scale industry, construction work etc. are included in secondary sector.

(iii) Tertiary Sector: It is sector which provides services to both primary as well as secondary sector. it includes transport, communication, banking, insurance, public administration, defense etc.

Developed nations have a high proportion of people in secondary and tertiary activities. developing countries tend to have a higher proportion of their workforce engaged in primary activities. In India, about 64 percent of the population is engaged only in agriculture. the proportion of population dependent on secondary and tertiary sectors is about 13 and 20 per cent respectively.

Need to change the present occupational structure of India:

(i) Too much dependence on agriculture: There is too much pressure on agriculture which cannot bear such a burden. Average productivity of workers in agriculture is very low.

(ii) To remove disguised unemployment: Disguised unemployment is a curse because agriculture is facing this problem and to remove this there is a need to change the present occupational structure.

(iii) To increase the production: Because low percentages of workers are engaged in production so rate of production is low.

(iv) To remove poverty and unemployment: A change of occupational structure is necessary to remove poverty and unemployment.

(v) For balanced economic development: A change of occupational structure is also required for balanced economic development.

(g) Health:

health is an important component of population composition, which affects the process of development. due to the sustained efforts of government programmes death rates have declined from 25 per 1000 population in 1951 to 8.1 per 1000 in 200 and life expectancy at birth has increased from 36.7 years in 1951 to 64.6 years in 2001. the substantial improvement is the result of many factors including improvement in public health, prevention of infectious diseases and application of modern medical practices in diagnosis and treatment of ailments.

Despite considerable achievements, the health situation is a matter of major concern for India. The per capital calorie consumption is much below the recommended levels and malnutrition affects a large percentage of our population. Safe drinking water and basic sanitation amenities are available to only one-third of the rural population.

Advantages of having healthy population:

(i) It is the healthy population which is considered the most important resource.

(ii) Healthy population decreases the dependency ratio.

(iii) It is healthy population which can make full use of natural resources.

(h) Adolescent Population:

The most significant feature of the Indian population is the size of its adolescent population. It constitutes onefifth of the total population of India. Adolescents are generally grouped in the age-group of 10 to 19 years. They are the most important resource for the future. Nutrion requirements of adolescents are higher than those of a normal child or adult. Poor nutrition can lead to deficiency and stunted growth. The diet available to adolescents is inadequate in all nutrients. A large number of adolescent girls suffer from anemia. Their problems have so far not received adequate attention in the process of development.

(i) National Population Policy:

Recognizing that the planning of families would improve health and welfare, the Government of India initiated the comprehensive Family Planning Programme in 1952. the Family welfare Programme has sought to promote responsible and planned parenthood on a voluntary basis.

Major features of NPP 2000:

(i) The NPP 200 provides a policy framework for imparting free and compulsory school education to the children up to 14 years of age.

(ii) It aims at reducing infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births. another aim is to achieve universal immunization of children against all vaccine preventable diseases.

(iii) Promotion of delayed marriage for girls.

(iv) It also aims at making family welfare a people centered programme.

(j) Adolescents and NPP 2000:

NPP 2000 identified adolescents as one of the major sections of the population that need greater attention. Besides nutritional requirements, the policy put greater emphasis on other important needs adolescents including protection from unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases (STD). it called for programmes that aim towards encouraging delayed marriage and child bearing, education of adolescents about the risks of unprotected sex, making contraceptive services accessible and affordable, providing food supplements, nutritional services, strengthening legal measures to preventy child marriage.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP - 6.1

1 Migration change the number, distribution and composition of the population in :

(A) The area of departure (B) The area of arrival

(D) None of the above

2 A large proportion of children in a population is a result of:

(A) High birth rates

(B) High life expectation

(D) More married couples

3 The magnitude of population growth refers to :

(A) The total population of an area

(B) The member of persons added eac

(D) The number of female per thousand males

4 According to the census of 2001, a ’literate’ person in one who :

(A) Can read, write his/her name

(B) Can read and write any language

(D) All of the above

5 The highest density of population is in:

(A) West Bengal

(B) Tamil Nadu

(D) Madhya Pradesh

6 The lowest density of population is in:

(A) Sikkim

(B) Meghalaya

(D) Rajasthan

7 The lowest sex ration is in:

(A) Nagaland

(B) Sikkim

(D) Arunachal Pradesh

8 Which of the following states has a favorable female ratio?

(A) Kerala

(B) Tamil Nadu

(D) Nagaland

9 India’s share in world population:

(A) $20 %$

(B) $16.7 %$

(D) $14.7 %$

10 The average density of population in India in 2001 was :

(A) 284 person/sq. $km$

(B) 324 persons sq. $km$

(D) 395 persons sq. $km$

11 The sex ration in India according to 2001 census was :

(A) $1000: 972$

(B) $1000: 933$

(D) $1000: 880$

12 The sex ration in Kerala in 2001 was:

(A) 1000: 1058

(B) 1000: 958

(D) 1000: 1001

13 The sex ration in Pondichery in 2001 was:

(A) 1000: 999

(B) 1000: 1001

(D) $1000: 1000$

14 The female literacy level in India in 2001 was:

(A) $65 %$

(B) $54 %$

(D) $80 %$

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 6.2

Very short answer type question:

1 What is Census?

2 What is India’s share in world population?

3 Name any to states which have high density of population.

4 What is a Primary Sector?

5 What is dependent ration of Population?

6 Why is the rate of population growth in India declining since 1981?

7 Why do we study population?

8 Give the formula for density of population and also give the density of population of India.

9 Why Assam and most of the peninsular states have moderate population densities?

10 How ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factor is responsible for migration?

Short answer type question:

11 Distinguish between dependent and productive population.

12 Growing urban population has created many problems in the urban areas’. Explain.

13 Discuss the major components of population growth.

14 Discuss about age-composition of India’s population and its implications.

15 What is meant by occupational structure? Explain the occupational structure of India.

16 What art the advantages of having a healthy population?

17 What are the main objectives of the New National Population Policy?

Long answer type question:

18 What is urbanization of population? Mention its causes and impact.

19 Write about demography, census, birth rate, death rate and increase in population.

20 Why it is necessary to change the present occupational structure of India?

21 Why has there been a rapid rise in India’s population after independence?

22 Comment on migration as a determinant of population change in India.

23 Distinguish between population growth and population change.

24 What is sex ration? Why it is going against female > explain the position of sex ratio in India.

25 How education a signification in the population of country. Account for the literacy in India in this connection.

26 Discuss the problem of adolescents in India.

27 How population growth is related to economic growth, discuss its relation to India?

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 6.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14
Ans	C	A	C	C	A	C	D	A	B	B	B	A	B	B

$»$ DEMOCRACYIN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD $«$

SL-01(C)

TWO TALES OF DEMOCRACY

(a) Establishment of Democracy in Chile:

Salvador Allende was the elected President of Chile. The government was pro-poor and pro-worker which did not find favour with rich and powerful sections. On March 11, 1976, military under General Pinochet marched into the Presidential palace bombarded it, Allende was killed. Government Pinochet ruled the country for next 17 years. Pinochet’s government tortured and killed several of those who supported Allende and those who wanted democracy to be restored. He organized referendum in 1988 in which the people were asked to express their confidence in Pinochet. People rejected Pinochet, political freedom was restored. Since then four presidential elections have been held in Chile. in January 2006, Michelle Bachelet was elected president of Chile. December has come back to Chile and has established itself there.

(b) Establishment of Democracy in Poland:

The polish United Workers Party, a communist party ruled over Poland with a strong support of the government of USSR. On August 14, 1980, the workers of Lenin Shipyard in the city of Gdansk went on a strike. Walesa assumed the leadership of striking workers. Government was forced to enter into an agreement with the workers which came to be known as the Gdansk agreement. The agreement provided freedom to organize protest and express opinions. An independent trade union Solidarity was formed. It grew in strength. In December 1981, Under General jaruzeiski, Martial law was imposed. All the right granted in Gdansk agreement was withdrawn. Solidarity organized a series of strikes in opposition to the government actions. Another agreement was signed in April 1989, which provided for free presidential elections. Walesa was elected president of Poland in October 1990. Thus democracy came to be restored in Poland.

(c) Characteristic of Various Governments under Various Leaders:

Chile under Allende: $\quad$ Rulers elected by the people

More than one party exist

People enjoyed basic political freedom

Chile under Allende:	Rulers elected by the people More than one party exist People enjoyed basic politial freedom
Chile under Pinochet:	Criticism of the government not allowed Military dictatorship, missing people Ruler not elected by the people
Chile under Bachelet:	The president was once a political prisoner Ruler elected by the people
Poland under Jaruzeiski:	Criticism of the government not allowed Widespread corruption Government owned all industries
Poland under Walesa:	More than one parties exist Ruler elected by the people

Common features and differences between the government of Allende in Chile, Walesa in Poland and Michelle in Chile

Common features: These three governments shared some common features. power was enjoyed by the people and not by the army.

The people enjoyed some basic political freedoms.

Differences: Differed in their approach towards social and economic matters.

(i) Allende preferred government control on all big industries and the economy.

(ii) Walesa wanted the market to be free of government interference.

(iii) Michelle stands somewhere in the middle on this issue, with both the government and individuals owning the industries.

DEMOCRACY

Democracy is a form of government that allows people to choose their rulers. in a democracy:

(i) Only leasers elected by people should rule the country, and

(ii) People have the freedom to express views, freedom to organize and freedom to protest.

PHASES IN THE EXPANSION OF DEMOCRACY

(a) The Beginning:

(i) French Revolution of 1789 did not establish a secure and stable democracy in France. Throughout the nineteenth century, democracy in France was overthrown and restored several times. Yet the French Revolution inspired many struggles for democracy all over Europe.

(ii) In Britain, the progress towards democracy started much before the French Revolution. But the progress was very slow. through the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries, series of political events reduced the monarchy and feudal lords. the right to vote was granted to more and more people.

(iii) The British colonies North America declared themselves independent in 1776. in the next few years these colonies came together to form the United States of America. they adopted a democratic constitution in 1787.

(iv) In the nineteenth century struggles for democracy often centered round political equality, freedom and justice. One major demand was the right for every adult citizen to vote. Many European countries that were becoming more democratic did not initially allow all people to vote. In some countries only people owning property had the right to vote. Often women did not have the right to vote. in the United States of America, the blacks all over the country could not exercise the right to vote until 1965.

(v) By 1900 New Zealand was the only country where every adult had voting right. Early democracies were established in Europe, North America and Latin America.

(b) End of Colonialism:

for a very long time most countries in Asia and Africa were colonies under the control of the European nations. People of the colonized countries had to wage struggles to achieve independence. They not only wanted to get rid of their colonial masters, but also wished to choose their future leaders. Many of these countries become democracies immediately after the end of the Second World War in 1945.

Course of Democracy in Ghana in Africa:

Ghana used to be a British colony. It was called Gold Coast. it got independent in 1957. Kwame Nkrumah, the son of a goldsmith and a teacher by profession, played an active role in making Ghana independent. He was Ghana’s President from 1957-1966. He was known internally for his attempts to promote the concept of Pan-Africanism. Nkrumah also played an important role in OAU (Organisation of African Unity). He deviated from the path of democracy by electing himself president for life. His major flaw was a desire for absolute power. Due to the unpopular measures taken by him, a coup occurred in 1966. Ghana came under military rule and ceased to be a democracy.

(c) Recent Phase:

“The big push towards democracy came after 1980”.

The period after 1980 witnessed to fast emergence of democracies in different parts of the world.

(i) Democracy was revived in several countries of Latin America.

(ii) Soviet Union disintegrated in 1991. As a result:

Soviet influence over the former east European countries vanished; they changed themselves into democracies.

The former 15 Republics of the USSR got independent and opted for democracy.

(iii) In India’s neighborhood, countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal made a transition to democracy. Besides the aspirations of the local people in all these countries, a major reason for expansion of democracy was the open support extended by the USA to such demands.

Struggle of the people of Myanmar to establish a democratic government:

(i) Myanmar gained freedom from colonial rule in 1948 and became a democracy. But the democratic rule ended in 1962 with a military coup.

(ii) In 1990 elections were held for the first time after almost 30 years. the National League for Democracy, led by Aung San Suu Kyi, won the election.

(iii) The military leaders of Myanmar refused to step down and sis not recognize the election results. Instead, the military put the elected pro-democracy leaders, including Suu Kti, under house arrest. Political activists accused of even the most trivial offences been jailed.

(iv) anyone caught publicly airing views or issuing statements critical of the regime can be sentenced up to twenty years in prison.

(v) Due to the coercive policies of the military-ruled government in Myanmar, about 6 to 10 lakh people in that country have been uprooted from their homes and have taken shelter elsewhere.

(vi) Despite being under house arrest, Suu Kyi continued to campaign for democracy. her struggle has won international recognition. She has also been awarded the Noble Peace prize. Yet the people in Myanmar are still struggling to establish democratic government in their country.

DEMOCRACY AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL

United Nations:

The UN is a global association of nations of the world to help cooperation in international law, security, economic development and social equity. The UN Secretary General is its chief administrative officer. General Assembly: 193 countries form the membership of General Assembly, also know as world parliament, every member country sends five representatives but is allowed only one vote. Its headquarters are located in New York.

Security Council: Most important organ of UN. Has 15 members-Five permanent (Britain, Russia, China, America and France) and 10 non-permanent members elected for years each. Permanent members enjoy Veto power. Security Council can impose trade sanctions on the warring countries and can take military action against them. Economic and Social Council: Economic and Social Council consists of 54 members and they are elected by the General Assembly for a period of three years. this council is mainly responsible for solving economic and social problems of the world.

Trusteeship Council: Trusteeship Council is responsible for supervising the administration of trust territories. The Trusteeship Council consists of an equal number of administrating and non-administrating powers.

International Court of Justice: It consists of fifteen judges who are elected by the General Assembly on the recommendations of the Security Council for Nine years. International Court of Justice decides the cases between the states.

Secretariat: Secretariat comprises a Secretary General and such staff as the organization may require.

Secretary General is the chief Administrative Officer of the Secretariat.

Is the UNO a democratic organization?

Every one of the 192 member countries of the UN has one vote in the UN General Assembly. It meets in regular yearly sessions under a president elected from among the representatives of the member countries. General Assembly is like the parliament where all the discussion takes place. in that sense the UN world appear to be a very democratic organisation.

But the General Assembly cannot take any decision about what action should be taken in a confict teween different countries. The fifteen-member Security Council of he UN takes such crucial decisions. The Council has five permanent members-US, Russia, UK, France and China. Ten other members are elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. The real power is with five permanent members. The permanent members, especially the US, contribute most of the money needed for the maintenance of the UN. Each permanent member has veto power. It means that the Council cannot take a decision if any permanent member says no to that decision. This system has led more and people and countries to protect and demand that the UN becomes more democratic.

Is the international Monetary Fund a demarcation organization?

No, IMF is not working democratically.

(i) International Monetary Fund is one of the biggest moneylenders for any country in the world.

(ii) Its 173 member states do not have equal voting rights.

(iii) The vote of each country is weighed by how much money it has contributed to the IMF.

(iv) Nearly half of the voting power in the IMF is in the hands of only seven countries (US, Japan, France, UK, Saudi Arabia, China and Russia).

(v) The remaining 166 countries have very little say in how this international organization takes decisions.

Democracy Promotion:

Story of Iraq:

Iraq becomes independent from British Rule in 1932. Since 1968, it was ruled by Arab Socialist Ba’th Party. In 1979, Saddam Hussein becomes the President of Iraq. After becoming the president, saddam ran a dictatorial government and suppressed any dissent or opposition to his rule. He was known to have got a number of political opponents killed and person of ethnic minorities massacred.

The US and its allies like Britain alleged that Iraq possessed secret nuclear weapons and other ‘weapons of mass destruction’ which posed a big threat to the world. But when a UN team went to Iraq to search for such weapons, it did not find any. Still the US and its allies invaded Iraq, occupied it and removed saddam Hussein from power in 2003. The US installed an interim government of its preference. The war against Iraq was not authorized by the UN Security Council. Kofi Annan, the UN Secretary General, said that the US war on Iraq was illegal. After the war, it is being argued that it was important to end the dictatorial rule of Hussein and set up a democratic government in that country.

DIFFICULT TIES PEOPLE FACE IN A NON-DEMOCRATIC COUNTRY

(i) Non-responsible Government; Non-democratic Governments rare not answerable to the people or any other institution. it can do as it wishes and no one can question it. Pinochet’s government in Chile tortured and killed several citizens who wanted democracy to be restored. More than 3000 people were killed by the military.

(ii) Non-Sovereign: Most of the non-democratic governments are non-sovereign. The Government of Pinochet, who become the President of Chile through military coup, was totally dependent on USA for its foreign policy.

(iii) No political party or single party: Another major problem for the people of non-democratic countries is that they have little choice. in Poland only-Polish United Worker’s Party was allowed to function. Those who spoken against the leaders or the party were put in prison.

(iv) No-Freedom Rights: People of non-democratic government don’t enjoy basic freedoms like freedom of speech, freedom to move freely, freedom to form unions or associations etc. when in Poland Solidarity started exposing widespread corruption in the government, thousands of Solidarity members were put in prison.

Freedom which are usually taken away when a democracy is overthrown by the military-

(i) Freedom to move freely

(ii) Freedom of speech and expression

(iii) Freedom to assemble peacefully

Freedom to from unions and associations

(iv) Freedom of religion

(vi) Freedom of equality before law.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP - 1.1

1 Who was the President of Chile, when the government was overthrown on 11 September, 1973?

(A) Salvador Allende

(B) Michelle Bachelet

(D) Lech Walesa

2 Military Coup took place in Chile on

(A) 11 September 1975

(B) 21 September 1976

(D) 11 September 1974

3 In which year referendum was held in Poland on Pinochet’s military dictatorship?

(A) 1995

(B) 1988

(D) 1982

4 Which of the following was the feature of Allende government of Chile?

(A) Widespread Corruption

(B) Free Market

(D) Foreign intervention in domestic affairs

5 Which of the following is a feature of democracy?

(A) Franchise based on property qualification

(B) Franchise based on education qualification

(B) Landlords are the voters

(D) Universal Adult Franchise

6 In America universal adult Franchise was introduced in :

(A) 1789

(B) 1950

(D) 1965

7 United Nations was established on:

(A) 24 th October 1945

(B) 20th October 1946

8 Organs of the United Nation are:

(A) Four

(B) Five

(D) Three

9 Which of the following country is not a permanent member of the Security Council?

(A) India

(B) America

(D) Russia

10 When was Saddam Hussain removed from power in Iraq?

(A) 2000

(B) 2003

(D) 2005

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 1.2

Very short answer type question:

1 What do you mean by ‘democracy’?

2 Mention any two indicators which showed that after military coup of 11 March, 1973, Chile become a non-.democratic country.

3 Who was Lech Walesa? How he was related to Solidarity?

4 Explain universal adult franchise.

5 Name three events which contributed to the establishment of democracy in the world.

6 “The army rule in Myanmar is undemocratic’. Justify by giving four examples

7 What is veto power? DO you think it promotes world democracy ?

8 What is United Nations?

9 Prove that the international organizations are becoming less democratic.

10 Which freedom is usually taken away when a democracy is overthrown by the military ?

Short answer type question:

11 Describe in brief the military coup and subsequent restoration of democracy in Chile.

12 Describe in brief the pro-democracy movement in Poland.

13 How were the three democratically elected governments of Allende in Chile, Walesa in Poland and Michelle in Chile different?

14 Explain the different phases of the spread of democracy in the world.

15 Explain the struggle of the people of Myanmar to establish a democratic government.

Long answer type question:

16 Should there be a world government? If yes, who should elect it? And, what powers should it have?

17 Write a short essay on the life of Aung San Suu Kyi.

18 What is the structure of UN? Why is there demand for UN to become more democratic?

19 Discuss briefly whether international organizations function in a democratic manner.

20 What are the difficulties, people face in a non-democratic country? Give answers drawing from the examples gives in this chapter.

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 1.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
Ans	A	C	B	C	D	D	A	C	A	B

$»$ WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? WHY DEMOCRACY ? $«$

WHAT IS DEMOCRACY?

The word ‘Democracy’ has been derived from a Greek word ‘Demokratic’. ‘Demos’ means people and ‘Kratia’ means rule. So, democracy is the rule by the people.

(a) Common Features of Democratic government and Non-democratic government:

Democratic Government

(i) Government formed by people’s representatives.

(ii) Representatives elected in a free and fair election.

(iii) Different decisions of the government are taken in an open manner; debate in media, invitation to experts’ opinion, representations by the common man form a part of decision making process.

(iv) Citizens have a right to oppose and citizen any government action and policy.

(v) Citizens have a right to protest, as long as the mode of protest is within the boundaries of law.

Non-democratic Government:

(i) Rule by force, by a person or by a group of persons.

(ii) No opposition is permitted

(iii) No criticism of government views or of rulers is tolerated.

(iv) Decisions are taken in an arbitrary manner, without reference to any rules or laws.

(v) Citizens have no rights.

(vi) Citizens cannot resort to any method of protest.

FEATURES OF MOCRAO

(a) Major decisions by elected leaders:

A democratic government is one in which the people’s representatives participate in decision making process. They own a collective responsibility for all the decisions taken by the government. There are example where representatives of people are chosen; but they are not allowed to participate in decision making process. This happens in many dictatorships and monarchies, e.g., currently in Pakistan under General Musharraf. in Pakistan, General Parvej Musharraf acquired power in October 1999 through an military coup. in Pakistan though they formally have an elected parliament and government but the real power is with those who are not elected. not withstanding the existence of elected national and provincial assemblies, these countries can not be classified as a democratic country. This gives us the first feature. in a democracy the final decision making power must rest with those elected by the people.

(b) A Democracy must be based on a free and fair election :

“In China, elections are regularly held after 5 years for electing the country’s parliament, but still it cannot be called democratic country”.

(i) In China, elections are regularly held after five years for electing the Country’s parliament, called Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui (National People’s Congress).

(ii) The National People’s Congress has the power to appoint the President of the country.

(iii) It has nearly 3000 members elected from all over China. Some members are elected by the army.

(iv) Before contesting elections, a candidate needs the approval of the Chinese Communist Party.

(v) Only those who are members of the Chinese Communist Party or eight smaller parties allied to it were allowed to contest election held in 2002-03.

(vi) The government is always formed by the Communist Party.

(vii) If China had multi party elections, an opposition party and an independent press then so many people may not have died during the famine of 1958-1961.

“Since its independence in 1930, Mexico holds elections after every six years to elect its president. The country has never been under military or dictator’s rule. But still it cannot be called democratic country.”

Free and fir election is the basic feature of democracy but in Mexico this is not so:

In Mexico until 2000, every election was won by party called PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party). Opposition parties did contest elections, but never managed to win. The PRI was known to use many dirty tricks to win elections. All those who were employed in government offices had to attend its party meetings. Teachers of government schools used to force parents to vote for the PRI. Media largely ignored the activities of opposition political parties except to criticize them. Sometimes the polling booths were shifted from one place to another in the last minute, which made it difficult for people to cast their votes. The PRI spent a large sum of money in the campaign for its candidates.

Here we have the second feature of Democracy. Holding elections of any kind is not sufficient. The elections must offer a real choice between political alternatives. and it should be possible for people to use this choice to remove the existing rulers, if they wish so. So, a democracy must be based on a free and fair election where those currently in power have a fair chance of losing.

(c) One person, one vote, one value:

A true democracy grants its citizens what is called ‘universal adult franchise’. it means all the adults have a right to vote without any discrimination based on sex, color, race, caste or class. Each person can cast one vote; all votes are counted; the person who gets the maximum number of votes gets elected in many countries, this is not how the system works. There are many instances of denial of equal right to vote:

(i) In Saudi Arabia women do not have the right to vote.

(ii) Estonia has made its citizenship rules in such a way that people belonging to Russian minority find it difficult to get the right to vote.

(iii) In Fiji, the electoral system is such that the vote of an indigenous Fiji has more value than that of an Indian-Fijian.

That given us the third feature of democracy: in a democracy, each adult citizen must have one vote and each vote must have one value.

(d) Rule of Law and respect for rights:

(i) In Zimbabwe elections are held regularly but are won by only one party i.e. Zanu-PF. the party uses unfair practices in eletions which are against the principles of democracy.

(ii) Over the years President Mugabe has changed the constitution several times to increase the powers of the president and make him less accountable.

(iii) In a democracy people and opposition can criticize the government but this is not allowed in Zimbabwe.

(iv) The government has ignored some court judgments which is also against the principles of democracy.

(v) Television, radio and press are controlled by the government.

The example of Zimbabwe shows that popular approval of the rulers is necessary in a democracy, but it is not sufficient. Popular government can be undemocratic. Popular leders can be autocratic. In a democracy, the state should respect some basic rights of the citizen. They should be free to think, to have opinions, to express these in public, to form associations, to protest and take other political actions.

Everyone should be equal in the eyes of law. These rights must be protected by an independent judiciary whose orders are obeyed by everyone. A democratic government cannot do whatever it likes, simply because it has won an election. It has to respect some basic rules. In particular it has to respect some guarantees to the minorities. Every major decision has to go through a series of consultations. The fourth and final feature of democracy: A democracy government rules within limits set by constitional law and citizens rights.

(e) Summary Definition:

Democracy is a form of government in which:

(i) Rulers elected by the people take all the major decisions;

(ii) Elections offer a choice and fair opportunity to the people to change the current rulers;

(iii) This choice and opportunity is available to all the people on an equal basis; and

(iv) The exercise of this choice leads to a government limited by basic rules of the constitution and citizens rights.

WHY DEMOCRACY?

(a) Arguments in support of democracy:

(i) A democratic government is a better government because it is a more accountable form of government.

(ii) Democracy provides a method the quality of decision-making

(iii) Democracy provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts.

(iv) Democracy enhances the dignity of citizens.

(v) Democracy is better than other forms of government because it allows us to correct its own mistakes

(vi) Democracy is considered the best form of government.

(b) Arguments against the democracy:

(i) Leaders keep changing in a democracy. This leads to instability.

(ii) Democracy is all about political competition and power play. There is no scope for morality.

(iii) So many people have to be consulted in a democracy that it leads to delays.

(iv) Elected leaders do not know the best interest of the people. It leads to bad decisions.

(v) Democracy leads to corruption for it is based on electoral competition.

(vi) Ordinary people do not know what is good for them; they should not decide anything.

BROADERIMEANINGS OF DEMOCRACY?

(a) Representative Democracy, its importance:

A representative democracy is one in which people elect their representative to legislatures. These representatives in turn form the government and govern. In this type of democracy, a majority is allowed to take decisions on behalf of all the people.

Representative democracy becomes necessary because of the following reasons:

(i) Modern Democracies involve such a large number of people that it is physically impossible for them to sit together and take a collective decision.

(ii) Even if they could, the citizen does not have the time, the desire or the skills to take part in all the decisions.

(b) Nominal democracy and ideal democracy:

A nominal democracy, as we normally use the term, refers to a system of governance which is run by the people’s elected representatives.

An ideal democracy is a broader concept. An ideal democracy is a system in which every citizen must be able to play equal role in decision making. For this one does not need just equal right to vote.

Every citizen needs to have equal information, basic education, equal resources and a lot of commitment. There may not be any country in the world which passes this test of democracy. Yet an understanding of democracy as an ideal reminds us of why we value democracy.

ROLL THE CITIZENSION PLAYINA DEMOCRACY?

Citizens must learn to tolerate differences and views of all others who disagree with them. That is, the citizens must accept the principle of mutual tolerance and dissent. Citizens must act with a sense of discipline and responsibility. They have a right to express their dissent. They must express their grievance through channels provided by the democratic system. Citizens must participate and seek to influence Th public opinion. This can happen only when they are well-informed on civic matters. Citizens must exercise their right to vote. This provides a direction to the whole democratic process.

DEMOCRACY A GOVERNMENT BY DISCUSSION AND PERSUASION

It is a government by discussion because of the following reasons:

(i) Policy matters are decided after through discussion; in absence of consensus, the majority view prevails.

(ii) Majority view is respected and given due consideration during discussion.

(iii) Majority view is heard and not shut down by force.

It is a government by persuasion because:

(i) The opposition is encouraged to participate in debates about government policies and programmes

(ii) During the discussion opponents are persuaded to accept the government viewpoint

(iii) At times the government itself may see merit in what the opposition has to say and accept it.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP - 2.1

1 Which of the following countries could be termed as democracy ?

(A) Chile, before and after Pinochet’s rule

(B) Poland, during the communist rule

(D) Pakistan under General Parvez Musharraf

2 Democracy comes from a ————— word ‘Demokratic’.

(A) French

(B) Russian

(D) Greek

3 Democracy is a form of government in which the rulers-

(A) Are hereditary

(B) Are chosen after a battle

(D) Are not present

4 In a ————- from of government, the rules are not elected by the people.

(A)Presidential

(B) Parliamentarian

(D) None of these

5 ——— is a device that ensures we shall be government no better than we deserve.

(A) Mechanical Saw

(B) Democracy

(D) Axe

6 In Pakistan, General Parvez Musharraf acquired power in October 1999 through an -

(A) Referendum

(B) Election

(D) Public opinion

7 A democracy must be based on a free and fair election where those currently in power :

(A) Are going to continue

(B) Will always remain in power

(D) Have a fair chance of losing

8 In a democracy, each adult citizen must have and each vote must have

(A) One vote, one value

(B) Two vote, equal value

(D) None of these

9 Over the years President Mugabe in Zimbabwe has changed the several times to increase the powers of the president and make him less accountable.

(A) Prime Minister

(B) Government

(D) Political Boundary

10 A democratic government rules within limits set by ————– law and citizen’s rights.

(A) Presidents

(B) Dictators

(D) Peoples

11 critics argue that, Democracy is all about political competition and power play. there is no scope for

(A) People’s welfare

(B) individual gains

(D) Morality

12 If China had ———————–, then so many people may not have died during the famine of 1958-1961.

(A) Multi party elections

(B) An opposition party

(D) All of the above

13 In any society people are bound to have differences of opinions and interests. these differences are particularly sharp in a country like ours which has an

(A) Democratically elected government

(B) Amazing social diversity

(D) Amazing land features.

14 Democracy is better than other forms of government because it allows us to :

(A) Do whatever we want

(B) Spoil our cultural heritage

(D) Earn enormous money

15 “True democracy will come to our country only when no one goes —————- to bed.

(A) Ever

(B) Early

(D) None of these

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 2.2

Very short answer type question:

1 Which state in India has a shape similar to Chile? In which continent is Chile situated?

2 Mention any two indicators which showed that after military coup of 11 September, 1976, Chile became a nondemocratic country.

3 Why did the Lenin Shipyard workers in Gdansk go on strike?

4 What resoms would you give to say that Solidarity was very popular in 1990 ?

5 Name any four countries where universal adult franchise was granted after 1950.

6 Mention three events which contributed to the establishment of democracy in the world.

7 Why is it necessary for people to discuss politics without fear?

8 Who acquired power in Pakistan after the Military coup in October 1999?

9 What do you mean by a nominal democracy?

10 What is veto power? Do you think it promotes world democracy?

Short answer type question:

11 “in Pakistan people elect their representatives to the national and provincial assemblies but still it cannot be called a democratic country.” Give reasons.

12 “Since its independence in 1930, Mexico hoids elections after every six years to elect it’s president. the country has never been under a military or dictator’ a rule. But still it cannot be called democratic country”. Give reasons.

13 Explain the major features of democracy.

14 ‘Democracy improves the quality of decision making’. Explain

15 ‘Democracy provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts. Explain

16 ‘Democracy is better than other forms of government because it allows us to correct its own mistakes’ Explain

17 ‘Democracy enhances the dignity of citizen’s. Explain

Long answer type question:

18 Why Zimbabwe cannot called a democratic country? Give reasons.

19 Explain the major features of ‘Democracy.

20 Can we China a democratic country?

21 ‘Democracy provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts ‘.Explain.

22 Explain the major arguments against democracy.

23 Why do we prefer ‘Democracy than any other form of the government?

24 Explain the major features of ‘Democratic government.

25 What role do the citizens play in a ‘democracy?

26 Why ‘Democracy is called a government by discussion and persuasion?

27 Distinguish between a nominal ‘democracy and an ideal ‘democracy.

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 2.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15
Ans	A	D	C	C	B	C	D	A	C	C	D	D	B	C	C

$»$ CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN $«$

SL - $03(C)$

DEMOCRATIC CONSTITUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA

(a) Struggle against Apartheid :

Apartheid referred to the policy of discrimination an the basis of race as practiced by the government of South Africa. The main features of this policy were as follows:

All people were classified and separated on the basis of race.

Each group had to live in a separate area.

There were separate schools and universities, separate shopping centers, separate coaches in trains. Marriage between persons belonging to two races was a criminal offence. There were restriction on movement from one place to another. Non-whites had no votes. They had no say in the governance of the country. in short, the policy of apartheid human denied human rights and rendered the government of South Africa as among the most oppressive regimes in the world in the $20^{\text {th }}$ century.

(b) The end of the Policy of Apartheid:

In 1910 the African National Congress was formed which aimed at establishing a non-racial democratic South Africa. The movement was intensified in the 1950s. In 1960s, the African National Congress was banned. The African National Congress organized its own army to fight against the racial regime. The UN condemned the policy of South Africa. In the 1980s some western countries imposed sanctions against South Africa. by the end of the 1980s the international isolation of the government of South Africa was complete. With it began the process of ending the apartheid. The ban on the Africa National Congress was lifted and it leaders released. Negotiations began between the African National Congress s and South Africa government for framing a new constitution which would give all South Africans the right to vote. In April 1994, elections were held in South Africa as per the new provisions. The African National Congress won with a thumping majority and formed a non-racial democratic government. Finally, at the midnight of 26 April 1994, the new national flag of the Republic of South Africa was unfurled making the newly born democracy in the world.

(c) Towards a new Constitution:

The party that had ruled through oppression and brutal killings and the party that led the freedom struggle sat together to draw up a common constitution. One of the finest constitutions the world has ever had. It gave to its citizens the most extensive rights available in any country. The Constitution makes it clear that in the search for a solution to the problems, nobody should be excluded, no one should be treated as a demon, everybody should become part of the solution, whatever they might have done or represented in the past. The South African constitution inspires democrats all over the world. a state denounced by the entire world till recently as the most undemocratic one is now seen as a model of democracy.

(d) Nelson Mandela- Gandhi of South Africa:

Nelson Mandela was one of the most able, efficient and far-sighted leaders of the African national Congress. It was under his leadership that the struggle against apartheid reached its climax. Due to participation in the movement against apartheid he was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1964. He spent the next 28 years in prison. In the 90s due to activities of the African National Congress and the support it got from other countries of the world, South African regime was completely isolated from the world. In order to create a favorable atmosphere Nelson Mandela was released in 1990. In 199 the first democratic elections were held and Nelson Mandela was elected the President of South Africa.

WHY DO WE NEED A CONSTITUTION ?

A Constitution of a country is a set of written rules that are accepted by all people living together in a country. Constitution is the supreme law that determines the relationship among people living in a territory (called citizens) and also the relationship between the people and government. a constitution does many things :

(i) First, it generates a degree of trust and coordination that is necessary for different kind of people to live together;

(ii) Second, it specifies how the government will be constituted, who will have power to take which decisions;

(iii) Third, it lays down limits on the powers of the government and tells us what the rights of the citizens are;

(iv) Fourth, it expresses the aspirations of the people about creating a good society.

All countries that have constitutions are not necessarily democratic. But all countries that are democratic will have constitutions. After the War of independence against Great Britain, the Americans gave themselves a constitution. after the Revolution, the French people approved a democratic constitution. Since then it has become a practice in all democracies to have a written constitution.

MAKING OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

The making of the constitution for a huge and diverse country like India was not an easy affair.

(i) The people of India were emerging from the status of subjects to that of citizens.

(ii) The country was born through a partition on the basis of religious differences. Atleast ten lakh people were killed on both sides of the border in partition related violence.

(iii) The British had left it to the rulers of the princely states to decide whether they wanted to merge with Indian or with Pakistan or remain independent. The merger of these princely states was difficult and uncertain task.

(iv) When the constitution was being written, the makers of the constitution had anxieties about the present and the future of the country.

(a) The path to constitution:

(i) Our national movement was not merely a struggle against a foreign rule. It was also a struggle to rejuvenate our country and to transform our society and politics.

(ii) The familiarity with political institutions of colonial rule also helped develop an agreement over the institutional design. the experience gained by Indians in the working of the legislative institutions proved to be very useful for the country in setting up its own institutions.

(iii) Many of our leaders were inspired by the ideals of French Revolutions, the practice of Parliamentary democracy in Britain and Bill of Rights in USA. So they incorporated some good points of the Constitution of these in the Indian Constitution.

(iv) They also got inspiration from the Constitution drafted by Moti Lal Nehru and eight other Congress leaders in 1928, and the outlines of the Indian Constitution prepared by the Indian National Congress at its Karachi session in 1931.

(b) The Constituent Assembly:

The Constitution of India was framed by a Constituent Assembly set up under the Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946. The assembly consisted of 389 members representing provinces (292), states (93), the chief commissioner provinces (3) and Baluchistan (1). The assembly held its first meeting on December 6, 1946. It elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as its Chairman. Soon after the country was divided into India and Pakistan. The Constituent Assembly was also divided into the Constituent Assembly of India and that of Pakistan. The Constituent Assembly that wrote the India Constitution had 299 members. The Assembly adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949 but it came into effect on January 26,1950. to mark this day we celebrate January 26 as Republic Day every year.

(c) Why should we accept the Constitution made by the Constituent Assembly more than 50 years ago?

(i) The Constitution does not reflect the views of its members alone. it expresses a broad consensus of its time. Many countries of the world have had to rewrite their constitution afresh because the basic rules were not accepted to all major social groups or political parties. In some other countries, the Constitution exists as a mere piece of paper. No one actually follows it. The experience of our constitution is different. Over the last half a century, several groups have questioned some provisions of the Constitution. But no large social group or political party has ever questioned the legitimacy of the Constitution itself.This is an unusual achievement for any constitution.

(ii) The Constituent Assembly represented the people of India. There was no universal adult franchise at that time. So the Constituent assembly could not have been chosen directly by all the people of India. It was elected mainly by the members of the existing Provincial Legislatures. This ensured a fair geographical share of members from all the regions of the country. The Assembly represented members from different language groups, castes, classes, religions and occupations.

(iii) The manner in which the Constituent Assembly worked gives sanctity to the Constitution. The Constituent Assembly worked in a systematic, open and consensual manner. First some basic principles were decided and agreed upon. Then a Drafting Committee chaired by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar prepared a draft constitution for discussion. Several rounds of through discussion took place on the Draft Constitution, clause by clause. More than two thousand amendments were considered. Every document presented and every word spoken in the Constituent assembly has been recorded and preserved. These are called ‘Constituent Assembly Debats’. When printed, these debates are 12 bulky volumes! These debates provide the rationale behind every provision of the Constitution. These are used to interpret the meaning of the Constitution.

(d)Indian Constitution: A Living Document:

Those who crafted the Indian Constitution felt that it has to be in accordace with people’s aspirations and changes in society. They did not see it as a sacred, static and unalterable law. So, they made provisions to incorporate changes from time to time. These changes are called constitutional amendments. Till date 104 amendments have been made in the constitution. Te amendment procedure provided in the constitution is as follows. There are three categories of amendments:

(i) In the first category, amendments can be done by simple majority of members present and voting before sending it for the President’s assent.

(ii) In the second category, amendments require a special majority. such an amendment can be passed by each house of Parliament by the two-thirds majority of the members of the house present and voting and then sent to the President for his assent.

(iii) The third category, amendments is really difficult to pass. besides the special majority mentioned in the second category, the same has to be approved by at least 50 percent of the state legislatures.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP - 3.1

1 Nelson Mandela and seven other leaders were sentenced to life imprisonment in for daring to oppose the apartheid regime in his country.

(A) 1864

(B) 1964

(D) 1964

2 Apartheid was the name of a system of ————- unique to South Africa.

(A) Economic discrimination

(B) Social discrimination

(D) Political discrimination

3 Which Organisation played the role of the umbrella Organisation that led the struggle against the policies of segregation in S. Africa?

(A) Indian National Congress

(B) United National Organisation

(D) None of the above

4 Finally at the midnight of , the new national flag of the Republican of South Africa was unfurled marking the newly born democracy in the world.

(A) 26 April 1964

(B) 26 April 19964

(D) 26 April 1974

5 ————- is the supreme law that determines the relationship among people living in a territory and also the relationship between the people and government.

(A) Government

(B) Common people

(D) Democracy

6 The Indian constitution adopted many institutional details and procedures from colonial laws like the

(A) Rowlaff Indian Act

(B) Morley - Minto reforms

(D) Government of India Act 1935

7 The drafting of the document called the constitution was done by an assembly of elected representatives called the

(A) Parliament

(B) Drafting committee

(D) Constituent Assembly

8 Drafting committee of the constituent assembly was chaired by:

(A) Dr. Rajendra Prasad

(B) J.L. Nehru

(D) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

9 Values that inspired and guided the Indian freedom struggle and were in turn nurtured by it, formed the foundation for India’s democracy. These values are embedded in the - of the Indian constitution.

(A) $8^{\text {th }}$ Schedule

(B) Preamble

(D) Volume 09

10 Those who crafted the Indian constitution felt that it has to be in accordance with people’s aspirations and changes in society. So, they made provision to incorporate changes from time to time. These changes are called

(A) Constitutional amendments

(B) Reforms

(D) Revival of the constitution

SUBJECTIVE DPP -3.2

Very short answer type question:

1 Name any four democracy countries of the world.

2 Which of the following countries is not a democracy - Great Britain, Canada and Myanmar and why?

3 Mention any four limitations of democracy.

4 ‘In a democracy the majority of people rule through their elected representatives.’ Give reasons.

5 “In Pakistan people elect their representatives to the national and provincial assemblies but still it cannot be called a democratic country: Give reasons.

6 When did Zimbabwe gain independence? Which party has ruled since then and who is its leader?

7 What is the most common from of democracy in today’s world and why?

Short answer type question:

8 What is constitution? Why is it important?

9 What is apartheid?

10 Who is Nelson Mandela?

11 What changes have been brought in the constitution of South Africa after 1994?

12 “The South African Constitution inspires democracy all over the world.” why?

13 With reference to the Indian Constitution answer the following questions:

(i) When was it passed?

(ii) When was it enforced?

(iii) Why this date was chosen?

14 With reference to Constituent Assembly answer the following questions:

(i) When were its election heid?

(ii) Who was its President?

(iii) Who was appointed the Chairman of the Drafting Committee?

(iv) When was the Constitution passed by the Constitution Assembly?

15 What is the importance of Preamble?

16 ‘A Constitution is a living document’. Justify.

17 “The Constitution Assembly was the representative body of the people of India”. Explain with examples.

18 “The working of the Constituent Assembly has given sanctity to the Constitution”. Explain.

19 India is a “Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic”. Justify.

Long answer type question:

20 How did the Policy of Apartheid come to an end?

21 Outline in brief the background in which the constitution of independent India was formulated.

22 State the different steps in the framing of India’s Constitution.

23 Mention the events that influenced the members of the Constituent Assembly.

24 What do you mean by constitutional amendment? What is the procedure for constitutional amendment?

25 Why should we accept the Constitution made by the Constituent Assembly more than 50 years ago ?

26 Explain the major factors which contributed to the making of our constitution.

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 3.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
Ans	D	C	C	B	C	D	B	D	B	A

$»$ ELECTORAL POLITICES $«$

WHY ELECTIONS ?

An election is a contest organized between different political parties for getting people’s support.

The party which gets the support of the largest number of people comes to power and forms the government in a representative democracy election is a mechanism by which people can choose their representatives in an election, the voters make many choices.

(i) They can choose persons who will make laws choices.

(ii) They can choose persons who will form government and take major decisions.

(iii) They can choose the party whose policies will guide the government and law making.

(a) What makes an Election Democratic?

In a democracy elections reflect truly and solely the will of the people.

A democratic election must fulfill the following minimum conditions:

(i) Everyone should be able to choose. It means that every person should have one vote and every vote should have equal value.

(ii) There should be something to choose from. Parties and candidates should be free to contest elections. They should offer some real choice to the voters.

(iii) The choice should be offered at regular intervals. Elections must be held regularly after every few years.

(iv) The candidate preferred by the people should get elected.

(v) Elections should be conducted in a free and fair manner where people can choose as they really wish.

(b) Is it good to have Political Competition?

(i) Elections are a means to gain power and positions of influence in the government. in a nation with over 1,000 million population, there may be a few millions who nurture these aspirations and ambitions. These aspirations and ambitions can be fulfilled only if they get successfully elected as people’s representatives. Since the number of representatives to be elected is fairly very small there is cut throat competition among the aspirants.

(ii) Electoral competition is like a competition at any market place. in a market, business firms fight each other to gain consumer’s confidence. Those firms which are in a position to gain this confidence taste success. Those who fail finally have to withdraw from the market. Competition, therefore, compels adoption of consumer-friendly practices.

(iii) Same is the case with the electoral competition. Different political have to work to gain voters’ confidence. They may successfully hoodwink voters once or a couple of times. but this game cannot go on indefinitely, finally, every politician, or a political party, would have to show results and live upto voters’ expectation. This is what political or electoral competition ensures, and this is the strength of competition.

(c) Demerits of Political Competition:

The system of elections gives rise to political competition. Political competition has its own costs :

It creates a sense of disunity and factionalism.

Different political parties and leaders often use dirty tricks to win elections.

Parties and leaders often level allegations against each other.

This pressure to win electoral fights does not allow sensible long-term policies to be formulated.

The environment created by competition dissuades many people to enter the political arena.

WHAT IS OUR SYSTEM ELECTIONS?

(i) Elections to choose people’s representatives to Lok Sabha (Lower House of the Parliament) and Vidhan Sabha (State Assemblies) is held after every five years, i.e., the term of an elected representative (Lok Sabha, MP or Vidhan Sabha, MLA) is five years.

(ii) By-election is an election that is held to choose a candidate in place of a member of legislature who has resigned suddenly or died.

(iii) Mid-term election is an election held to constitute a new house if the legislature is dissolved before its full time.

(iv) Universal adult franchise implies that any person who has attained 18 years of age has a vote. There is no ‘discrimination on the basis of caste, sex, religion, etc.

(a) Electoral Constituencies:

(i) India follows an area based system of representation. For this purpose, the country is divided into different areas for purposes of elections. These are called electoral constituencies.

(ii) Voters who live in a constituency elect a representative for their area. For elections to Lok Sabha, the country is divided in 543 constituencies. Therefore, 543 MPs get elected to Lok Sabha as people’s representative.

(iii) One of the features of a democratic election is that every vote should have equal value. to ensure this, an effort has been made that each constituency should have roughly the same number of voters. In practice, however, it has not been possible to maintain this balance.

Demarcation of electoral constituencies for the state assemblies:

For elections to the state assembly, a state is divided into a number of electoral constituencies. The number of assembly constituencies in a state depends upon the size of area and population in the state. Each Parliamentary constituency has a number of assembly constituencies.

The same principle applies for elections to panchayats and municipalities. Each village or town is divided into several ‘wards’. Each ward elects one representative.

(b) Reserved Constituencies:

A true democracy provides equal opportunity to all individuals and sections of society to take part in elections get elected and share in the governance of the economy.

However, due to various historical, social, cultural and economic reasons, section of the society has remained backward. It constitutes the weaker section of the society.

The weaker section constitutes, by and large Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Other Backward Castes (OBCs), and women.

The weaker section cannot be expected to play the game of electoral competition on the same turf as the powerful sections. To be meaningful, a level playing field is to be provided.

(c) Voters list:

Electoral roll is the list of persons who are eligible to vote in an election:-

All the citizens aged 18 years and above are eligible voters.

Every citizen has the right to vote regardless of his or her caste, religion or gender.

Persons with unsound mind and criminals can be denied the right to vote.

Election photo identity Card: Every eligible voter (i.e., whose name appears in the voters ’list) is being issued an identity card by the govermment. This contains the photograph of the voter. The card serves as a mark of identification at the time of polling of votes.

(d) Nomination of Candidates:

Any citizen of the minimum age of 5 years can file his nomination. filing the nomination means he can present himself as a candidate.

Every person who wishes to contest an election has to fill a ’nomination form’ and give some money as ‘security deposit’.

Recently, a new system of declaration has been introduced on direction from the Supreme Court. Every candidate has to make a legal’ declaration, giving full details of:

Serious criminal cases pending against the candidate.

This information has to be made public. this provides an opportunity to the voter to make their decision on the basis of the information provided by the candidates.

Classification of candidates:

Candidates contesting an election can be classified in two groups:

(i) Independents, i.e., those individuals who contest elections on their own.

(ii) Party candidates, i.e., those individuals who contest elections as a nominee of a political party.

“Most candidates are fielded from political parties”.

Party candidates enjoy many advantages over independent.

(i) When a candidate represent a party, it is easier for voters to know what he stands for. so a person voting for a party candidate knows what he is voting for.

(ii) Modern electioneering is a cumbersome process. it needs huge Organisation to manage it. individuals cannot mobilize resource for this type of Organisation, parties can and they do mobilize resources.

(iii) Electioneering means campaigning in different forms and in different parts of a constituency. An individual cannot organise these but a party can.

(iv) On the polling day polling booths have to be set up and manned by volunteers. Polititical parties can easily manage it. A political party is geared to and has necessary resources to contest elections. Hence, individuals seek to be part of a political party.

(e) Election Campaign:

Election is all about choosing a representative to the legislature and / or the government. Before a judicious choice is made, voters need to be informed about :

(i) Who is a better representative?

(ii) Which party will make a better government?

(iii) These pieces of information are put together in an election campaign.

Candidates and / or parties

(i) Contact their voters.

(ii) Address mass gatherings / political meetings.

(iii) Mobilize their supporters.

In a battle for voters’ vote, competition gains heat.

Restrictions placed on election campaigns by law :

It is necessary to regulate campaigns to ensure that every political party and candidate gets a fair and equal chance to compete.

According to our election law, no party or candidate can:

(i) Bribe or threaten voters;

(ii) Appeal to them in the name of caste or religion; (iii) Use government resources for election campaign; and spend more than Rs. 5 lakh in a constituency for a Lok Sabha election or Rs. 10 lakh in a constituency in an Assembly election. If they do so, their election can be rejected by the court even after they have been declared elected.

Model code of conduct for election campaign:

All the political parties in our country have agreed to a Model Code of Conduct for election campaigns. According to this no party or candidate can:

Use any place of worship for election propaganda; use government vehicles, aircraft and officials for elections; and once elections are announced, Ministers shall not lay foundation stones of any projects, take any big policy decisions or make any promises of providing public facilities.

Election Manifesto:

A party’s manifesto states its programme of action before it campaigns for votes among the voters.

(i) A manifesto tells the voters what the party thinks about major issues of internal or foreign policy, and promises to do certain things if it is voted to power.

(ii) It explains why does the party agree or not agree with the government.

(iii) It must also tell the voter what it is going to do if it wins.

(iv) A party which is in government tells voters why it acted the way it did.

(v) Election manifestos are important documents. Parties are judged by these.

Importance of Symbols in Elections:

Political parties have usually well-known symbols. Normally, a person recognises a party instantly from its symbol. Symbols are allotted by the Election Commission so that every candidate has a different symbol and the voters do not get confused.

(f) Polling and Counting of Votes:

(i) On the Election Day, every person whose name is on the voters’ list can go to a nearbe’ polling booth’, situated usually in a local school or a government office.

(ii) Once the voter goes inside the booth, the election officials identify her, put a mark on his finger and allow him to cast his vote. An agent of each candidate is allowed to sit inside the polling booth and ensure that the voting takes place in a fair way.

(iii) Earlier the voters used to indicate whom they wanted to vote for by putting stamp on the ballot paper. A ballot paper is a sheet of paper on which the names of the contesting candidates along with party name and symbols are listed.

(iv) Nowadays electronic voting machines (EVM) are used to record votes. the machine shows the names of the candidates and the party symbols. Independent candidates too have their own symbols, allotted by election officials. All the voter has to do is to press the button against the name of the candidate he wants to give his vote.

(v) Once the polling is over, all the EVMs are sealed and taken to a secure place. a few days later, on a fixed data, all the EVMs from a constituency are opened and the votes secured by each candidate are counted. The agents of all candidates are present there to ensure that the counting is done properly. The candidate who secures the highest number of votes from a constituency is declared elected.

(vi) In a general election, usually the counting of votes in all the constituencies takes place at the same time, on the same day. Television channels, radio and newspapers report this event. Within a few hours of counting, all the results are declared and it becomes clear as to who will form the next govermment.

(g) Election petition:

If a candidate is not satisfied by the way the election has been held, he can go to the Court and question his rival’s election. The decision of the Court does not let the questioning candidate win the seat but it makes winning candidate lose his seat.

WHAT MAKES ELECTIONS IN INDIA DEMOCRACY?

(a) Independent Election Commission:

Election Commission is an independent body provided for in the Constitution.

The whole election business is carried out by the Election Commission. It is charged with the responsibility of conducting free and fair elections which are the foundation of the whole system of democracy. Headed by the Chief Election Commissioner and two other members, the functions of the Commission are as follows:

(i) Preparation of voters ’list

(ii) Delimitation of the constituencies

(iii) Controlling the election machinery

(iv) Recognizing newly formed parties

(v) Allotting party symbols to parties

(vi) Conducting of polling and counting of votes

(vii) Announcement of results.

The procedure for the appointment of Election Commission is laid down in the Constitution. The Election Commission makes sure that the party in power does not take undue advantage of its position.

(b) Popular Participation:

Another way to check the quality of the election process in to. See whether people participate in it with enthusiasm. If the election process is not free or fair, people will not continue to participate in the exercise.

(i) People’s participation in election is usually measured by voter turnout figures. Tumout indicates the per cent of eligible voters who actually cast their vote. over the last fifty years, the tumout in Europe and North America has declined. In India the turnout has either remained stable or actually gone up.

(ii) In India the poor, illiterate and underprivileged people vote in large proportion as compared to the rich and privileged sections. this is in contrast to western democracies.

(iii) Common people in India attach a lot of importance to elections. They feel that through election they can bring pressure on political parties to adopt policies and programmes favorable to them. They also feel that their vote matters in the way things are run in the country.

(iv) The interest of voters in election related activities has been increasing over the years. During the 2004 elections, more than one-third voters took part in the campaign-related activities. More than half of the people identified themselves as being close to one or the other political party. One out of every seven voters is a member of a political party.

(c) Acceptance of Election Outcome:

If election are not free and fair, the outcome always favours the powerful. in such a situation, the ruling parties do not lose elections. The outcome of India’s elections speaks for itself:

(i) The ruling parties routinely lose elections in India both at the national and state level. In fact in every two out of the three elections held in the last fifteen years, the ruling party lost.

(ii) In the US, an incumbent or ‘sitting’ elected representative rarely loses an election. In India about half of the sitting MPs or MLAs lose elections.

(iii) candidates who are known to have spent a lot of money on ‘buying votes’ and those with known criminal connections often lose elections.

(iv) Barring few disputed elections, the electoral outcomes are usually accepted as ‘people’s verdict’ by the defeated party.

(d) Challenges to free and fair elections:

(i) Candidates and parties with a lot of money may not be sure of their victory but they do enjoy a big and unfair advantage over smaller parties and independents.

(ii) In some parts of the country, candidates with criminal connection have been able to push others out of the electoral race and to secure a ’ticket’ from major parties.

(iii) Some families tend to dominate political parties; tickets are distributed to relatives from these families.

(iv) Very often elections offer little choice to ordinary citizens, for both the major parties are quite similar to each other both in policies and practice.

(v) Smaller parties and independent candidates suffer a huge disadvantage compared to bigger parties.

These challenges exist not just in India but also in many established democracies. these deeper issues are a matter of concern for those who believe in democracy. That is why citizens, social activists and organizations have been demanding reforms in our electoral system.

ELECTIONS ARE THE BAROMETER OF DEMOCRACY

Elections are rightly said to be the barometer of democracy.

(i) It is through elections that the people give expression to their opinion.

(ii) It is through elections that the persons who have to work as representative of the people are identified.

(iii) Any unpopular government can be unseated in an election.

(iv) Elections help in maintaining an effective control over the executive.

(v) Elections are the time when it is possible to debate publicly on various socio-economic issues. different issues and subjects of concern come to the fore.

(vi) The true character of social and political workers comes out during the election campaign. The real worth of individuals can easily be adjudged.

In short, a fair and free election is indicative of the healthy and robust democracy.

IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL PARTIES IN A DEMOCRACY

Political parties are important for the functioning of democracy.

(i) The participate in the elections.

(ii) They put forward their alms and goals before the people.

(iii) Through their manifestos they let the people know what programme of action they would follow if they are voted to power.

(iv) This makes it easier for voters to make their choice between different candidates.

(v) The ruling party helps the government to keep in touch with what the people feel about its policies.

(vi) Opposition parties act as watch-dogs on the government. they are always alert to the policies and actions of the government. they citicise the govermment for its acts of omission and commission. All these make sure that the government should not go out of the track.

ROLE AN OPPOSITION PARTY IN A DEMOCRACY

The opposition in a legislature represent the legitimized dissent of the people.

An opposition party plays a significant role in a democracy.

(i) It acts as an alert watch-dog.

(ii) It exercises a check on ill-considered legislations.

(iii) It helps check the slackness of the government and its various departments.

(iv) The member of the opposition can move adjoumment motions, cut motions, and vote of no-confidence, with the aim to highlight any major government failure or acts of omission.

(v) The investigative commissions set up to enquire into alleged cases of corruption or negligence of duties have members from the opposition parties also. This ensures that they act in a fair and unbiased manner.

Exercise

OBJECTIVE DPP - 4.1

1 For election to Sabha, India is divided into how many number of constituencies?

(A) 534

(B) 538

(D) 542

2 $SC / ST$ and $OBC$ constitute:

(A) Workers section

(B) Weaker section

(D) All the above

3 Currently how many seats are reserved for SCs and STs in Lok Sabha?

(A) 79 and 41

(B) 97 and 14

(D) 69 and 29

4 What is the minimum voting age in India for men and women?

(A) 18 years for all

(B) 18 and 21

(D) 24 and 28

5 What is the minimum qualifying ago for contesting election for legislatures in our country?

(A) 21 years

(B) 30 years

(D) 18 years

6 What is that vote which is casted by anyone to a candidate, but others would not know his choice?

(A) Private vote

(B) Personal vote

(D) Secret Ballot

7 The highest number of Lok Sabha seats are from:

(A) West Bengal

(B) Bihar

(D) U.P.

8 Which of the following states of India has only one seat in Lok Sabha?

(A) Manipur

(B) Meghalaya

(D) Arunachal Pradesh

9 What is the limit of expenditure in election to State Assembly?

(A) 25 Lakh

(B) 10 Lakh

(D) 5 Lakh

10 Who conducts election in India?

(A) Government of India

(B) The President of India

(D) Parliament of India

11 In a democracy, election reflect truly and solely the will of the:

(A) People

(B) Press

(D) Political Parties

12 In a democracy who of the following should be elected?

(A) Preferred by the Press

(B) Preferred by the Prime Minister

(D) none of the above

13 The term of a Lok Sabha member and State Assembly member is:

(A) 4 years

(B) 6 years

(D) 5 years

14 In many states of India, seats in panchayats, and municipalities and corporation are reserved for:

(A) Industrial and Land lords

(B) Higher caste people

(D) Persons from $OBCs$

15 Election Photo identity Card in India is issued by :

(A) Collector of the district

(B) Superintendent of police

(D) Election Commission

16 Recently Supreme Court has directed for which document-while filing nomination:

(A) Family declaration

(B) Legal declaration

(D) Family planning declaration

17 The candidates in an election are classified as :

(A) Winners and losers

(B) Proposers and seconders

(D) Pro and against the government candidates

18 Who of the following can contest election in India?

(A) A person who can understand peoples concern and it otherwise eligible as per law

(B) Any body who is at least-a graduate

(D) None of the above

19 Which of the following Union Territories have maximum seats in Lok Sabha?

(A) Pondichery

(B) Delhi

(D) Chandigarh

20 According to our election law no party or candidate can:

(A) Bribe or threaten voters

(B) Appeal to voters in the name of caste or religion

(D) All the above

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 4.2

Very short answer type question:

1 What is a constituency?

2 What is electoral Roll or Voter’s List? What is its importance?

3 Explain Universal Adult Franchise.

4 When can a person be denied the right to vote?

5 What do you mean by EVM? What is its use?

6 What are Reserved Constituencies?

7 What is an election manifesto? What is its use?

8 Mention any two points relating to Model Code of Conduct for election campaigns.

9 Mention any two provisions which ensure the independency of the Election Commission.

10 What is the difference between a voter and a candidate?

Short answer type question:

11 What are the different measures taken to ensure free and fair elections?

12 What choices do voters make during elections?

13 What are the negative effects of electoral competition?

14 What are the conditions which make a election democratic?

15 Why have some constituencies been reserved?

16 What is the importance of election campaign?

17 State the features of the Model Code of Conduct which all political parties have agreed to adhere to during elections.

18 What are the challenges which prevent free and fair elections from being held?

Long answer type question:

19 What makes elections in India democratic?

20 Explain the role of Election Commission in free and fair elections.

21 Explain the election procedure.

22 What is the importance of political parties in a Democracy?

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 4.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13
Ans	C	B	A	A	C	D	D	C	A	C	A	C	D
Que.	14	15	16	17	18	19	20
Ans	D	D	B	C	A	B	D

GOVERNMENT EXECUTIVE & LEGISLATURE

SL -05(C)

HOW IS A MAJOR POLICY DECISION TAKEN ?

(a) The Decision Makers:

Any decision regarding the implementation of various policies in democracy is not only taken by the person who sings it. But any decision in a democracy involves other major functionaries also. Lets take the example of the office Memorandum which announced 27 percent reservations in civil posts and services under the Government of India for the Socially and Economically Backward Classes.

(i) The Government first appointed the second Backward Classes Commission which gave its recommendation in 1980.

(ii) The report was discussed in Parliament and many parties demanded its implementation. When the Janata Dal came into power in 1989, it announced its intention to implement this report through the address of the President to the Parliament.

(iii) ON $6^{\text {th }}$ August 1990, seven days before the Office memorandum was issued, the Union Cabinet and took a formal decision about this.

(iv) The next day Parliament was informed by the Prime Minister about this decision through a statement in both the house.

(v) The decision of the Cabinet was officially recorded and sent to the Department of Personnel and Training for immediate implementation. The minister asked the top officers of the department to make an order to implement the cabinet’s decision.

(vi) The officers drafted the order and took the minister’s approval. After this, the minister sought approval from the Prime Minister’s office and O.M. 36012/31/90 officially came into being.

(vii) A number of cases were filed against this order in the courts. All these cases were bunched together and considered by the Supreme Court. This case was known as the ‘Indira Sawheny and Others vs Union of India and Other’s case. In 1992, the Supreme Court upheld the Government order but asked the government to make certain modifications.

(viii) The ministry issued another office memorandum on September $8^{\text {th }} 1993$ and the disputers ended amicably.

Thus any major decision in a democracy involves all organs of the government - executive, legislature and the judiciary.

(b) Need for Political institutions:

Governing a country involves various activities. this include ensuring security to the citizens, providing facilities for education and health, to collect taxes and spend money thus raised on administration, defence and development programmes. it formulates and implements several welfare schemes. Some persons have to take decisions on how to go about these activities. Others have to implement these decisions. if disputes arise on these decisions or in there implementation, there should be some one to determine what is wrong and is right. So to attend all this tasks, several arrangements are made in all modern democracies. Such arrangements are called institutions. a democracy works well when these institutions perform functions assigned to them. The Constitution of any country lays down basic rules on the powers and functions of each institution.

Working with institutions is not easy. Institutions involve rules and regulations. This can bind the hands of leaders. Institutions involve meetings, committees and routines. This often leads to delays and complications. Therefore dealing with institutions can be frustrating. But that is nit the spirit of democracy. Some of the delays and complications introduced by institutions are very useful. They provide an opportunity for a wide set of people to be consulted in any decisions. Institutions make it difficult to have a good decision taken very quickly. But they also make it equally difficult to rush through a bads decision. That is why democratic governments insist on institutions.

PARLIAMENT

(a) Why do we need a Parliament?

In all democracies, an assembly of elected representatives exercises supreme political authority on behalf of the people. In India such a national assembly of elected representatives is called Parliament. At the state level this is called Legislature or Legislative Assembly.

(i) Parliament is the final authority for making laws in any country. This task of law making or legislation is so crucial that these assemblies are called legislatures. Parliaments all over the world can make new laws, change existing laws and make new ones in their place.

(ii) Parliament all over the world exercise some control over those who run the government. In some countries like India this control is direct and full. Those who run the government can take decisions only so long as they enjoy support of the Parliament.

(iii) Parliament controls all the money that governments have. In most countries the public money can be spent only when the Parliament sanctions it.

(vi) Parliament is the highest forum of discussion and debate on public issues and national policy in any country. Parliament can seek information about any matter.

(b) Two Houses of Parliament:

Lok Sabha (lower house):

Maximum membership 550,530 elected. From states and 20 from union territories. President can nominate two representative of Anglo-Indian community if they haven’t got adequate representation.

Qualifications:

Minimum age 25 years

Citizen of India.

The total country is divided into various constituencies, according to the population, Each constituency elect one representative. every person above the age of 18 can vote.

Term:

Maximum 5 years, but can be dissolved any time by president. elects the speaker who presides over the session and conducts business in the house. speaker can vote only in the situation of a tie. there is one deputy speaker who assists the speaker.

Rajya Sabha (upper house):

Total membership 250, elected members 238 and 12 nominated by the President.

Qualifications and Term:

Minimum age 30 years, Citizen of India. The members of state legislative assemblies elect the members of upper house i.e. Rajya Sabha. It is a permanent house, every member is elected for 6 years, $1 / 3$ of total members retires every $2^{\text {nd }}$ year. The vice-president is the ex-officio chairman of Rajya Sabha and to assist him there is a vice chairman.

Lok Sabha is more powerful than Rajya Sabha:

(i) Any ordinary law needs to be passed by both the Houses. but if there is a difference between the two Houses, the final decision is taken in a joint session in which members of both the Houses sit together. Because of the larger number of members, the view of the Lok Sabha is likely to prevail in such a meeting.

(ii) Lok Sabha exercises more powers in money matters. Once the Lok Sabha passes the budget of the government or any other money related law, the Rajya Sabha cannot reject it. The Rajya Sabha can only delay it by 14 days or suggest changes in it. The Lok Sabha may or may not accept these changes.

(iii) Most importantly, the Lok Sabha controls the Council of Ministers. Only a person who enjoys the support of the majority of the members in the Lok Sabha is appointed the Prime Minister. If the majority of the Lok Sabha members say they have ’no confidence’ in the Council of Ministers, all ministers including the Prime Minister, have to quit. The Rajya Sabha does not have this power.

POLITICAL EXECUTIVE

At different levels of government various functionaries help the elected representative take day-to-day decisions but do not exercise supreme power on behalf of the people. All these functionaries are collectively known as the executive. They are called executive because they are in charge of the ’execution; of the policies of the government. Thus, when we talk about ’the govermment’ we usually mean the executive.

(a) Political and Permanent Executive:

(i) People who are appointed on a long term basis are called the permanent executive or civil services, persona working in civil services called civil servants. They remain in office even when ruling party changes. These officers work under political executive and assist them in carrying out the day-to-day administration. The civil servant is usually more educated and has more expert knowledge of the subject.

Political executive are those who are elected by the people for a specific period. Political leaders who take the big decisions falls in this category.

(ii) People who are elected for a specific period are called political executive. Political leaders who take the big decisions fall in this category. In a democracy the will of the people is supreme. The minister is elected by the people and thus empowered to exercise the will of the people for all the consequences of her decision. That is why the minister takes all the final decisions. The minister decides the overall framework and objectives in which decisions on policy should be made. The minister is not, and is not expected to be, an expert in the matters of her ministry. The minister takes the advice of experts on all technical matters. But very often experts hold different opinions or place before more than one option. Depending on what the overall objective is, the minister decides.

(b) Prime-Minister and Council of Ministers:

Election:

The President appoints the Prime Minister. But the President cannot appoint anyone he/she likes. The President appoints the leader of the majority or the coalition of parties that commands a majority in the Lok Sabha, as Prime Minister. In case single party or alliance gets a majority, the President appoints the persion most likely to secure a majority support.

Term:

Maximum five years, minimum the time he enjoys the majority in the Lok Sabha.

Council of Minister:

Council of Ministers is the official name for the body that includes all the Ministers. it usually has 60 to 80 Ministers of different ranks. The President appoints the Council of Ministers on the advice of the prime minister. The Ministers are usually from the party or the coalition that has the majority in the Lok Sabha, Sometimes, a person who is not a member of Parliament can also become a minister. but such a person has to get elected to one Houses of the Parliament within six months of appointment as minister.

(i) Cabinet minister are usually top-level leaders of the ruling party or parties who are in charge of the major ministries. Usually the Cabinet Ministers meet to take decisions in the name of the Council of Ministers. Cabinet the inner ring of the Council of Ministers. it comprises about 20 ministers.

(ii) Ministers of state with independent charge are usually in-charge of smaller Ministries. They participate in the Cabinet meetings only when specially invited.

(iii) Ministers of State are attached to and required to assist Cabinet Ministers. Since it is not practical for all ministers to meet regular and discuss everything, the decisions are taken in Cabinet meetings. That is way parliamentary democracy in most countries is often known as the Cabinet from of government.

Collective responsibility:

The cabinet works as a team. The ministers may have different views and opinions, but everyone has to own up to every decision of the Cabinet. No minister can openly citicise any decision of the government, even if it is about another Ministry or Department.

(c) Powers of the Prime Minister:

(i) The Prime minister has the right to form his/her Council of ministers and to make distribution of portfolios among them. If any Minister disagrees with the Prime Minster the latter can get him/her removed from the Council of Ministers.

(ii) he/she allocates work to the different members of the Council of ministers. He/she acts as a coordinator among the various Ministers so that the whole work of administration is carried on smoothly.

(iii) The prime minister and his/her Council of Ministers formulate internal as well as the external policies of the Govermment. He/she and his/her council of ministers has te right to get te state of war or peace declared by the President. He/she and his/her council of ministers put their policies before the parliament and get them rectified by it

(iv) The President makes important appointments only on the advice of the Prime Ministers. Appointments of the Govermment, Ambassadors, Judges etc. are made on the Prime Minister’s advice

(v) The President proclaims emergency on the advice of the Prime Minister.

(vi) It is the advice of the Prime Minister that the President summons or prorogues the sessions of both the houses of the Parliament and dissolves the Lok Sabha.

Problems faced by the Prime Minister of a Coalition Government:

In recent years the rise of coalition politics has imposed certain constraints on the power of the ‘prime Minister. The Prime Minister of a coalition government cannot take decisions as he/she likes. He/she has to accommodate different groups and factions in his party as well as among alliance partners. He/she also has to heed to the views and-positions of the coalition partners and other parties, on whose support the survival of the government depends.

(d) The president

Qualifications:

(i) Citizen of India

(ii) Minimum age 35 years

(iii) Should not hold any office of profit under the govermment.

(iv) Should have the qualification to become a member of Lok Sabha

Election:

President is elected by a special body called electoral college consisting of elected members of Lok Sabha Rajya Sabha and state legislative assemblies.

Term and salary:

(i) Term is of 5 years.

(ii) Salary Rs. 100000/-month, which cannot be reduced during his/her term.

(iii) Can be elected as president twice not more then that.

Removal:

(i) If it is found that the president is not working according to constitution, the process of his/her removal can be started. (ii) The process is called impeachment.

(iv) Can be started in any house of Parliament but $1 / 4^{\text {th }}$ members of that house has to sign on the proposal.

(iv) 14 days notice is sent to the President.

(v) Process is started in the house, is discussed and has to be passed by $2 / 3{ }^{\text {rd }}$ majority

(vi) The proposal is sent to other house, it is discussed and has to be passed by $2 / 3{ }^{\text {rd }}$ majority

(vii) In between the process President can defend himself/herself through an authorized counsel. If the proposal is passed by both the houses by $2 / 3^{\text {rd }}$ majority President is removed.

Power of President:

Executive power:

(i) Appoints Prime Minister, Council of ministers, allocates their portfolio, can ask for their resignation.

(ii) Is the supreme commander of defence forces can declare war and conclude treaties.

(iii) All the important appointment of the government are made by President.

(iv) Receives the credentials of the ambassadors of different countries in India.

Legislative power:

(i) summons the sessions of Parliament, inaugurates it with his/her address and can dissolve the lok Sabha before its time.

(ii) No bill can become law till it is signed by President. Can reject the bill for once, but second time has to sign it.

(iii) Can issue ordinances.

(iv) Money Bills can be presented in Lok Sabha with the prior permission of President.

Judicial Power:

(i) Can grant pardon or can reduce the sentence of any convicted person.

(ii) Can take the advice of Supreme Court on any question of law or public importance. But is free to abide by or deny the advice.

Emergency powers of President:

National emergency:

(i) Can be imposed if the security of the country is threatened by external, aggression or internal armed rebellion

(ii) Can be imposed only on the written request of Council of Ministers, has to be passed by parliament within one month.

(iii) Fundamental rights of the citizen’s can be curbed.

(iv) State government are dissolved and union government takes over the subjects given under state list.

(v) Emergency can be imposed for six months, can be extended maximum up to one year with due permission of parliament.

(vi) Such an emergency was declared in India in 1965(indo-Pakistan war), 1975-77 (declared by Indira Gandhi on account of internal disturbance).

State emergency:

(i) Whenever the President feels that the govermment in the state is not working according to constitution, state emergency can be imposed in that state.

(ii) State government is suspended or dissolved and its powers are taken over by the central government.

(iii) Governor administers the state in the name of the President.

(iv) Emergency has to the approved by the parliament within one month.

(v) Can be imposed for 6 months and can be extended up to three years with the approval of parliament.

(vi) On October, 9, 2007, the President rule has been imposed on the south Indian state of Kamataka makin itthe latest state where the emergency has been imposed.

Financial emergency:

(i) If the President feels that the financial stability or the credit of India is threatened, financial emergency can be imposed.

(ii) Salaries of the government officials can be reduced.

(iii) All finance bill of the states are passed by the central government.

(iv) Central government can ask state government to observe certain principles relating to financial matters.

Financial emergency has never been declared, on a previous occasion, the financial stability of credit of India has been threatened, but a financial emergency was avoided. India experienced a shock on 6 July, 1991, when it had to agree to airlift 47 tonnes of gold from the vaults of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to London-intot he vaults of Bank of England-to act as collateral for borrowing in the international financial market. a little earlier, the government had leased 20 tonnes of gold to the State Bank of India (SBI) for sale in the international bullion market. the funds were urgently needed to ensure that it did not default on its international financial commitments and also to ensure that there was continued supply of petroleum and petroleum products to keep its economy moving. the acute balance of payments crisis was accompanied by a high inflation rate 17 per cent.

Parliamentary System of Government	Parliamentary form of Government
Is based on a fusion of legislative and Executive orders	Is based on separation of powers where all The three organs of govermment are Separate
There is a presence of a nominal head and A real head. the president who is the head Of state is actually only a nominal head. all His powers are exercised by the Prime Minister who is the real executive.	Such a distinction does not exist and the President is the real executive.
The executive is collectively and individually Responsible to the legislature.	The President is not responsible to the Legislature.
The tenure of the cabinet depends on the Support it commands in the legislature.	The President enjoys a fixed tenure.
The minister initiate important bills in the legislature.	The members of the President’s cabinet Cannot initiate any bills in the legislature.
All ministers have to be members of the legislature and are accountable to it.	President’s Cabinet consists of experts Who are not accountable to the legislature.

THE JUDICIARY

India is a federal state which means the centre and the state both their powers. the Supreme Court acts as a guardian of the Constitution. The Supreme Court keeps an eye on the working and powers of both the state and the centre. The Supreme Court has the power to settle disputes between the state and the centre and between two states. the Constitution of India has also given responsibility for the protection of fundamental rights to the Supreme Court. if the govermment passes any law or issues any order which is unconstitutional, the judiciary can declare the law as against the Constitution.

Independence of the Judiciary:

‘Independence of the Judiciary’ means that the judiciary should not be under the influence or control of any individual or authority. If the Legislature of Executive is in a position to influence the judiciary in any way, the judges will not be able to give impartial justice. in India the independence of the judiciary is ensured through:

(i) Appointment of Judges: The judges of the Supreme Court and High Court are appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister and in consultation with the Chief justice of the Supreme Court. In practice it means that the seniors judges of the Supreme Court select the new judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts. (ii) Security of Tenure: a Judge can remain in office till he/she has attained the age of 65 years (in case of Supreme Court) and 62 (in case of High Court). He/she can be removed by the President on the ground of “proven misbehavior or incapacity. “But the resolution of his/her impeachment should be passed by both the Houses.

(ii) Salaries etc. are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India: The Salaries are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India and cannot, therefore, be votes upon by the Parliament.

(iv) No discussion with respect to the conduct of any judge: No discussion shall take place in Parliament with respect to the conduct of any judge in the discharge of his/her duties when a motion for his/her removal is under consideration.

Judiciary in India, one of the most powerful in the world:

The Supreme Court and the High Court have the power to interpret the Constitution of the country. They can declare invalid any law of the legislature or the actions of the executive, whether at the Union level or at the State level, if they find such a law or action is against the Constitution. Thus they can determine the validity of any legislation or action of the executive on the country, when it is challenged before them. This is known as the judicial review. The Supreme Court of India has also ruled that the core or basic principles of the Constitution cannot be changed by the Parliament.

Indian Judiciary, the Guardian of the Fundamental Rights:

The powers and the independence of the Indian judiciary allow it to act as the guardian of the Fundamental Rights. The citizens have the right to approach the courts to seek remedy in case of any violation of their rights. Any one can approach the courts if public interest is hurt by the actions of government. This is called public interest litigation. The courts intervene to prevent the misuse of the government’s power to make decisions. They check malpractices on the part of public officials. That is why the judiciary enjoys a high level of onfidence among the people.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP - 5.1

1 The President can nominate 2 members belonging to Anglo Indian Community in the Parliament in case :

(A) Lok Sabha has adequate representation

(B) Lok Sabha has inadequate representation

(D) none of the above

2 Who elects the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha?

(A) The President

(B) The Prime Minister

(D) The members of Rajya Sabha

3 The minimum age limit of Lok Sabha member and the Rajya Sabha member is:

(A) 30 years and 25 years respectively

(B) 25 years and 30 years respectively

(D) 25 years and 25 years respectively

4 The word ex-office often used for the Vice President of India means:

(A) he/she would automatically become the chair Person of Rajya Sabha

(B) he/she would elected by the people directly.

(D) none of the above

5 A joint sitting of the two Houses is called by:

(A) The Prime Minister

(B) The President

(D) The Deputy Speaker

6 Who gives the certificate that the bill is the financial bill?

(A) The Prim Minister

(B) The President

(D) The member who reads the bill

7 The “No-Confidence Motion” means the opposition parties move a motion that the Lok Sabha does not have confidence in:

(A) The Cabinet

(B) The Council of Ministers

(D) none of the above

8 Which of the following statement is not correct?

(A) If the majority of the house votes against the motion the council of minister continues

(B) If the majority of the house votes for the motion the council of minister has to resign

(D) none of the above

9 During question hours the questions are given to:

(A) The Speaker

(B) The Deputy Speaker

(D) all of the above

10 Which of the following is not correct?

(A) Starred questions are for oral answer

(B) Non-starred questions are for written answer

(D) all of the

11 Who are the heads of the state and the government respectively?

(A) The Prime Minister and the President

(B) The President and the Prime Minister

(D) The President and the Vice President

12 The president is elected by:

(A) The direct election by the citizens who obtained 18 years

(B) The indirect election by the electoral college

(D) none of the above

13 Which of the following are the executive powers of the president?

(A) All government decisions have to go on the president name

(B) The president is the Supreme Commander of the Defence Forces of india

(D) all of the above

14 The president enjoys the following powers:

(A) financial powers

(B) emergency powers

(D) all of the above

15 Which of the following is not the judicial functions of the parliament?

(A) It can impeach and remove the president out of his office

(B) It takes part in the election of the president

(D) It can impeach the judges of the High Court of India

SUBJECTIVE DPP $\mathbf{- 5 . 2}$

Very short answer type question:

1 Who is the head of the Govermment?

2 Name any three institutions responsible to run democratic govermment in India.

3 By whom and when can the /House of People be dissolved?

4 Mention any four powers of the parliament.

5 What is the tenure of the Prime Minister? 6 Dr. Man Mohan Singh is not the member of Lok Sabha but still he was appointed as the Prime Minister of India. Give reason.

7 How is the Chief justice of India appointed?

8 Why is it necessary to keep the judiciary independent of the govermment?

Short answer type question:

9 What are the qualifications required for contesting the election for the post of the President?

10 How and on what grounds can the President be removed from office?

11 How is the Prime Minister of India appointed?

12 What is meant by the term collective responsibility?

13 What is meant by discretionary powers of the President?

14 How is the President of India elected?

15 Distinguish between the Cabinet and the Council of Ministers.

Long answer type question:

16 Explain the emergency powers of the President.

[Al 1997 C]

17 Explain the powers of the Indian Prime Minister.

18 How does the Lok Sabha exercises supreme power in comparison to Rajya Sabha?

19 What are the legislative and executive powers of the President?

[Delhi 1998]

Previously Asked Questions

20 Explain the legislative powers of the governor of the Indian state. Under what circumstances can he use his discretionary powers?

How is the Indian Parliament composed? Explain any four functions of the Indian Parliament.

[Foreign 2001]

21 Explain four major functions of Indian Parliament. Why has the Indian constitution vested supreme power in the parliament?

22 Why is the Prime Minister called first among equals? What are his/her functions?

[Delhi 2001 C]

23 How does the Indian parliament control the executive?

[Delhi 2001]

24 Explain the legislative and two executive functions of the governer. What is his/her role during emergency?

[Foreign 2000]

25 What are the legislative powers of the Governor of a State? On what ground can the Governor recommend the introduction of President’s rule in his state?

[Delhi 2000 C]

26 How is the Indian President elected? Examine the legislative powers of the Indian President.

[Al 1997 C]

27 How is Prime Minister the constant factor in the parliamentary executive in India. What makes him/her more powerful than the President of India.

[Al $2000 C$ ]

28 Explain the role of Prime Minister and his Council of Minster in the Parliamentary democracy (India). What is the significance of collective responsibility in this context?

29 Examine the powers of Governor of an Indian State, with special reference to his discretionary powers.

[Delhi 1999]

30 What is the difference between a Bill and Law? Describe the various stages through which a Bill has to pass to become a Law.

[Al 1998]

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 5.1)

Que.	$\mathbf{1}$	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15
Ans	B	C	B	A	B	C	A	C	C	A	B	B	D	D	B

$»$ DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS $«$

SL $-06(C)$

LIFE WITHOUT RIGHTS

(a) Prison in Guantanamo Bay:

(i) Guantanamo Bay is a naval base near Cuba, controlled by the American Navy.

(ii) The U.S.Forces secretly abducted about 600 people who they felt were responsible for the terrorist attack on New York which occurred on $11^{\text {th }}$ September 2001 and imprisoned them here.

(iii) In lost cases, the governments of their countries were not asked or even informed about their imprisonment.

Families of the prisoners, media or even UN representatives have not been allowed to meet them. There has been no trial before any magistrate in the USA nor have the prisoners been allowed to approach the courts in their own country.

Amnesty international reported that the prisoners were being tortured in ways that violated the US laws. They were being denied the treatment that even prisoners of war must get as per international treaties. Prisoners were not released even after they were officially declared not guilty. The UN Secretary General said the prison in Guantanamo Bay should be closed down. The US government refused to accept these pleas.

(b) Citizens’ Rights in Saudi Arabia:

(i) The country is ruled by a hereditary king and the people have no role in electing or changing their rulers.

(ii) The king selects the legislature as well as the executive. he appoints the judges and can change any of their decisions.

(iii) Citizens cannot form political parties of any political organizations. Media cannot report anything that the monarch does not like.

(iv) There is no freedom of religion. Every citizen is required to be Muslim. Non-Muslim residents can follow their own religion in private, but not in public.

(v) Women are subjected to many public restrictions. The testimony of one man is concemed equal to that of two women.

(c) Ethnic Massacre in Kosovo:

(i) Albanians formed the majority of the population in Kosovo but the Serbs were in majority in other parts of Yugoslavia.

(ii) Milosevic who became the Prime Minister wanted Serbs to dominate the country and to get rid of the Albanians.

(iii) Thousands of Albanians were massacred. Finally, several other countries intervened to stop this massacre.

(iv) Milosevic was captured and tried by an international Court of justice for crimes against humanity.

RIGHT IN A DEMOCRACY

(a) What are Rights?

(i) Rights are claims of a person over other fellow beings, over the society and over the government. A right possible when you make a claim that is equally possible for others. You cannot have a right that harms or hurts others. The claims we make should be reasonable. They should be such that can be made available to others in an equal measure. Thus, a right comes with an obligation to respect other rights.

(ii) Just because we claim some thing it does not become out right. It has to be recognised by the society we live in. rights acquire meaning only in society. Every society makes certain rules to regulate our conduct. They tell us what is right or what is wrong. What is recognized by the society as rightful becomes the basis of rights.

(iii) When the socially recognised claims are written into law they acquired real force. Otherwise they remain merely as natural or moral rights. When law recognises some claims they become enforceable. We can demand their application. When fellow citizens or the government do not respect these rights we call it violation or infringement of our rights. In such circumstances citizens can approach courts to protect their rights.

Rights are reasonable claims of persons, recognised by society and sanctioned by law.

(b) Why do we need Rights in a Democracy?

(i) Fundamental Rights provide the conditions which are essential for the development of the inherent qualities in man and to secure his all round growth.

(ii) These are necessary to preserve human dignity and promote social progress in an atmosphere of freedom.

(iii) These provide civil liberties, without which democracy cannot be even conceived.

(iv) These are a significant check on the arbitrary use of the government.

(v) Rights protect minorities from the oppression of majority.

RIGHTS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

In India, like most other democracies in the world, these rights are mentioned in the Constitution. Some rights which are fundamental to our life are given a special status. They are called Fundamental Rights. The preamble of our Constitution talks about securing for all its citizens equality, and justice. Fundamental Rights put this promise into effect. They are an important basic feature of India’s Constitution.

(a) ‘Right of Equality’:

The various aspects of ‘Right of Equality’ are as follows:

(i) Equality before Law: The constitution guarantees that all citizens are equal, before law. These is no discrimination on the basis of race, caste, sex or place of birth.

(ii) Abolition of all titles like khan Bahadur, etc.

(iii) People should be given equal opportunity to show their skill.

(iv) The State cannot discriminate against anyone in the matter of employment. All citizens can apply and become employees of the State.

(v) Protection of Weaker Sections: the right of equality gives special provisions for women and children.

(vi) Reservation: In legislature, educational institutions, government offices, etc, some seats are reserved for the weaker sections.

(vii) Ban on Untouchability: Untouchability has made an offence. Anyone who practices untouchability is liable to punishment.

(viii) No citizen can be denied access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment.

Two exceptions to the Right of Equality.

The Right to Equality contains two exceptions as follows:

(i) The state can made special provisions for women and children, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and backward classes. these classes need special protection because often they have been victims of unequal treatment.

(ii) The state can reserve some posts for SCs, STs and OBCs.

(b) the Right to Freedom is actually a cluster of rights:

The Right to Freedom is a Fundamental Right given to us by the Constitution and safeguarded by the government .it consists of the following rights:

(i) Freedom of speech and expression.

(ii) Freedom to assemble peacefully.

(iii) Freedom to form unions and associations.

(iv) Freedom to move within the country.

(v) Freedom to live in any part of India.

(vi) Freedom to practice any profession.

In addition, the Parliament has enacted a law giving the right to information to the citizens.

Restriction to the Right to Freedom:

The restrictions are as follows:

(i) The government can restrict these rights in the interest of national integration. it implies that if these laws are used against the unity and integrity of India, the government can pass laws to restrict them.

(ii) Similar restrictions can be imposed if they are disturbing public order or morality.

(iii) We have the right to speech, but we should not use abusive language.

(iv) We have the right to use public property but it is not a right to destroy it. it is our duty to protect public property.

“No citizen can be denied his life and liberty.”

The Right to Freedom guarantees that no citizen can be denied his life and liberty.

(i) These can be denied only by law, i.e., only if a citizen has violated a law or committed a crime.

(ii) No one can be arrested without being told why he/she is being arrested.

(iii) And, if arrested, every citizen has the right to defend himself/herself through a lawyer of his/her own choice.

(iv) Also, if a citizen is arrested, he/she must be brought before a magistrate within 24 hours.

Recently, the Supreme Court has expanded the meaning of the right to life to include the right to food. All these rights are given to the citizens to ensure that the government cannot oppress them unjustly or take away their liberty.

Preventive Detention:

if a person is seen to be a threat to law or unity and integrity of the country, the government can detain such person to prevent any damage. this is called Preventive Detention.

But preventive detention can extend only for three months.

The period can be extended by an advisory board.

At the end of this period, the person should either be brought for trial before a Court or released.

(c) ’ Right against Expiation’:

Right against Expiation provides for the following:

(i) Prohibition of traffic in human beings.

(ii) Prohibition of forced labor or begar.

(iii) Prohibition of employment of children in factories.

Constitutional provisions to protect the rights of children.

The provisions to protect rights of children are as follows:

(i) The Constitution bans trading in children, i.e., buying and selling of children.

(ii) Children under the age of 14 cannot be employed to do dangerous jobs.

(iii) All children should be provided free and compulsory education till the age of 14 .

(iv) Right against exploitation protects them from bonded labor.

(v) The Constitution protects them from moral and material degradation.

(d) Right to Freedom of Religion:

Our Constitution gives the right to practice any religion to all citizens. Accordingly,

(i) there is no discrimination against any religion;

(ii) Laws are not passed on the basis of religion;

(iii) A citizen can proactive any religion which he/she wishes to;

(iv) Religion Constitution ous sects can setup charitable institutions.

(e) Cultural and educational rights:

India is a country many religion, languages and cultures. The Constitution helps them in preserving and developing their own identity.

(i) All sections of people having their distinct culture, language and script have full freedom to protect the same.

(ii) All minorities have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.

(f) How can we secure these Rights?

The Constitution provides that the Courts have a duty to protect citizens ’tights.

(i) Every citizen has a right to go to a Court to enforce his rights.

(ii) He can challenge any act of the government against his rights.

(iii) Courts can issue orders to the government.

(iv) These Court orders are known as Writs.

(v) Some of the important forms of writ are: Habeas corpus, mandamus, quo warranto and certiorari.

Different types of writs.

An order issued by a court to the government is called a writ. some of the important types of writs are as follows:

(i) Habeas Corpus: The Court can order the government to produce before it a detained person, so that it can know the reason for detention and set him free if there is no legal justification for the detention.

(ii) Mandamus: The court may issue a command to any public or quasi- public legal body which has refused to perform its legal duty.

(iii) Quo Warranto: It is issued by a Court to a public servant to inquire into the legality of his holding a public office and to remove him if his claim is not well-founded.

(iv) Prohibition: It is issued by a Higher Court to stop the proceedings in a lower Court on the ground that the Lower Court does not have the jurisdiction to deal with the case.

(v) Certiorari: It is issued by the Supreme court to a Lower Court in order to quash its order or decision.

(g) Nature of Fundamental Rights in th e Constitution:

The nature of Fundamental Rights is as under:

(i) The government cannot make a law which violates the Fundamental Rights.

(ii) Some right are available to all, while some other rights are available only to citizens.

(iii) These rights are not absolute. These are subject to certain restrictions imposed in the interest of public order, decency or morality.

(iv) These rights are justiciable.

(v) Some of these rights can be suspended in times of emergency.

EXPANDING SOURE OF RIGHTS

While fundamental rights are the source of all rights, OUR Constitution and offers a wider range of rights. Over the years the scope of rights has expanded.

(a) Expansion in the Legal Rights:

(i) Now school educational has become a right for Indian citizens. The governments are responsible for providing free and compulsory education to all children up to the age of 14 years.

(ii) Parliament has enacted a law giving the right to information to the citizens. This Act was made under the Fundamental Rights to freedom of thought and expression.

(iii) Recently the Supreme Court has expanded the meaning of the right to life to include the right to food.

(iv) Constitution provides many more rights, which may not be Fundamental Rights. For example the right to property is not a Fundamental Right but it is a constitutional right. right to vote in elections is an important constitutional right.

(b) Expansion in the Human Rights:

International Covenant recognises many rights that are not directly a part of the Fundamental Rights in the Indian Constitution. this has not yet become an international treaty. but human right activists all over the world see this as a standard of human rights. These include:

(i) Right to work, an opportunity to everyone to earn livelihood by working.

(ii) Right to safe and healthy working conditions, fair wages that can provide decent standard of living for the workers and their families.

(iii) Right to adequate standard of living including adequate food, clothing and housing.

(iv) Right to social security and insurance.

(v) Right to health which provides medical care during illness, special care for women during childbirth and prevention of epidemics.

(vi) Right to education provides which provides free and compulsory primary education and equal access to higher education.

(c) Constitution of South Africa guarantees its citizens several kinds of new rights:

(i) Right to privacy, so that citizens or their homes cannot be searched, their phones cannot be tapped, their communication cannot be opened.

(ii) Right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being.

(iii) Right to have access to adequate housing.

(iv) Right to have access to health care services, sufficient food and water; no one may be refused emergency medical treatment.

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

Fundamental Duties were incorporated due to the following reasons:

(i) Fundamental Duties have been added to balance the Fundamental Rights and keep them in the right perspective.

(ii) These have been added to make the citizens realize that if they are given some Fundamental Rights they have also to perform certain duties. Every right has a duty attached to it.

(iii) These have been added to develop patriotism among the citizens and to make them realize the importance of protecting the sovereignty and integrity of the country and to promote harmony and to strengthen the nation.

Our Constitution states the following as Fundamental Duties of citizens:

(i) Right to work

(ii) Right to free and compulsory education

(iii) Right to equal wages

(iv) Right to an adequate livelihood

(v) Promote and develop Panchayati Raj

(vi) Promotion of SC/ST

(vii) Public health, protection of animals, ban on drinking

(viii) Promote cottage industries

(ix) Protect environment

(x) Maintain world peace.

DIRECITIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

The Directive Principles of State Policy are the directions given by the Constitution to government to establish a just society. The aim of these directions is to create proper economic and social conditions to create a good life. The Directive Principles of State Policy can be classified as follows:

Socialist

(i) Right to work

(ii) Right to free and compulsory education

(iii) Right to equal wages

(iv) Right to an adequate livelihood

(v) Promote and develop Panchayati Raj

(vi) Promotion of SC/ST

(vii) Public health, protection of animals, ban on drinking

(viii) Promote cottage industries

(ix) Protect environment

(x) Maintain world peace.

Fundamental Rights	Directive Principles
1. These are right of citizens guaranteed by the Constitution.	1. These are directions given by the Constitution to The government.
2. The government must grant these right to the citizens	2. It is for the government of follow these principles or not.
3. A citizen can go to a Court to get his rights enforced.	3. These cannot be enforced by Courts.
4. These are more political in nature.	4. These are more political in nature.

In the case of conflict between the Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles the former enjoy precedence.

NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION

National Human Right Commission (NHRC) IS an independent commission. It was setup in 1993. The NHRC performs the following functions:

(i) It can make an independent and credible inquiry into any case of violation of human rights.

(ii) It can inquiry into any case of abetment of such violation or negligence in controlling it by any government officer.

(iii) It can take any step of promote human rights in the country. The Commission has ranging powers to carry out it’s inquiry:

(iv) It can summon witnesses.

(v) It can question any government official.

(vi) It can demand any official paper.

(vii) It can visit any prison for send its own team for on-the spot inquiry.

The Commission presents its findings and recommendations to the government. it cannot by itself punish the guilty. Hon’ble justice Shri S. Rajendra Babu assumed the office of Chaiperson of National Human Right Commission April 2,2007. National Commission of Women is headed by Smt. girija Vyas. National Commission of Minorities is headed by Mohd. Hamid Ansari.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP-6.1

1 The Fundamental Rights granted to the Indian Citizen can be amended by the:

(A) Vice-President

(B) President

(D) Prime Minister

2 Which of the following is not an instance of an exercise of a fundamental right?

(A) Workers from Bihar go to the Punjab to work on the farms.

(B) Christian missions set up a chain of missionary schools.

(D) Parents’ property is inherited by their children.

3 Which of the following rights has only has been ensured to the been granted to the citizens of India and denied to noncitizens?

(A) Equality before law

(B) Freedom of speech, assemble and association

(D) Protection of life and personal liberty

4 Which of the following Fundamental Rights citizens of India?

(A)To get-education

(B) To get employment

(D) To from association or unions

5 Which of the following writ or order in passed by the Supreme court of the high court to ascertain the validity a person to a certain post?

(A)Habeas Corpus

(B) Prohibition

(D) Mandamus

6 The Right to Private Property in India today is:

(A)A fundamental rights

(B)A political right

(D) A legal right

7 Which of the following is not a political right of a citizen?

(A)Right to vote

(B) Right to seek election

(D) Right to partition

8 The Right to freedom of movement in India is a :

(A)Legal Right

(B) Natural Right

(D) Fundamental Right

9 Which fundamental rights will be affected if our county adopts a policy of racial discrimination against Muslims and Christians?

(A)Right to equality

(B) Right to freedom

(D) Right to constitution remedies

10 Which of the following rights is available under the Indian Constitution?

(A)Right to work

(B) Right to adequate livelihood

(D) Right to privacy

11 Which of the following Fundamental Duties have been enumerated in our Constitution for the citizen?

(A)To abide by the constitution, and respect National flag

(B) To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our freedom struggle

(C) To up hold, protect the unity, Sovereignty, integrity and to defend our country and render national service when called upon to do so

(D) All the above

12 Fundamental Rights can be suspended by:

(A) The Union cabinet

(B) The President

(D) Non of the above

13 Which one of the Fundamental Rights of the Indian Constitution prohibits traffic using of human beings?

(A)Right to equality

(B) Right against exploitation

(D) Non of the above

14 Which of the following freedoms is not available to an Indian citizen?

(A)Freedom to criticize the government

(B) Freedom to participate in armed revolution

(D) Freedom to oppose the central values of the Constitution

15 Which of the following Fundamental Rights has been the subject of maximum litigation and controversy?

(A) Right to Property

(B) Right to equality

(D) Right to freedom

SUBJECTIVE DPP -6.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1 Mention three qualities of rights.

2 Why are the right guaranteed by the Indian Constitution called Fundamental Rights?

3 Mention any two exceptions to the Right to Equality.

4 Mention any four rights of the Indian citizens except the Fundamental Rights.

5 Mention any two limitations of freedom of speech and expression.

6 Which is the most important right and why?

7 What is meant by ‘Preventive Detention’?

8 Mention two Right which are important Constitution Rights but not Fundamental Rights.

Short Answer Type Questions:

9 What is the position of citizens with regard to their government in Saudi Arabia?

10 What is the significance of Fundamental Rights?

11 What are the Fundamental Rights Guaranteed in our Constitution?

12 What are the aspects of ‘Right to Equality’?

13 What are the important exceptions to the ‘Right to Equality’?

14 “No citizen can be denied his life and liberty” Comment.

15 Write about ‘Right against exploitation’.

16 Mention Constitution provision to protect the right of children.

Long Answer Type Questions:

17 Explain cultural and educational rights as provided Constitution.

18 What do you mean by ‘Right to Constitution Remedy’? What kind of writs can be issued under this right? Explain them each.

19 Distinguish between fundamental rights and directive principals of state policy.

20 What is National human Right Commission? What is its function?

21 What are the International Covenant or Economic, Social and Cultural Rights?

22 What is relationship between democracy and rights of citizen?

23 What do you think about the reasonable restrictions on the right to freedom? Are they justified? Give your reasons.

24 Explain any four Fundamental Rights which are granted by the Indian Constitution to all Indian citizens. What can a citizen do if these rights are violated?

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP6.1)

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Ans	C	D	B	D	C	D	C	D	A	C	D	B	B	B	A

$»$ ECONOMIC STORY OF PALAMPUR $«$

INTRODUCTION

(i) In Palampur faming is the main activity. Several other activities such as small scale manufacturing, dairy transport etc. are also carried out. In these production activities various resources combine to produce the desired goods and services.

(ii) Palampur is well connected with neighboring villages and towns. An all weather road connects the village to Raiganj and further on to the nearest small town. many kinds of transport such as bullock carts, tongas, bogeys, motorcycles, jeeps, tractors and trucks are visible on ties road.

(iii) Palampur has about 450 families belonging to several different castes. 80 families of upper caste own the majority of land. Their houses are quite large and made of brick with cement plastering. The SCs (dalits) comgrise one third of the population and live in one corner of the village and in such smaller houses, some of which are of mud and straw.

(iv) Most of the houses have electric connections. Electricity powers all the tubewells in the fields. Electricity is also used in various types of small business. Palampur has two primary schools and one high school. These is a primary health centre run by the government and one private dispensary.

ORGANISATIONL PRODUCTION

Production of any type of goods or services required the services of four factors of Production.

(i) First requirement is land and other natural resources such as water, forests and minerals.

(ii) Second requirement is labor. Some production activities require highly educated workers, other activities required workers who can do manual work.

(iii) Third requirement is physical capital, i.e. the variety of inputs required at every stage during production. Tools, machines, buildings can be used in production over many years, and are called fixed capital. Raw materials and money in hand are called working; these are used up in production. (iv) There is a fourth requirement too. One needs knowledge and enterprise to be able to put together land, labor and physical capital and produce an output. this, these days is called human capital. every production is organised by combining land, labor, physical capital and human capital, which are know as factors of production.

FARMING N PALAMPUR

(a) Fixed land:

Farming is the main production activity in Palampur. 75 per cent of the working people are dependent on farming for their livelihood. Since 1960 in Palampur, there has been no expansion in land area under cultivation. By then, some of the wastelands in the village had been converted to cultivable land. There exists no further scope to increase farm production by brining new land under cultivation.

(b) Ways to produce more from the same land:

All land is cultivated in Palampur. No land is idle. During the rainy (kharif) season, people grow jowar and bajra which are used as cattle feed. Between Octobers to December they cultivate potatoes. In the winter (or the Rabi) season they sow wheat. a part of the land area is also devoted to sugarcane which is harvested once every year. The main reasons why farmers are able to grow three different crops in a year are:-

(i) As a result of the coming of electricity in the Palampur village, people have greatly improved the system of irrigation. They can now irrigate more lands quite effectively.

(ii) Tube wells were first installed by the government but soon people were able to set up their own tubewells.

(iii) By multiple cropping more then one crop is grow on a piece of land during the same year. All farmers in Palampur grow at least two main crops; many are growing potato as the third crop.

(iv) The other way is to use modern farming methods for higher yield. Higher yields are possible from a combination of HYV seeds, irrigation, chemical fertilisers, pesticides etc.

(c) Green Revolution:

Large increase in crop yields, leading to record food production started, in our country from 1960 onwards and marked a turning point in Indian agriculture which has led to green revolution in our country. The great increase in the production of food grain crops especially the wheat crop in our country during the last 30 years is called Green Revolution. This is because a sort of revolution has taken place in Indian agriculture leading to enormous food grain production. the revolution is called because it has led to unprecedented greenery of crops everywhere. The period 1960 to 1980 is also called ‘golden era’ for the record food grain production. it is because of the green revolution that our country has become salt sufficient in food production and even buffer stocks of food grains have been created for use in the times of natural calamities like drought and floods.

(d) How Electricity help the farmers in Palampur?

(i) The major impact of the spread of electricity in Palampur was to transform the system of irrigation.

(ii) Electricity helped the farmers to shift from the traditional Persian wheels to electricity run tube wells.

(iii) The irrigation capacity of electricity run tube wells is much more then that of the Persian wheels.

(iv) Spread of electricity leads, literally the whole society from darkness to light. it transforms all social economic norms of life . it is like a whole new world.

(e) Sustainable use of land:

(i) land being a natural resource, it is necessary to be very careful in its use. The modern farming methods have overused the land resource.

(ii) Green Revolution is associated with the loss of soil fertility due to increased use of chemical fertilizers.

(iii) Continuous use of groundwater for tube well irrigation has reduced the water-table below the ground.

(iv) Environmental resources like soil fertility and groundwater are built up over many years. Once destroyed, it is very difficult to restore them.

(f) Distribution of land between the farmers of Palampur:

(i) Not all the people engaged in agriculture have sufficient land for cultivation. In Palampur, about one third of the 450 families are landless, i.e. 150 families, most of them dalits, have no land for cultivation.

(ii) Of the remaining families who own land, 240 families cultivate small plots of land less then 2 hectares in size.

(iii) In Palampur, there are 60 families of medium and large farmers who cultivate more then 2 hectares of land. A few of the large farmers have land extending over 10 hectares or more.

(g) Who will provide the labour?

(i) Farming requires a great deal of hard work. Small farmers along with their families, cultivate their own fields. Thus, they provide the labor required for farming themselves. Medium and large farmers hire farm labourers to work on their fields.

(ii) Farm labourers come either from landless families cultivating small plots of land. Unlike farmers, farm labourers do not have a right over the crops grown on the land. Instead, they are paid wages by the farmer for whom they work. Wages can be in cash or in kind of crop. Sometimes labourers get meals also. Wages vary widely from region to region, from crop to crop, from one farm activity to another (like sowing and harvesting).there is also a wide variation in the duration of employment. a farm labourer might be employed on a daily basis, or for one particular farm activity like harvesting, or for the whole year.

(h) The capital needed in farming:

(i) Most small farmers have to borrow money to arrange for the capital. They borrow from large farmers or the village moneylenders or the traders who supply various inputs for cultivation. The rate of interest on such loans is very high. They are put to great distress to repay the loan.

(ii) In contrast to the small farmers, the medium and large farmers have their own savings from farming. They are thus able to arrange for the capital needed.

(i) Sale of Surplus Farm Products:

(i) Small farmers have little surplus because their total production is small and from this a substantial share is kept for their own family needs. so, it is the medium and large farmers who supply wheat to the market.

(ii) Large and medium farmers sell the surplus farm products. a part of the earnings is saved and kept for buying capital for the next season. Thus, they are able to arrange for the capital for farming from their own savings. Some farmers might also use the savings to buy cattle, trucks, or to set up shops.

NON FARMING ACTIVITIES IN PALAMPUR

(a) dairy :

Dairy is a common activity in many families of Palampur. People feed their buffalos on various kinds of grass and the jowar and bajra that grow during the kharif season. The milk is sold in Raiganj, the nearby large village. Two traders from Shahpur town have set up collection cum chilling centers at Raiganj from where the milk is transported to far away towns and cities.

(b) Small scale manufacturing in Palampur:

Less than fifty people are engaged in manufacturing in Palampur unlike the manufacturing that takes place in the big factories in the big factories in the4 towns and cities, manufacturing in Palampur involves very simple production methods and are done on a small scale. they are carried out mostly at home or in the fields with the helps of family labor.

(c) The shopkeepers of Palampur:

People involved in trade (exchange of goods) are not many in Palampur. the traders of Palampur are shopkeepers who buy various goods from wholesale markets in the cities and sell them in the village. There are a few small general stores in the village selling a wide range of items like rice, wheat, sugar, tea, oil, biscuits, soap, toothpastes, batteries, candies, notebooks, pen, pencil and even some cloth.

(d) Transport:

there are a variety of vehicles on the road connecting Palampur to Raiganj. Rickshawallahs, tongawallahs, jeep, tractor, truck drivers and people driving the traditional bullock cart and bogey are people in the transport services. They ferry people and goods from one place to another, and in return get paid for it.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP-1.1

1 Which of the following is the main activity in village Palampur?

(A) Manufacturing

(B) Farming

(D) Dairy

2 Production activities need various types of resources which include-

(A) Natural Resources

(B) Man made items

(D) All the above

3 Production of any type of goods or services requires the service of factors of production.

(A) Five

(B) Four

(D) Two

4 The name of the small town nearest to village Palampur is-

(A) Shanjahan pura

(B) Shivpuri

(D) Sheopur

5 The village Palampur has a population of about how many families?

(A) 550

(B) 350

(D) 450

6 People of which caste live in a corner of the village?

(A) Higher Caste

(B) Middle income Group

(D) The SC’s (Dalits)

7 Physical capital means the-

(A) Raw materials and money

(B) Capital that works

(D) All the above

8 Working capital means-

(A) Working with capital

(B) Capital that works

(D) None of the above

9 Human capital includes-

(A) The working population of the country

(B) All those places where humans live

(D) All that capital which is used in production by only humans

10 Which of the following is not a factor of production?

(A) Land

(B) Labor

(D) Trading

11 Which of the following is a fixed factor of production?

(A) Land

(B) Labor

(D) Organisation

12 Which non-farming activity is practiced in Palampur?

(A) Small manufacturing activities

(B) Shop - keeping

(D) All of the above

13 How many people of Palampur are engaged in non-farm activities?

(A) 10 per cent

(B) 15 per cent

(D) 25 per cent

14 Which types of transport are visible in the Palampur-Raiganj road?

(A) Bullock carts and Tongas

(B) Bogeys or wooden carts drawn by buffalos

(D) All of the above

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 1.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1 What are the major economic activities of rural India?

2 What are factors of production? Name any four factors of production.

3 How many families are there in the Palampur village?

4 What is a fixed capital?

5 What is multiple cropping?

6 What is meant by HYV seeds?

7 Who are the farm labourers?

8 Who are the small farmers?

Short Answer Type Questions:

9 Is it important to increase the area under irrigation? Why?

10 What is the main production activity in Palampur?

11 What is capital? Distinguish between physical capital and working capital.

12 How electricity has helped the farmers of Palampur?

13 Why are the wages for farm labourers in Palampur less then minimum wages?

14 Distinguish between Rabi and Kharif crops. Make a list of various food grains and non food grain crops of both these seasons.

15 What are the different ways of increasing production on the same piece of land?

16 Differentiate between traditional and HYVseeds.

Long Answer Type Questions:

17 Define single-cropping, double- cropping and multiple-cropping.

18 How do the medium and large farmers obtain capital for farming? How is it different from the small farmers?

19 What can be done so that more non-farm production activities can be started in villages? 20 Modern farming methods require more inputs which are manufactured in industry. Do you agree?

21 What do you mean by green revolution? Why was it caused? Discuss its advantages and disadvantages to large and small farmers separately.

ANSWER KEY

(OBJECTIVE DPP 1.1)

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Ans	B	D	B	C	D	D	B	C	A	D	A	D	D	D

$»$ PEOPLE AS RESOURCE $«$

SL-02 (E)

HUMAN CAPITAL

Population becomes human capital when there is investment made in the form of education, training and medical care. Human capital is the stock of skill and productive knowledge embodied in them. People as a resource are a way of referring to; a country’s working people in terms of their existing productive skills and abilities.

(a) Human Capital formation:

When the exiting ‘human resource’ is further developed by becoming more educated and healthy, we call it ‘human capital formation ’that adds to the productive power of the country just like ‘physical capital formation’.

‘Investment in human capital (though education, training, medical care) yields a retum just like investment in physical capital’.

(i) It increases the productivity of the workers.

(ii) Educated, trained and healthy people can use natural resources in a better way.

(iii) It adds to quality of labor.

(iv) A country can earn foreign exchange by exporting services.

(b) Human resources is different from other resources like land and physical capital:

Land consists of all natural resources. These are provided to us by nature. Physical capital consists of all those objects that help in further production of different type of goods and services. Human resource, on the other hand, consists of knowledge and skills. Other resources are not capital of brining about an improvement in they by their own effort; they can be changed only by human resources. They do not have a mind and a brain of their own. Human resources, on the other hand, can be trained to perform any task for which it is required. It required education, trained and health care. These, in turn, are again provided by human resources. Thus, human resources, unlike other factor resources, has an ability to improve itself.

(c) “Population is an asset fo4 the economy rather then a liability”:

Population, for long, had been seen as a liability which slows down the rate of economic growth. This view of population was based on the fact that population represented the stock of human being. Human beings make a demand on nation’s resources for their survival. Larger the population more the resources like, food, health facilities, etc., would be required by it for its survival. Hence, population would be treated as a liability. However, this view of population is not the correct one. More important thing is that population is the source of supply of the most important factor resource, i.e., human capital. It is human capital that organizes the population activity and makes other factor resources work. It is in this sense that the stock of knowledge and skills that constitutes human resource is a valuable asset. However it may be noted that unless human beings are converted into human resource they may constitute a liability.

(d) Importance of Human Capital Formation:

Investment in human resource (vie education and medical care) can give high rates of rates of rates in the future. This investment on people is the same as investment in land capital.

(e) Virtuous cycle of human development:

Educated parents are found to invest more heavily on the education of their child. This is because they have realized the importance of education themselves. They are also conscious of proper nutrition and hygiene. They accordingly look after their children’s needs for education at school and good health. a virtuous cycle is thus created in this case. a vicious cycle may be created by disadvantaged parents who, themselves uneducated and lacking in hygiene, keep their children in a similarly disadvantaged state.

’’ countries like Japan did not have any natural resources; still they are developed countries’.

They have invested on people especially in the field of education and health.

The skilled and trained people have made efficient use of other resources like land and capital. Efficiency and technology evolved by people have made these countries rich/ developed.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES BY MEN AND WOMEN

All the activities which contribute to the flow of goods and services in the economy are called economic activities. These activities add value to the national income. Economic activities have two parts

(i) Market Activities: Market activities involve remuneration to anyone who performs i.e., activity performed for money or profit. These include production of goods and services including government service.

(ii) Non-market activities are the production for silf-consumption. These can be consumption and processing of primary product and own account production of fixed assets.

(a) Economic activities and Non- Economic Activities:

(a) Economic activities and Non-Economic Activities :

Economic Activities :

(i) Economic activities contribute to the flow of goods and services in an economy.

(ii) If there is an increase in productive activities that means economy is progressing.

(iii) Economic activities lead to an increase in the personal income as well as the national income.

Non- Economic Activities:

(i) Non- economic activities do not contribute to the flow of goods and services in an economy.

(ii) Increase in non- economic activities is not an indicator of the economy is progressing.

(iii) Non- economic activities do not lead to an increase in the personal income and national ncome.

(b) Classification of the Various Economic Activities:

The different type of activities can be classified in three sectors, viz, (i) Primary Sector: (ii) Secondary Sector, and (iii) Tertiary Sector.

(i) Primary Sector: primary Sector includes all those activities which are reacted to natural resources, like cultivation of land. The primary Sector covers agriculture and allied activities like forestry, animal husbandry, fishing, poultry farming and mining.

(ii) Secondary Sector: A secondary activities covers those activities that are concerned with the transformation of natural resource and products obtained the into other goods. For example, cultivation of wheat is a primary activity. Wheat is converted in to flour in a mill. This is secondary activity. Similarly, forestry is a primary activity. But manufacturing of furniture is a secondary activity and so on. Secondary sector includes quarrying and mining.

(iii) Tertiary Sector: it includes all those activities which produce different types of services that are required by society. Examples: services of a doctor, a teacher, a maid, an insurance company, a transport company. In an underdeveloped economy, primary sector is the dominant sector of the economy. With economic-growth, the relative importance of the secondary sector and tertiary sector increases, whereas that of the primary sector falls.

(c) Generally women are not paid as par with the men:

A majority of the women have meager education and low skill formation. Women are paid low compared to men. Most women work where there is no job security for them. Various activities relating to legal protection are meager. Employment in this sect6or is characterized by irregular and low income. In this sector, there is an absence of basic facilities like maternity leave, child care and other social security systems.

QUALITY OF POPULATION

The quality of population depends upon the literacy rate, health of a person indicated by life expectancy and skill formation acquired by the people of the 4 country. the quality of the population ultimately decides the growth rate of the country.

(a) Education:

Advantages of Education:

(i) Education helps individual to make better use of the economic opportunities available before him.

(ii) Education and skill are the major determinants of the earning of any individual of the market.

(iii) Education opens new horizons for an individual, provides new aspiration and develops values of life.

(iv) Education contributes towards the growth of society also.

(v) Education enhances the national income, cultural richness and increases the efficiency of governance.

(vi) Literacy is not only a right; it is also needed if the citizen are to perform their right properly.

Steps taken by the government to promote education in India:

Among the important measures taken in recent years to promote education, the following may be mentioned:

(i) Steps have been taken by government to promote universalistion of education.

(ii) Navodaya Vidhyalyas have been set up in each of the districts to provide quality education.

(iii) Vocational streams have been developed to equip large number of high school students with occupations related to knowledge and skills.

(iv) sarva Shiksha Abhiyan has been launched with the aim of providing elementary education to all children in the age group of 6 to 14 years by 2010 .

(v) Bridge courses and back to school camps have been initiated to increase the enrollment in elementary education.

(vi) Mid-day meal scheme has been implemented to encourage attendance and retention ofchildren . It also aims at improving nutritional status of children.

Four peculiarity of literacy in India:

(i) The literacy rates have increased from $18 %$ in 1951 to $65 %$ in 2001.

(ii) A vast differences is noticed across different section of population. Literacy among males is nearly $50 %$ higher then females and it is about $50 %$ higher in urban areas as compared to the rural areas.

(iii) Literacy rates very from $96 %$ in some districts of Kerala to a below 30% in some parts of Madhya Pradesh and Bihar.

(iv) According to the census of 2001, a person aged 7 years and above who can read and write with understanding in any language is treated as literate.

Strategy pursued in the Tenth Five Year Plan to promote education :

(i) The tenth Five-Year Plan plays special attention to increase the enrollment in higher education of the 18 to 23 years age group from the present $6 %$ to $9 %$ by the end of the plan period.

(ii) the strategy focuses on: a vast differences is noticed across, quality, adoption of states-specific curriculum modification, vocationalisation, networking no the use of information technology. The plan also focuses on distant education, convergence of formal, non-formal, distant and IT education and IT education institutions.

(iii) The Tenth Plan provides for an expenditure of Rs. 43, 825 crore on education during the period 2002-07, as against Rs. 151 Crore spent during the First Plan (1951-56).

(b) Health:

The heath of a person helps him to realize his potential and the ability to fight illness. An unhealthy person becomes a liability for an organization indeed; health is an indispensable basis for relishing one’s well benign. Health does not mean survival only; it involves not only the physical fitness of the individual but also his mental, economic and social well being. Good health increases the efficiency of a worker. . Good health increases the learning capacity of a worker.

Main elements of national health policy and its achievements:

Our national health policy aims at improving the accessibility of health care, family welfare and nutritional service with special focus on underprivileged segment of population. India has built up a vast health infrastructure and manpower required at primary, secondary, and tertiary care in government as well as in the private sector. The success of these measures gets reflected in the following:

(i) Life expectancy has increased to over 64 years in 2000.

(ii) Infant Mortality Rate has come down from 147in 1951 to 75 in 2000.

(iii) Crude birth rate have dropped to 26.1

(iv) Death rate has come down to 8.7 during the same duration of time.

All these facts are indicators of better health conditions in the country.

UNEMPLOYMENT

Unemployment is said to exist when people who are willing to work at the going wages cannot find jobs.

(a) Disguised Unemployment:

It is a situation in which more workers are working in an activity then required. the people who are actually engaged in such an activity appear to be employed but are not fully employed, for e.g. if for the cultivation of one hectare land, 10 workers are required but instead of 10 workers, 15 workers are working in this case 5 workers are disguised unemployed. In such cases even if the surplus workers are removed, the overall production does not suffer.

(b) Seasonal Unemployment:

It is a type of unemployment in which a worker is employed during some parts of the year (especially during harvesting or sowing season) and remain without work during the rest of the year. Factors responsible for seasonal unemployment

(i) Lack of small scale and cottage industries in rural areas.

(ii) Lack of multiple cropping

(iii) Lack of commercialization of agriculture.

(c) Structural unemployment:

The working force in India is very large. It wants work but the existing capital structure is unable to absorb them. The mismatch of available capital and the size of the labor force create persistent unemployment both in agriculture and industry. We lack resources to improve agriculture and industry to provide employment to our labor force. This causes unemployment, This type of unemployment occurs due to

(i) Lack of capital

(ii) Lack of resources.

(iii) Under utilization of natural resources.

(iv) Surplus workers as compared to demand.

Indian economy is facing structural unemployment as work force is more then the demand.

(d) Educated Unemployment:

If the spread of education is not according to the needs of economy it can create an army of educated unemployment. In India educated unemployment has become a common phenomenon.

India has failed to balance its education policy according to the needs of the economy. There is surplus of manpower in certain categories while there is a death of technical skills in other sectors.

‘Education unemployment a peculiar problem of India’

Education unemployment is a person who has some formal education upto some level, say senior secondary or more, and fails to find a job. This type of unemployment is on the rise in India. This is due to the following factors:

(i) Much of the education is of low-quality and general in nature. it does not have any vocation-specific component. Therefore, much of it is irrelevant. (ii) The rate at which white-collar jobs have been created in India is much less then the rare at which population and education have been increasing.

(iii) In the globalizing world, demand for high-skilled labor is fast increasing. There is no demand for persons with not or little skills. Our education system is mass producing this second category of persons.

Steps for solving the problem of educated unemployment:

The ultimate solution to the problem of educated unemployment is to be sought within the educated system.

(i) This needs a proper manpower planning. Manpower planning implies that a realistic assessment should be made about the manpower requirements in different sectors of the economy. Once these assessments have been made, education and training programs in schools, colleges, universities and other professional and training institutes should be accordingly designed.

(ii) Education should be made vocational. So that an-adult can find a suitable job immediately after he leaves a school or a college.

(iii) Higher education should be restricted to a meaningful few. To be realistic, education at this level should be high quality and research-oriented. In short, universal education is a must; but higher education should be restricted to a few and should be or high standards.

(e) Technical Unemployment:

If unemployment occurs owing to changes in technology, it is referred to as technical unemployment. Suppose, when computer reduces the need for labourers drastically in an economy. This leads to technical unemployment.

(f) Magnitude of unemployment of India:

There are two ways by which the magnitude of unemployment is measured in India.

(i) The first one is through conducting sample surveys and population census.

(ii) The information provided by employment exchanges.

(g) Factors responsible for unemployment of India:

(i) Rapid growth of population: our population has been continuously rising. From a population of 361 million in 1951 it has risen to 1027 million in 2001 but due to slow economic growth employment opportunities have not risen at the same pace.

(ii) Over dependence on agriculture: Even after more then 50 years of independence more then $60 %$ of our population still depends upon primary sector for its livelihood.

(iii) Under-development of cottage and small scale industry: our rural sector is facing problems of disguised and seasonal unemployment. This is due to under development of cottage and small scale industry.

(iv) Under-development industries: due to shortage of capital and other essential input the industrialization process is very slow. So the industrial sector has failed to provide enough job opportunities to unemployed workers.

(h) Disadvantages of Unemployment:

(i) Wastage of resources: human capital is one of the most important resources. Unemployment leads to wastage of manpower resource. People who are an asset for the economy turn into a liability. There is a feeling of hopelessness and despair among the youth.

(ii) Poverty: the basic cause of poverty is unemployment. People do not have enough money to support their family. Inability of educated people who are willing to work to find gainful employment implies a great social waste.

(iii) Increase in dependent population: unemployment tends to increase economic overload. The dependence of the unemployed on the working population increase.

(iv) Poor quality of life: the quality of life on an individual as well as of society is adversely affected. When a family has to live on a bare subsistence level, there is a general decline in its health status and rising withdrawal from the school system.

Hence, unemployment had detrimental impact on the overall growth of an economy. Increase in unemployment is an indicator of a depressed econ0omy. It also wastes the resource, which could have been gainfully employed. If people cannot be used as a resource, they naturally appear as a liability to the economy.

(i) Employment scenario in the three sectors:

(i) Agriculture is the most labour absorbing sector of the economy. More then $60 %$ of the population is already working in the primary sector. This sector is already facing the problem of disguised unemployment. Some of the surplus labor has moved to either the secondary or the tertiary sector.

(ii) In the secondary sector, small scale manufacturing is the 4 most labor-absorbing. There is much scope in this sector as new manufacturing units are being set up.

(iii) In case of the tertiary sector, various new services are now appearing like biotechnology, information technology and so on. As the need for the service sector is increasing, this sector has the ability to absorb a large number of working population.

(j) Methods to remove rural unemployment:

(i) By promoting small scale and cottage industry.

(ii) By spreading technical education.

(iii) By promoting supplement works like animal rearing, horticulture etc.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP- 2 . 1

1 Population becomes human capital when there is investment made in the form of -

(A) Education

(B) Training

(D) All of the above

2 resources are capable of brining about an improvement in them by their own effort.

(A) Land

(B) Capital

(D) Human

3 Activities which contribute to the flow of goods and services in he economy are called -

(A) Economy activities

(B) Non-economy activities

(D) None of the above

4 A large population need not be a liability. It can be turned into a productive asset by investment in -

(A) Human capital

(B) physical activity

(D) Labour

5 The sector which includes agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, fishing, poultry, farming and mining -

(A) Primary Sector

(B) Secondary Sector

(D) All of the above

6 A process where by we add to the stock of human resources, but not human beings also in an economy is termed as:

(A) Human Resource

(B) Human Capital

(D) Human capital formation

7 The plan outlay on education has increased from Rs. crore in the first five year plan to Rs. crore in the tenth five year plan.

(A) 125,48253

(B) 151,43825

(D) 190,52834

8 When the number of person employed in a work is more then what is required, it is know as?

(A) Seasonal unemployment

(B) Frictional unemployment

(D) Secular unemployment

9 is the death of children under one year of age.

(A) Mortality Rate

(B) Death Rate

(D) Infant Mortality rate

10 Which of the following is Non-Market Activity?

(A) Production for exchange

(B) Production for self consumption

(D) Production for exports

11 Trade, Transport, Communication, Tourism, health and insurance are the activities included in:

(A) Primary Sector

(B) Tertiary Sector

(D) None of the above

12 In recent years, there has been a decline in the dependence of population on partly because of disguised unemployment .

(A) Agriculture

(B) Industries

(D) Banking sector

13 Which of the following countries has a poor natural resource but rich human resources?

(A) India

(B) Nepal

(D) Sri Lanka

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 2.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1 What is human capital?

2 How is human resource different from other resource like land and physical capital?

3 What is death rate?

4 Why are women employed in low paid work?

5 What is the role of health in human capital formation?

6 What major changes indicate improvement of health in India?

7 What is sarva shikasha Abhiyan?

8 How can the infant mortality rate be reduced?

9 How will you explain the term unemployment?

10 What is the male and female literacy rate in India?

Short Answer Type Questions:

11 Countries like Japan did not have any natural resources, still they are developed countries’. Give reasons.

12 What is the difference between economic activities and non-economic ?

13 What is the difference between disguised unemployment and seasonalur ?

14 Mention a few peculiarity of literacy in India.

15 Why is educated unemployed a peculiar problem of India?

16 What strategy has been adopted by the government in the Tenth Five Year Plan to improve the education sector?

17 What do you understand by virtuous cycle of human development?

18 How does unemployment adversely affect an economy?

Long Answer Type Questions:

19 What is the role of education is human capital formation?

20 Describe various activities undertaken in primary, secondary and territory Sector.

21 Define structural unemployment, disguised unemployment and seasonal unemployment?

22 Which of the factors of production, namely land, labor, physical and human capital is the best and why?

23 What do you understand by the term Gross National Product? Is it a correct measure of a country’s progress? If not, what else methods can you suggest?

24 Outline the main elements of our national health policy. What are the main achievements in health area in India?

ANSWER KEY

(OBJECTIVE DPP 2.1)

Que.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13
Ans	D	D	A	A	A	D	B	C	D	B	B	A	C

$»$ POVERTY ASA CHALLENGE $«$

SL- 03 (E)

INTRODUCTION

India has the largest single concentration of the poor in the world. This illustrates the seriousness of the challenge. Poverty means hunger and lack of shelter. It is also a situation in which parents are not able to send their children to school or a situation where sick people cannot afford treatment. Poverty also means lack of clean water and sanitation facilities. It also means lack of a regular job at a minimum decent level. Above all it means living with a sense of helplessness. Poor are in a situation in which they are ill-treated at almost every place, in farm, factories, government offices, hospitals, railway stations etc. Obviously nobody would like to live in poverty.

Usually the indicators used to work out poverty, relate to the levelly of income and consumption. But now poverty is looked through other social

Indicators like illiteracy level, lack of general resistance due to malnutrition, lack to access to healthcare, lack of job opportunities, lack of access to safe drinking water, sanitation etc. Analysis of poverty based on social exclusion and vulnerability is now becoming very common.

(i) Social Exclusion: is a process through which individuals or groups are prevented from using facilities, benefits and opportunities that the better-off section of the society enjoy. Social exclusion can be both a cause and a consequence of poverty.

(ii) vulnerability: vulnerability describes the greater probability of being more adversely affected then other-people when bad time comes for everybody, whether a flood or an earthquake or simply a fall in the availability of jobs.

POVERTYLINE

A common method used to measure poverty is based on the income or consumption levels. A person is considered poor if his or her income or consumption level falls below a given “minimum level” necessary to fulfil basic needs. Poverty line may very with time and place. Each country uses an imaginary line that is considered appropriate for its existing level of development and its accepted minimum social norms. While determining the poverty line in India, a minimum level of food requirement, clothing, footwear, fuel and light, education and medical requirement to. Are determined for subsistence. there physical quantities are multiplied by their prices in rupees. The total equivalent is considered as poverty line. Daily minimum nutritional requirement for a person has been fixed at 2400 calories per person/ per day in rural areas and 2400 calories per person/per day in urban areas. The monetary expenditure per capital needed for buying these calorie requirements in terms of food grains etc. is revised periodically taking into consideration the rise in prices. On the basis of these calculations, for the year 2000, the poverty line for a person was fixed at Rs. 328 per month in rural areas and rs. 454 per month in urban areas. In this way in the year 2000, a family of live members living in rural areas and reaming less then about Rs. 1640 per month will be below the poverty line. a similar family in the urban areas would need a minimum of rs. 2270 per month to meet their basic requirements.

For making comparisons between developing countries, many international organizations like the World Bank use a uniform standard for the poverty line: minimum availability of the equivalent of $$ 1$ per person per day.

Is present methodology of poverty estimation appropriate?

No, the present methodology of poverty estimation is not appropriate. It is only a quantitative concept. It captures only a limited part of what poverty really means to the people. It is about a ‘minimum ‘subsistence level of living rather then a ‘reasonable level of living. Many scholars advocate that we must broaden the concept into human poverty. The other aspect like education, shelter, health, job, self-confidence equality etc. should also be included while calculating poverty.

POVERTY ESTIMATES

There is substantial decline in poverty ratios in India from about 55 per cent in 1993. the preparation of people below poverty line further came down to about 26 per cent in 2000. If the trend continues. People below poverty line may come down to less then 20 per cent in the next few years. The latest estimates indicate a significant reduction in the number of poor to about 260 million.

VULNERABLE GROUPS

The proportion of people below poverty line is also not same for all social groups and economic categories in India.

(i) Social groups which are most vulnerable to poverty are scheduled caste and scheduled tribe households.

(ii) Among the economic groups, the most vulnerable groups are the rural agricultural labor households and the urban casual labor households.

(iii) Although the average for people below poverty line for all groups in India is 26, 51 out of 100 people belonging to scheduled tribe are not able to meet their basic needs. Similarly, 50 percent of causal workers in urban areas are below poverty line. About 50 percent of landless agricultural workers and 43 percent of scheduled castes are also poor.

(iv) The double disadvantage, of being a landless casual wage labor household in the socially disadvantaged social groups of the scheduled caste or the scheduled tribe population highlights the seriousness of the problem.

(v) some recent studies have shown that except that for the scheduled tribe household, all the other three groups i.e. scheduled castes, rural agricultural labourers and the urban casual labor household have seen a decline in poverty in the 1990 s.

(vi) Women, elderly people and female infants are systematically denies equal access to resources available to the family. Therefore women, children (especially the girl child) and old people are poorest of the poor.

INTER STATE DISPARITIES

There has been significant decline in poverty since independence. In 1960-61 more then $34 %$ population of the country was living below poverty line which has declined to $26 %$ in $2000-01$. Although there has been reduction in poverty, the success rate of reducing poverty varies from state of sate.

(i) States with poverty ratio more then the nation average: Orissa, Bihar, Assam, Tripura and Uttar Pradesh are the most poverty ridden states of India. The poverty ration in these states is much higher then the national average .Orissa and Bihar are the poorest states with poverty ratio of 47 and 43 respectively. Most of these states are facing rural as well as urban poverty.

(ii) States with poverty ratio less then the national average: recent studies show that in 20 states and Union Territories, the poverty ratio is less then the national average. There has been a significant decline in poverty ratio in Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and West Bengal.

(iii) States with poverty ratio: states like Panjab, Haryana, Goa, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu Kashmir have very low percentage of population living below poverty line.

GLOBAL POVERTY SCENARIO

(i) The population of people in developing countries living in extreme economic poverty-defined by the World Bank as living on less then that $$ 1$ per day-has fallen form 28 per cent in 1960 to 21 per cent in 2001. Although there has been a substantial reduction in global poverty, it is marked with great regional differences.

(ii) Poverty declined substantially in China and South-east Asian countries as a result of rapid economic growth and massive investments in human resource development.

(iii) In the countries of South Asia (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan) the decline has not been as rapid.

(iv) In Sub-Saharan Africa, poverty in fact rose from 41 per cent in 1981 to 46 per cent in 2001.

(v) In Latin America, the ratio of poverty remained the same.

(vi) The Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations calls for reducing the proportion of people living on less then $$ 1$ a day to half the 1990 level by 2015 .

CAUSES OF POVERTY

(i) BRITISH Rule: Britishers ruled India for more then 100 years. Prior to the British rule, traditional Industries, for instance, textiles, were flourishing in India. During the British rule, they adopted policies to discourage such industries. This left millions of weavers poor.

(ii) Rural Economy: Indian economy is predominantly rural economy. As such, the major production is of primary goods. In India, $70 %$ of the total population is engaged in agriculture but its contribution to the national income is only onethird. It means that despite India being predominantly an agricultural country, it is very much backward in agriculture.

(iii) Heavy Pressure of Population: population in India has increasing very rapidly. Main factors accounting for it is sharp tall in death rate but stable birth rate for the many decades. This pressure of population serves as a big stumbling block to economic development.

(iv) Chronic Unemployment and Under- employment: with constant increase in population there has developed a situation of chronic unemployment and underemployment. Due to increasing pressure on land, per hectare availability of land is decreasing. Due to division of land, production is decreasing. Agriculture sector is also facing problem of disguised unemployment.

(v) Lack of Proper Industrialisation: India is very backward from the industrial point of view. Hardly 3 percent of working population is engaged in large scale industries. Consumers’ goods industries like soap, cloth, sugar, leather, oil etc. have developed to a large extent but capital and producers’ goods industries have not yet developed properly.

(vi) Social factors: social factors like illiteracy, large size of family, law of inheritance, and caste system are also responsible for prevalence of poverty ridden people.

ANTI POVERTY MEASURES

The current anti - poverty strategy of the government is based broadly on two planks

(i) Promotion of economic growth

(ii) targeted anti-poverty programmers.

(a) Promotion of Economic Growth:

(i) Since the eighties, India’s economic growth has been one of the fastest in the world. The growth rate jumped from the average of about 3.5 per cent a year in the 1970s to about 6 per cent during the 1980s and 1990s. The higher growth rates have helped significantly in the reduction of poverty. It is becoming clear that is a strong link between economic growth and poverty reeducation.

(ii) Economic growth widens opportunities and provides the resources needed to invest in human development. This also encourages people to send their children, including the girl child, to schools in the hope of getting better economic returns from investing in education.

(b) Targeted Anti - Poverty Programmers:

National Rural Employment guarantee Scheme (NREGA) 2005:

(i) It was passed in September 2005. This Act provides for 100 days assured employment every year to every rural household in 200 districts. Later the scheme will be extended to 600 districts.

(ii) one third of the proposed jobs will be reserved for women.

(iii) The Central Government will establish National Employment Guarantee Funds.

(iv) State government will establish State Employment Guarantee Funds for implementation of the scheme.

(v) Under the programme if an applicant is not provided employment within fifteen days, she/he will be entitled to a daily unemployment allowance.

National Food for Work Programme (NFWP):

(i) It was launched in 2004 in 150 most backward districts of the country.

(ii) The programme is open to all rural poor who are in need of wage employment and desire to do manual unskilled work.

(iii) It is implemented as a 100 percent centrally sponsored scheme and food grains are provided free of cost to the states.

Prime Minister Rozar Yozana (PMRY):

(i) It is another scheme which was started in 1993

(ii) The aim of the programme is to create self-employment opportunities for educated unemployed youth in rural areas and small business and industries.

(iii) They are helped in setting up small business and industries.

Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP):

It was launched in 1995. The aim of the programme is to create self-employment opportunities in rural areas and small towns. A target for creating 25 lakh new jobs has been set for the programme under the Tenth Five Year Plan.

Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY):

It was launched in 1999. The programme aims at bringing the assisted poor families above the poverty line by organizing them into self help groups through a mix of bank credit and government subsidy.

Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yozana (PMGY):

(i) It was launched in 2000.

(ii) Additional central assistance is given to states for basic services such as primary health, primary education, rural shelter, rural drinking water and rural electrification.

Antyodaya Anna Yozana (AAY):

This scheme was launched in December 2000. Under this scheme one crore of the poorest among. The BPL families covered under the targeted public distribution system were identified. Poor families were identified by the respective state rural development departments though a Below Poverty Line (BPL) survey. Twenty five kilograms of food grains were made available to each eligible family at a highly at a highly subsidized rate of Rs 2 per Kg for wheat and Rs 3 per for rice. This quantity has been enhanced from 25 to $35 kgs$ with effect from April 2002. The scheme has been further expanded twice by additional 50 lakh BPL families in June 2003 and in August 2004. With this increase, 2 crore families have been covered under the AAY.

(c) Assessment of poverty - alleviation programmes:

Poverty-alleviation programmes have been implemented in India since 1978. The results of these programmes have been mixed.

On the positive side, the incidence of poverty has declined in India. There has been a significant fall in poverty during the decades of 1980s and 1990s. Whereas in 1973, about 55 percent of India’s population lived below poverty. This ratio has currently come down to 26 percent.

On the negative side, poverty reduction remains India’s most compelling challenge. About one-fourth on India’s total population, i.e., about 260 million persons, live below the line of poverty. This shows that the poverty alleviation programmes have not lived up to the expectations. The major weaknesses of there programmes have been as follows:

(i) Lack of proper implementation.

(ii) Lack of right targeting

(iii) Overlapping of schemes.

(iv) Non-delivery of benefits to the targeted groups.

THE CHALLENGES AHEAD

(i) Poverty has certainly declined in India. But despite the progress, poverty reduction remains India’s most compelling challenge. Wide disparities in poverty are visible between rural and urban areas and among different states.

(ii) Poverty reeducation is expected to make better progress in the next ten to fifteen years. This would be possible mainly due to higher economic growth, increasing stress on universal free elementary education, declining population growth, increasing empowerment of the woman and the economically weaker section of society.

(iii) The official definition of poverty captures only a limited part of what poverty really means to people. It is about a “minimum” subsistence level of living rather then a “reasonable” level of living. We must broaden the concept into human poverty.

(iv) With development the definition of what constitutes poverty also changes. Eradication of poverty is always a moving target. Hopefully we will be able to provide the minimum “necessary” in terms of only income to all people by the end of the next decade. But the target will move on for all, and achieving gender equality and dignity for the poor. These will be even bigger tasks.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP- 3 . 1

1 Poverty means:

(A) Lack of intelligence

(B) Lack of proper health

(D) All of the above

2 An estimated income that is required to purchase the minimum subsistence needs of a person in termed as:

(A) Poverty ratio

(B) Income level

(D) poverty standard

3 the attitude of higher income groups people towards the poor that forces the latter to keep away maintaining any social with the former is know as:

(A) Social awareness

(B) Social contract

(D) Social contact

4 World Bank use a uniform standard for the poverty line; minimum availability of the equivalent of per person per day.

(A) Rs. 10000

(B) 100 Yen

(D) 1 U.S. Dollar

5 In 1960-91 more then population of the country was living below poverty line which has declined to in 2000-01

(A) $34 %, 26 %$

(B) $46 %, 34 %$

(D) $36 %, 22 %$

6 Which of the following is the minimum calories requirement of poverty in India?

(A) 2200 in urban and 2600 in rural areas

(B) 1800 in urban and 2300 in rural areas

(D) None of the above

7 The minimum monthly expenditure in India for poverty line is fixed at:

(A) 428 per month person in rural and 445 in urban areas

(B) 428 per person in rural and 444 in urban areas

(D) Rs. 328 in rural and 445 in urban areas

8 The poverty ratio in this state is less then the national average-

(A) Kerala

(B) Assam

(D) Gujarat

9 India is very backward from the industrial point of view. Hardly of working population is engaged in large scale industries.

(A) 3 per cent

(B) 13 per cent

(D) None of the above

10 Since the eighties, India’s growth has been one of the fastest in the world. the growth rate jumped from the average of about a year in the 1970s and 1980s and 1990s.

(A) $1.5 %, 5 %$

(B) $2.5 %, 7 %$

(D) $3.5 %, 6 %$

11 This programme provides for 100 days assured employment every year to every rural household in 200 districts.

(A) NFWP

(B) PMRY

(D) All the above

12 Prime Minister Rozgar Yozana was started in -

(A) 1993

(B) 1995

(D) 2003

13 Which programme aims at bringing the assisted poor families above the poverty line by organizing them into salt help groups through a mix of bank credit and government subsidy?

(A) SGSY

(B) PNGY

(D) PMRY

14 Poverty Alleviation Programmes have been implemented in India since-

(A) 1958

(B) 1968

(D) 1988

15 How many people in India live in poverty?

(A) 20 crore people

(B) 26 crore people

(D) None of the above

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 3.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1 Define Poverty.

2 What is Poverty Line?

3 What is accepted average calorie requirement in India for rural and urban areas?

4 Which two states of India continue to be the poorest states?

5 What do you mean by poverty alleviation programmes?

6 Who is the poorest of the poor?

7 What is the aim of the National and State Employment Guarantee Funds?

8 Identify the social and economic groups which are more vulnerable to poverty in India.

Short Answer Type Questions:

9 Explain the measurement of poverty.

10 Do you think that present methodology of poverty estimation is appropriate?

11 What are the Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojna (PMRY) and swaranjayayanti Shahri Rozgar Yojna (SJSRY)?

12 Discuss the poverty trends in India since 1973.

13 Give an account of inter-state disparity in India.

14 Discuss global poverty trends.

15 What are the main features of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005?

Long Answer Type Questions:

16 Discuss the major reasons for poverty in India.

17 Describe current government strategy of poverty alleviation.

18 “Poverty has certainly declined in India. But despite the progress, poverty reduction remains India’s most compelling challenge.” Discuss.

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 3.1)

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Ans	D	C	C	D	A	C	C	B	A	D	C	A	A	C	B

$»$ FOOD SECURITY $«$

Food security means availability, accessibility and affordability of food to all people at all times. Food security depends on the public Distribution System (PDS), Government vigilance and action at times when this security is threatened.

Food security has following dimensions:

(i) Availability of food production within the country, food imports and the previous years stock stored in government granaries.

(ii) Accessibility means food is within reach of every person.

(iii) Affordability: it implies that a person has enough money to buy sufficient nutritious and safe food to meet one’s dietary needs. Thus, food security is ensured in a country only if

(I) Enough food is available for all the person.

(ii) All persons have the capacity to buy food of acceptable quality.

(iii) There is no barrier on access to food.

WHY FOOD SECURITY

(a) Over population:

The population of India is increasing at a very fast rate. the population of India has increased from 361 million in 1951 to 1027 million in 2001.

(b) Reduction in net sown area under cereals:

There has been a gradual shift from cultivation of food crops to cultivation of fruits, vegetables, oilseeds and other cash crops, which also act as industrial raw material; This has lead to the reduction in net sown area under cereals, millets and pulses.

(c) Hoarding and black marketing:

There is continuous tendency on the part of traders in India to hoard food grains and to accentuate the shortage of food grains in order to push up the prices for reaping extraordinary profit.

(d) Reduction of land under cultivation:

The use of more and more land for construction of factories, warehouses and shelters has reduced the land under cultivation and new fertile land for framing no longer available.

(e) Corrupt administrative practices:

The government has imposed various measures like price controls, rationing, zoning, surprise checks etc. but as the administrative machinery in India is totally corrupt, these measures fail to reap any benefit to the general masses of the country.

(f) Natural calamities:

Natural calamities like earthquake, drought, flood, tsunami, famine etc. can also adversely affect the fold security of the country.

How is food security affected during a calamity?

Due to a natural calamity, say drought, total production of foodgrains decreases. It creates a shortage of food in the affected areas. Due to shortage of food if such calamity happens in a very wide spread area of is stretched over a longer time period, it may cause a situation of starvation. A massive starvation might take a turn of famine. a famine is characterized by wide spread deaths due to starvation and epidemics caused by forced use of contaminated water or decaying food and loss of body resistance due to weakening from starvation . There are places like Kalahandi and Kashipur in Orissa were famine-like conditions have been existing for many years and where some starvation deaths have also been reported. Therefore, food security is needed in a country to ensure food at all times.

WHO ARE FOOD ENSECURE?

(i) In India, the worst affected groups are landless people with or no land to depend upon, traditional artisans, providers of traditional services, petty self-employed workers and destitute including beggars.

(ii) In the urban areas, the food insecure families are those working members are generally employed in ill-paid occupation and casual labor market. These workers are largely engaged in seasonal activities and are paid very low wages that just ensure bare survival.

(iii) The social composition along with the inability to buy food also plays a role in food insecurity.

(iv) The SCs, STs, and some sections of the OBCs (lower castes among them) who have either poor land-base or very low land productivity are prone to food insecurity.

(v) The people affected by natural disasters, who have to migrate to other areas in search of work, are also among the most food insecure people.

(vi) A high incidence of malnutrition prevails among women. This is a matter of serious concem as it puts even the unborn baby at the risk of malnutrition.

(a) Which states are more food insecure?

the food insecure people are disproportionately large in some regions of the country, such as economically backward states with high incidence of poverty, tribal and remote areas, regions more prone to natural disasters etc. in fact, the states of Uttar Pradesh (eastern and south-eastem parts), Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, Chattisgarh, parts of Madhya and Maharashtra account for largest number of food insecure people in the country.

(b) Hunger:

Hunger is another aspect indicating food insecurity. Hunger is not just an expression of poverty, it brings about poverty. The attainment of food security therefore involves eliminating current hunger and reducing the risk of future hunger. Hunger has chronic and seasonal dimension.

(i) Seasonal Hunger:

Seasonal hunger is related to cycle of food growing and harvesting. During off season, prices of foodgrains become high or there can be shortage of foodgrains. This situation leads to seasonal hunger. This type of hunger exists when a person is unable to get work for the entire year.

(ii) Chronic Hunger:

Chronic hunger is a consequence of diets persistently inadequate in terms of quality. The basic cause of chronic hunger is very low income. The type of hunger exists when a person is unable to get work for the entire year.

(c) India is aiming at self-sufficiency in foodgrains since independence:

(i) After independence, Indian policy makers adopted all measures to achieve self-sufficiency in food grains. India adopted a new strategy in agriculture, which resulted in the ‘Green Revolution’ especially in the production of wheat and rice.

(ii) Since the advent of the Green revolution in the early- ${ }^{7} 70$ s, the country has avoided famine even during adverse weather conditions.

Impact of Green Revolution:

(i) The success of Green Revolution has made India self sufficient in good grains.

(ii) Because of Green Revolution there was an increase in the production of wheat and rice.

(iii) The higher rate of growth was achieved in Punjab and Haryana.

(vi) Tami Nadu and Andhra Pradesh recorded significant increase in rice yield.

(v) The increase in the production of foodgrains helps the Government to build buffer stock.

(vi) This buffer stock led to food security.

FOOD SECURITY IN INDIA

India has become self-sufficient in foodgrains during the thirty years because of a variety of crops grow in whole country. The availability of foodgrains at the country level has further been ensured with a carefully designed food designed system. This system has two components: (a) Buffer Stock (b) Public Distribution System.

(a) What is Buffer Stock?

Buffer Stock refers to the stock of foodgrains, namely wheat and rice procured by the government through Food Corporation of India (FCI). The FCI purchases wheat and rice from the farmers in states where there is surplus production. FCI procures wheat and rice from the markite immediately after harvesting of these crops. The stocks are released for sale through the Fair Price Shops. The principal objective of buffer stock is to maintain stability in the prices of foodgrains. The prices stability is essential to protect the interests of both producers and consumers: of course, different conditions favour producers and consumers.

(i) If there is a bumper crop: by guaranteeing to purchase crops at a pre-announced price, the government ensures that price of wheat does not crash, and farmers interests are protected.

(ii) If there is a crop deficit: in this situation wheat would be released from the buffer stock; it would be made available for sale in the market, Supply of wheat would increase. price of wheat could come down.

Thus buffer stocks help to protect the interests of both producers and consumers.

(b) Public distribution system.

The food procured by the FCI is distributed through government regulated ration shops among the poorer section of the society. This is called the Public Distribution System (PDS). Ration shops are now present is most localities, villages, towns and cities. There are about 4.6 lakh ration shops all over the country. Rations shops also know as Fair Price Shops, keep stock of foodgrains, sugar, and kerosene oil for cooking. These items are sold to people at a price lower then the market price. Any family with a ration card can buy a stipulated amount of these items every month from the nearby ration shops.

History of Rationing in India:

The introduction of Rationing in India dates back to the 1940s against the backdrop of the Bengal Famine. The rationing system was revived in the wake of an acute food shortage during the 1960s, prior to the Green Revolution. In the wake of high incidence of poverty levels, as reported by NSSO in the mid-1970s, three important food intervention programmes were introduced.

(i) Public Distribution System for Foodgrains (in existence earlier but strengthened thereafter).

(ii) Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) introduced in 1975 on an experimental basis.

(iii) Food-for-work programme introduced in 1977-78. (iv) At present, there are several Poverty Alleviation Programmes (PAPs), mostly in rural areas, which have an explicit food component also. While some of the programmes such as PDS, mid-day meals etc. are exclusively food security Programmers, most of the PAPs also enhance food security.

Current states of Public Distribution System:

(i) In 1992, Revamped Public Distribution System (RPDS) was introduced in 1,700 blocks in the country . the target was to provide the benefits of PDS to remote and backward areas.

(ii) Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) was introduced to adopt the principle of targeting the ‘poor in all areas’. it was for the first time that a differential price was adopted for poor and non-poor.

(iii) Two special schemes were launched in 2000. (a) Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) (b) Annapuma Scheme (APS) with special target groups of ‘poorest of the poor’ and ‘indigent senior citizens’.

National food for work programme:

This scheme was launched on November 14, 2004 in 150 most backward districts of the country with the objective of intensifying the generation of supplementary wage employment. The programme is open to all rural poor who are in need of wage employment and desire to do manual unskilled work. It is implemented as a 100 per cent centrally sponsored scheme and the foodgrains are provided to States free of cost. The Collector is the nodal officer at the district level and has the overall responsibility of planning, implementation, coordination, monitoring and supervision. For 2004-05, Rs 2,020 crore have been allocated for the programme in addition to 20 lakh tones of foodgrains.

Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY):

This scheme was launched in December 2000. Under this scheme one crore of the poorest among the BPL families covered under the targeted public distribution system were identified. Poor families were identified by the respective state rural development departments through a Below Poverty Line (BPL) survey. Twenty five kilogram of foodgrains were made available family at a highly subsidized rate of Rs 2 per $kg$ for wheat and Rs 3 per for rice . This quantity has been enhanced from 25 to $35 kgs$ with effect from April 2002. the scheme has been further expended twice by additional 50 lack BPL families in June 2003 and in August 2004. With this increase, 2 crore families have been covered under the AAY.

Achievement of Public Distribution System:

(i) The PDS has proved to be the most effective instrument of government policy over the years in stabilising prices and making food available to consumers at affordable prices.

(ii) The system, including the minimum support price and procurement has contributed to an increase in food grain production and provided income security to farmers in certain regions.

Problem Associated with Public Distribution System:

(i) There is a general consensus that high level of buffer stocks of foodgrains is very undesirable and can be wasteful. the storage of massive food stocks has been responsible for high carrying costs, in addition to wastage and deterioration in grain quality.

(ii) The increase food grain procurement at enhanced MSP is the result of the pressure exerted by leading foodgrain producing states, such as Punjab, Haryana and Andhra Pradesh.

(iii) PDS dealers are sometimes found resorting to malpractices like diverting the grains to open market to get better margin, selling poor quality grains at ration shops, irregular opening of the shops , etc.

ROLE OF COOPERATIVES IN FOOD SECURITY

(i) The cooperative are also playing an important role in food security in India especially in the southem and western parts of the country.

(ii) The cooperative societies set up shops to sell low priced goods to poor people.

(iii) In Delhi, Mother Dairy is making strides in provision of milk and vegetables to the consumers at controlled rate decided by Government of Delhi. Amul is another success story of cooperatives in milk and milk products from Gujarat.

(iv) In Maharashtra, Academy of Development Science (ADS) has facilitated a network of NGOs for set6ting up grain bancks in different regions.

(v) ADS organises training and capacity building programmes on food security for NGOs.

(vi) Grain Banks are now slowly taking shape in different parts of Maharashtra. Ads efforts to set up Grain Banks, to facility replication through other NGOs and to influence the Government’s policy on food security are thus paying rich dividends.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP- 4 .1

1 If a nation can not ensure for all of its citizens availability of enough nutritious food, it will be a situation of:

(A) Food insecurity

(B) Living insecurity

(D) None of the above

2 Stock of food grains, namely wheat and rice procured by the government through Food Corporation of India (FCi):

(A) Food stock

(B) Food grain stock

(D) All of the above

3 a shop in which consumer goods are available ate subsidized rate is called:

(A) Retail shop

(B) Fair Price shop

(D) Both (B) & (c)

4 Availability, accessibility and affordability of food to all people at all times is termed as :

(A) Abundance of food

(B) Food security

(D) Social Security

5 The price at which the foodgrains are sold to the consumers by the fair price shops in know as:

(A)Purchase Price

(B) Consumers Price

(D) Selling Price

6 The famine of Bengal occurred in the year:

(A) 1934

(B) 1943

(D) 1933

7 Rationing is termed as:

(A) A system of consumption

(B) A system of production

(D) A system of distribution

8 Food security depends on the:

(A) Public Distribution system

(B) Government vigilance and action at times when this security in threatened

(D) Both (A) & (B)

9 Availability of food means:

(A)Food production within the country

(B) Food imports other countries

(D) All the above

10 Food within the reach of every person means:

(A)Availability

(B) Affordability

(D) Quality of the food should be good

11 Affordability implies that an individual has:

(A)Enough money to buy food

(B) Enough money to keep food safe

(D) Enough money to buy sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet his dietary need

12 ‘Seasonal’ and ‘Chronic’ are the two types of:

(A) Poverty

(B) Hunger

(D) Food availability

13 Which of the following crop’s production increased rapidly in India after Green Revolution?

(A)Mustard & Groundnut

(B) Sugarcane and Sunflower

(D) Tea and Coffee

14 Which of the following states achieved the highest rate of growth of foodgrain production during 1964-65 to 1995-96?

(A) Gujarat and Maharashtra

(B) Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh

(D) Punjab and Haryana

15 Food grains such as rice and wheat are procured in India for buffer stock by :

(A) National Agricultural Cooperative Government of India

(B) Food Corporation of India

(D) State Trading Corporation of India

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 4.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

1 What is meant by food security?

2 Name the two dimensions of hunger.

3 Give any two main defects of the public distribution system.

4 Which two states witnessed a high rate of growth in the production of food grains.

5 Name any two Yozanas introduced with one objective of each for food security.

6 Which type of people are more vulnerable to food insecurity?

7 To whom the BPL card is issued?

8 Mention the names of any four cooperative societies working in different states of India.

Short Answer Type Questions:

9 What are three dimension of food security?

10 Who is food security ensured in India?

11 Which people are more prone to food security in India?

12 Which states is more food insecure in India?

13 Do you believe that green revolution has made India self-sufficient in food grains? How?

14 Explain how a section of the people are still without food.

15 What happens to the food supply in case of a disaster or a calamity?

16 Differentiate between seasonal hunger and chronic hunger. 17 Discuss any two important schemes launched by the government to provide food security to poor in India.

Long Answer Type Questions:

18 Describe a buffer stock created by the government.

19 What are the aims, achievements and problems of Public Distribution System in India?

20 What is the role of cooperatives in providing food and related items in India.

21 Write short notes on: (i) Minimum Support Price (ii) Fair Price Shops

22 Trace in brief the history of rationing in India.

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP 4.1)

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Ans	A	C	D	B	C	B	D	D	D	C	D	B	C	D	B

पिछला

Contents

S.No. Topics

Page No.

$»$ THE FRENCH REVOLUTION $«$

FRENCH SOCIETY DURING THE LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

(a) Causes of the French Revolution:

Political Causes:

Social Forces:

Economic Unrest:

A growing middle class envisages an end to Privaleges:

Contribution of the thinkers:

THE OUT B REAK OF THE REVOLITION

(a) The Tennis Court Oath:

(b) ‘Storming of the Bastille’:

(c) France becomes a Constitutional Monarchy:

(d) The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen:

FRANCE ABOLISHES MONARCHY AND BECOMES A REPUBLIC

(a) The Reign of Terror:

(b) A directory Rules France:

DID WOMAN HAVE A REVOLUTION

(a) The Abolition of Slavery:

THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY:

(a) Effect on France:

(b) Effects on Europe:

(c) Globat impact:

THE RISE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON

Some Important Dates:

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP- 1.1

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 1.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Short Answer Type Questions:

Long Answer Type Questions:

ANSWER KEY

RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

THE AGE OF SOCIAL CHANGE

(a) Liberals, Radicals and Conservatives:

(b) Industrial Society and Social Change:

(c) The Coming of Socialism to Europe:

(d) Support for socialism:

THE RUSSIANIREMOLOTION

(a) The Russian Empire in 1914:

(b) Economic and Social conditions of Russia before the revolution:

Political Conditions:

Two classes of the Russian Society:

(c) Socialism in Russia:

(d) A Turbulent time: the 1905 Revolution:

Bloody Sunday:

A dress Rehearsal:

The Czar’s Manifesto:

Formation of Soviets:

(e) The First World War and the Russian Empire:

THE FEBRUARY REVOLUTION IN PETROCREAD

(a) After February:

Contribution of Lenin in the Russian revolution:

Lenin’s “Fundamental Law for a successful revolution:

The four fold demand of the Russian Revolutionaries

(b) The Revolution of October 1917:

WHAT CHANGED AFTER OCTOBER?

(a) Civil War (1917 - 20):

(b) Making a Socialist Society:

(c) Stalinism and Collectivization:

(d) Consequence of the Russian Revolution on Russia:

THE GLOBAL NELUENCE THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND THE USSR

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP- 2.1

SUBJECTIVE DPP -2.2

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Short Answer Type Questions:

Long Answer Type Questions:

ANSWER KEY

NAZISM AND THE RISE OF HITLER

BIRTH OF THE WEIMER REPUBLIC

(a) Treaty of Versailles:

(b) The Effects of the War:

(c) Political Radicalism and Economic Crises:

(d) The years of depression:

HITLER’S RISE TO POWER

(a) The Destruction of Democracy:

(b) Reconstruction: