States of India:

• Arunachal Pradesh
• Assam
• Bihar
• Chhattisgarh
• Goa
• Gujarat
• Haryana
• Himachal Pradesh
• Jharkhand
• Karnataka
• Kerala
• Madhya Pradesh
• Maharashtra
• Manipur
• Meghalaya
• Mizoram
• Nagaland
• Odisha
• Punjab
• Rajasthan
• Sikkim
• Tamil Nadu
• Telangana
• Tripura
• Uttarakhand
• Uttar Pradesh
• West Bengal

Union Territories of India:

• Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• Chandigarh
• Dadra and Nagar Haveli
• Daman and Diu
• Delhi
• Lakshadweep
• Puducherry
• Jammu and Kashmir

Geographical Features of India:

• India is located in South Asia and is separated from the rest of Asia by the Himalayas and the sea.
• It is the seventh largest country in the world in terms of area and has a population of over 1.3 billion people, making it the second most populous country in the world.
• India is located on the Indian Plate and is part of the Indo-Australian Plate.

The largest countries in the world by area are:

• Russia (17,124,442 square kilometers)
• Canada (9,984,670 square kilometers)
• China (9,706,961 square kilometers)
• United States (9,629,091 square kilometers)
• Brazil (8,515,767 square kilometers)
• Australia (7,692,924 square kilometers)

India’s area:

• India’s total area is 32,87,263 square kilometers.
• Land area: 29,73,193 square kilometers
• Water area: 3,14,070 square kilometers
• India’s water area makes up about 9.55% of its total area.

Comparisons:

• India is 12 times larger than the United Kingdom.
• India is 8 times larger than Japan.
• India is about 3/4th the size of the European Union (all 28 member nations combined). - Kanyakumari is the southernmost point of the mainland of India. It is located where three seas meet and narrows before ending in the Indian Ocean. The southernmost point of India is actually Indira Point, which is located on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, not far from Indonesia. However, Indira Point was submerged during the 2004 tsunami.
• The Lakshadweep Islands are a group of islands that are closer to the Indian coast compared to other island groups.
• India has a very long coastline, which is almost as long as the radius of the Earth.
• The distance from north to south and east to west in India is almost the same in degrees (about 30 degrees), but in kilometers, the north-south distance (about 3200 km) is longer than the east-west distance (about 3000 km).
• Because India is so spread out from east to west, there is a two-hour time difference between the easternmost and westernmost points.
• The Standard Meridian of India (82 degrees 30 minutes East) passes through The Tropic of Cancer, an imaginary line at 23 degrees 30 minutes north of the equator, divides India into two almost equal parts.
• The northern part is a vast region that stretches from east to west, made up of flat plains and the majestic Himalayan mountains.
• The southern part, below the Tropic of Cancer, is shaped like a triangle, with its base in the north and its tip pointing south. This region mainly consists of the peninsular plateau, but it also includes the coastal areas on the east and west.
• From the state of Gujarat in the west to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east, there is a two-hour difference in time. To ensure uniformity, the time along the Standard Meridian of India (82 degrees 30 minutes east), which passes through Mirzapur in the state of Uttar Pradesh, is taken as the standard time for the entire country.
• As you move from south to north in India, the length of the day and night changes due to the country’s latitudinal extent (its position relative to the equator).
• The coastline of mainland India, excluding the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands, stretches for approximately 5,423 kilometers. - The distance from north to south in India is about 2093.6 kilometers.
• The mainland coast of India has different types of beaches. About 43% of the coast is sandy, 11% is rocky with cliffs, and 46% is marshy.
• The highest point in India is K2, which is 8611 meters high. However, K2 is located in the Gilgit-Baltistan region, which is currently part of Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. Kangchenjunga in Sikkim is the highest point within India’s current borders, and it is 8598 meters high.
• The Thar desert is the ninth largest subtropical desert in the world. It covers an area of more than 200,000 square kilometers.
• The soil in the Thar desert is sandy to sandy-loam in texture.
• India is surrounded by the Indian Ocean to the south, the Arabian Sea to the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal to the southeast.
• India’s territorial waters extend 12 nautical miles (about 22.2 kilometers) into the sea.
• The Maldives, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia are island nations located to the south of India.

Dimensions:

• Distance from north to south: 3214 kilometers
• Distance from east to west: 2933 kilometers
• Length of coastline: 7516.6 kilometers
• Length of land frontier: 15,200 kilometers
• Total geographic land area: 32,87,263 square kilometers
• Percentage of earth’s surface covered by India: 2.4%
• Percentage of world’s population living in India: 17.5%
• India’s territorial sea: 12 nautical miles
• India’s contiguous zone: 24 nautical miles
• India’s exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles
• India’s longest river: Ganga
• India’s largest lake: Lake Chilka
• India’s highest point: Mt. K-2 (8611 meters)
• India’s highest point of Himalayas: Kangchenjunga (8598 meters)
• India’s lowest point: Kuttanad (-2.2 meters)
• India’s northernmost point: Siachi

Glacier near Karakoram:

• India’s southernmost point is Indira Point, located in the Great Nicobar Island of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• India’s westernmost point is located west of Ghur Mota in the state of Gujarat.
• India’s easternmost point is Kibithu, situated in the state of Arunachal Pradesh.
• The highest point in India is Kangchenjunga, located in the state of Sikkim.
• The lowest point in India is Kuttanad, situated in the state of Kerala.

Frontiers:

• In the north, India is separated from Tibet by the Himalayan mountain range. India shares borders with China (border length: 4057 kilometers), Bhutan (border length: 699 kilometers), and Nepal (border length: 1751 kilometers).
• The Siliguri Corridor, located between the borders of Bhutan, Nepal, and Bangladesh, connects mainland India with the northeastern states.
• The boundary line between India and China is known as the McMahon Line.
• The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India is almost the same in degrees, both being around 30 degrees. However, in terms of kilometers, the north-south distance (approximately 3200 kilometers) is greater than the east-west distance.
• In the east, India shares borders with the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills.

India’s International Borders:

North-East:

• India shares a border with Myanmar (also known as Burma) to the far north-east. The border is marked by densely forested mountains.

East:

• Bangladesh is separated from India by the watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic plain, the Khasi hills, and the Mizo Hills. The border between India and Bangladesh is 4,096 kilometers long.

West:

• Pakistan lies on the Punjab Plain and the Thar desert. The border between India and Pakistan is 3,323 kilometers long.
• Afghanistan lies on the north-west. The border between India and Afghanistan is 106 kilometers long.
• Pakistan lies on the Punjab Plain and the Thar desert. The border between India and Pakistan is 3,323 kilometers long.
• Afghanistan lies on the north-west. The border between India and Afghanistan is 106 kilometers long.

South:

• India is surrounded by the Indian Ocean to the south.
• Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Straits.

States Sharing International Borders:

• Afghanistan: Jammu and Kashmir (Pakistan occupied area)
• Bangladesh: West Bengal, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tripura, Assam
• Bhutan: West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam
• China: Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh
• Nepal: Bihar, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal
• Myanmar: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland
• Pakistan: Rajasthan,Gujarat,Jammu & Kashmir,Punjab

Physical Features of India:

• India can be divided into three main parts:

  1. The Himalayas and the mountains around them
  2. The Indo-Gangetic plains
  3. The peninsular India

• There is also a fourth part, the coastal plains, which surround the peninsula.

• The Himalayas are the youngest fold mountains in the world. They surround India on the north, northwest, and northeast.

• The Himalayas and the mountains around them are made up of very old rocks that were formed under the sea.

• The Indo-Gangetic plains are located to the south of the Himalayas. They are made up of soil that was brought by rivers from the Himalayas.

• The peninsular India is the oldest part of India. It is made up of very hard rocks.

• The coastal plains surround the peninsular India. They are made up of sand and clay that was brought by rivers from the mountains.

The Himalayas and the Karakoram Mountains

The Himalayas and the Karakoram Mountains are two of the most impressive mountain ranges in the world. They are located in Asia and run along the northern border of India.

The Karakoram Mountains have several ranges, including the Zaskar, Ladakh, and Pirpanjal ranges. The Jhelum River flows through this region.

The Himalayas have three main ranges: the Himadri, Himachal, and Siwalik ranges. They are about 2400 kilometers long and vary in width from 240 to 320 kilometers.

The Greater Himalayas, or northern range, is the highest part of the Himalayas. It contains three of the highest mountains in the world: Mount Everest (8848 meters), K-2 or Mount Godwin Austin (8611 meters), and Kanchenjunga (8598 meters).

These high altitudes make it difficult to travel through the Himalayas. There are only a few passes that allow people to cross the mountains. Some of the most famous passes include Shipki La, Jelep La, and Nathu La.

The Himalayas

The Himalayas are a mountain range in Asia. They are the highest mountains in the world. The Himalayas are divided into three parts: the Greater Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas, and the Outer Himalayas.

The Greater Himalayas

The Greater Himalayas are the highest part of the Himalayas. They are covered in snow all year round. The Greater Himalayas are home to several glaciers, which are the sources of rivers like the Ganges and the Yamuna. The core of the Greater Himalayas is made of granite.

The Lesser Himalayas

The Lesser Himalayas are located south of the Greater Himalayas. They are not as high as the Greater Himalayas, but they are still very tall. The Lesser Himalayas are home to many valleys, including the famous Kashmir Valley. The Lesser Himalayas are also home to many health resorts.

The Outer Himalayas

The Outer Himalayas are the lowest part of the Himalayas. They lie between the Lesser Himalayas and the Indo-Gangetic Plains. The Outer Himalayas are made up of highly compressed and altered rocks. The lesser Himalayas in the far east are connected by continuous ranges. The longitudinal valley between the lesser Himalayas and the Shiwaliks is called Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun, and Patli Dun are some well-known Duns.These ranges are made up of loose sediments brought down by rivers from the main Himalayan ranges further north. These valleys are covered with thick gravel and alluvium.The Northern Plains or the Indo-Gangetic Plains are formed by the valleys of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. They are about 2400 km long and 240-320 km wide.These plains cover one-third of India’s land and are the most fertile region. Based on terrain features, this plain has two parts.The Indo-Gangetic region is a very young feature formed only during the Quaternary Period. It has little high relief and mostly consists of rolling plains carved by well-developed rivers.

River System

• The surface of the river system is covered with sediments from the middle to late Pleistocene and Holocene or Recent Age.
• On the west, it includes the vast stretch of the Thar Desert.
• The upland plains above the flood level are made of alluvial soil. It is one of the most fertile areas in the world.
• The low lands are prone to flooding during floods.
• The great plains consist of leveled land to the south of the great mountains of the north made up of fertile alluvial soil.
• The great plains are bordered by the northern mountains on the east, north, and west and the peninsular plateaus on the south.
• The Assam plains include the Brahmaputra valley; the eastern plains cover the Bengal basin and Bihar; the northern plains are spread over the Uttar Pradesh-Punjab doabs, and the Indus plains cover the areas of the Punjab and Sind watered by the great river.
• So it consists of the Indus Basin, Ganga Basin, and Brahmaputra Basin. River Indus and its tributaries-Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej-form the Indus Basin.

The tributaries of the Ganga River:

• Some of the tributaries of the Ganga River start in the Himalayas, while others start in the peninsular plateau.
• The Himalayan tributaries include the Yamuna, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, and Tista rivers.
• The peninsular plateau tributaries include the Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, Son, Ken, and Damodar rivers.

The Brahmaputra River:

• The Brahmaputra River starts beyond the Himalayas.

The Deccan Plateau:

• The Deccan Plateau is located south of the northern plains.
• It is bordered by the Eastern and Western Ghats mountain ranges.
• The Deccan Plateau is made up of Precambrian rocks, which are some of the oldest rocks on Earth.
• The highest peaks in the Deccan Plateau are the Nilgiri Hills, which reach over 2,500 meters in height.
• The topography of the Deccan Plateau is rugged, but not as rugged as the Himalayas.
• Most of the hills in the Deccan Plateau were formed by erosion, rather than by tectonic activity.

4. Coastal Plains:

• The western coastal plain is divided into two parts: the Konkan in the north and the Malabar coast in the south.
• The eastern coastal strip is called the Coromandel coast.

The Great Plateau of Peninsular India:

• The large plateau of peninsular India is located south of the great plains. It is made up of hard igneous rocks.
• The plateau has two parts:
  • The Malwa plateau in the north slopes towards the north.
  • The Deccan plateau in the south.

The Great Indian Desert:

• To the northwest of the Malwa plateau lies the Great Indian Desert. It is a region of inland made up of rocks and sand.

The Deccan Plateau:

• The Deccan plateau is located south of the Narmada River. It is enclosed by the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats.
• The Western Ghats are old mountains formed by four major hills that run parallel to the Arabian Coast.
• The Eastern Ghats are low and discontinuous. They are near the Bay of Bengal coast.
• Many rivers flow through the plateau, either towards the Arabian Sea or the Bay of Bengal.

Coastal Plains

• The western coastal plains are narrow and divided into the Konkan coast and the Malabar coast. They have estuaries and lagoons.
• The eastern coastal plains are wider and divided into the northern circars and the Coromandal Coast. They have fertile deltas.

Aravallis and Deccan Mountains

1. The Aravallis:

   • The oldest mountain range in India.
   • Highest peak: Guru Shikhar at Mount Abu, rising to 1722 meters.
   • Located near the border with Gujarat.

2. The Vindhyas:

   • Separate southern India from northern India.
   • Extend 1050 kilometers.
   • Average elevation: 3000 meters.

3. The Satpuras:

   • Located between the Narmada and Tapti rivers.
   • Extend 900 kilometers.
   • Many peaks rise above 1000 meters.
   • Run parallel to the Vindhya Range to the north.
   • These two east-west ranges divide the Indo-Gangetic plain from the Deccan plateau north of the river.

   Narmada River:

• The Narmada River is a major river in India.
• It flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
• It is the fifth-longest river in India.
• It is considered a sacred river by Hindus.

Western Ghats:

• The Western Ghats are a mountain range in India.
• They run along the western edge of India’s Deccan plateau.
• They separate the Deccan plateau from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea.
• The range runs approximately 1600 kilometers.
• The average elevation of the Western Ghats is about 915-1220 meters.

Eastern Ghats:

• The Eastern Ghats are a mountain range in India.
• They are not as tall as the Western Ghats.
• Some of the peaks of the Eastern Ghats are over 1000 meters in height.
• The average elevation of the Eastern Ghats is about 610 meters.
• The Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu lie at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats.

Islands:

• There are two groups of islands in India:
  • Andaman and Nicobar Group:
    • The Andaman and Nicobar Group is a group of islands in the Bay of Bengal.
    • The northern cluster of 204 small islands comprises the Andamans.
    • The southern cluster of 19 small islands are the Nicobar islands.
  • Lakshadweep:
    • Lakshadweep is a group of 27 coral islands in the Arabian Sea.
    • They are located about 300 kilometers west of Kerala.
    • The Lakshadweep group is entirely built by coral.

Deserts

• The Thar desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is a large, dry area in the northwestern part of India and Pakistan. It forms a natural border between the two countries.
• The Thar desert is very different from the fertile plains of the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers. Because of this, it is considered a separate geographical region.
• The Thar desert starts at the Sutlej river and ends at the Indus river. The Aravalli mountains are to the southeast of the desert, and the Rann of Kutch, a salt marsh, is to the south.
• Most of the Thar desert is in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It also touches the southern parts of Haryana and Punjab and the northern part of Gujarat. The Cholistan desert in Pakistan is next to the Thar desert.

Soils in India

1. Alluvial Soil:

• Alluvial soil is found in the Indo-Gangetic plain, which covers almost a quarter of India.
• This soil is very fertile and is used to grow a variety of crops.

Types of Soil in India

1. Alluvial Soil: This soil is found in the northern plains of India and is formed by the deposition of sediments brought by rivers. It is fertile and suitable for cultivation of a variety of crops.

2. Black Soil: This soil is found in the Deccan Plateau and is formed by the weathering of volcanic rocks. It is rich in minerals and is suitable for cotton cultivation.

3. Red Soil: This soil is found in the southern and eastern parts of India and is formed by the weathering of crystalline rocks. It is less fertile than alluvial soil but is suitable for cultivation of pulses and coarse grains.

4. Laterite Soil: This soil is found in the coastal areas of India and is formed by the weathering of laterite rocks. It is acidic and less fertile, but can be used for cultivation of certain crops such as cashew and coconut.

Other types of soil found in India include:

• Saline and alkaline soils
• Peat and marshy soils
• Arid or desert soils
• Forest soil

River Systems of India

India has a number of major river systems, which play a vital role in the country’s economy and culture. The major river systems are:

• The Ganga River System
• The Indus River System
• The Brahmaputra River System
• The Godavari River System
• The Krishna River System
• The Mahanadi River System
• The Narmada River System
• The Tapi River System The rivers of India are divided into different groups.

1. The Himalayan System: These rivers start in the Himalayas and are fed by snowmelt. During the rainy season, they flood and carry most of the water from the rivers into the sea. The three main Himalayan rivers are the Indus, Sutlej, and Beas.

Table 3.1 shows information about the Himalayan River System.

(Continued)

*The holy Ganges is the longest

Rivers in India

India has many rivers. The longest river in India is the Brahmaputra, which is 2900 kilometers long. But only one-third of the river flows through India.

The Deccan System is a group of rivers that depend on rainfall. They carry about 30% of the total water that flows in Indian rivers. The Godavari is the largest river in this system. The Kaveri is the southernmost river in India.

The Coastal River System is a group of smaller rivers that flow into the sea. There are more than 600 of these rivers on the west coast, but only a few of them flow into the sea near the delta on the east coast.

The Third River System

The third river system includes the Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, and Pennar rivers. The Godavari is the largest river in this system and it flows for 1450 kilometers before entering the Bay of Bengal. The Krishna is the second longest river in this system and it flows for 1290 kilometers. The Kaveri is the third longest river in this system and it flows for 760 kilometers. The Pennar is the fourth longest river in this system and it flows for 560 kilometers.

Rivers of the Deccan Plateau

Rivers of the Inland Drainage Basin

These are small rivers in sandy areas of Rajasthan called ‘rivers of inland drainage basins’. They do not have an outlet in the sea, except for the Luni River, which drains into the Rann of Kutch. Other prominent rivers in this category include the Machchu, Rupen, Saraswati, Banas, and Ghaggar.

Lakes

The map provided is a sketch only, not drawn to scale. It is presented for reference and to aid understanding of the concept.

The Himalayas have many lakes.

• Most lakes are less than 5000 meters above sea level. The higher the altitude, the smaller the lakes.
• The largest lake is Pangong Tso. It is on the border of India and Tibet. It is 4600 meters above sea level, 8 kilometers wide, and 134 kilometers long.
• The highest lake is Gurudogmar in North Sikkim. It is 5370 meters above sea level.

There are different types of lakes in India:

• Tectonic Lakes: These are old lakes from the Pleistocene era in Kashmir and Kumaon Himalayas.
• Crater Lakes: These are formed by volcanoes.
• Glacial Lakes: These are found in big mountains.
• Alluvial Lakes: These are oxbow lakes in the Ganga plains.
• Aeolian Lakes: These are formed by small depressions or hollows.
• Lagoons: These are formed by sandbars along the sea coast.

Some examples of lagoons in India are:

• Chilka Lake in Orissa
• Pulicat Lake in Andhra Pradesh
• Several Kayals on the Malabar coast of Kerala

Important Lakes of India

• Lakes of Kashmir: Dal, Wular, Shesh Nag, Verinag, Manasbal, Nagin, etc.
• Lakes of Kumaon: Nainital, Bhimtal, Khurpatal, Sattal, Punatal, etc.
• Lakes of Rajasthan: Udaisagar, Fatehsagar, Jai Samand, Pichol, and Sambhar Salt Lakes.
• Other Important Lakes: Lake Lonar in Maharashtra, Chilka in Orissa, Lake Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh), and Nakkital (Mount Abu).

Largest District:

• Kachchh (Gujarat) with an area of 45,652 square kilometers

Smallest District:

• Mahe (Puducherry) with an area of 9 square kilometers

Tropic of Cancer:

• Passes through eight states: Mizoram, Tripura, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Gujarat

Indian Standard Meridian:

• Passes through five states: Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh

Climate and Forest Resources

The Indian Meteorological Department recognizes four seasons:

• Winter (December-March)
• Summer (April-May)
• Monsoon (June-September)
• Season of retreating southwest monsoon (October-November)

The climate of India is influenced by two rain-bearing winds:

1. The Southwest Monsoon (June-September): These monsoons bring 86% of the total rainfall in India. They start on the west coast around the beginning of June and continue till September, with rainfall decreasing as they move inland.
2. The Northeast Monsoon (November-December): These are also called winter monsoons and are limited to a smaller area, particularly the east coast. It is Tamil Nadu’s primary monsoon.

Regions of Heavy Rainfall (above 200 cm)

• Assam, Arunachal, Meghalaya, Sikkim, and northern parts of West Bengal
• The Western Ghats
• The Himalayan slopes

Regions with low rainfall (less than 50 cm):

• Kutch and western Rajasthan
• Southern Haryana, southeast Punjab, and Ladakh

Forest cover in India according to Forest Survey 2011:

• Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover (11.25%), followed by Arunachal Pradesh (9.75%), Chhattisgarh (8.09%), Maharashtra (7.33%), and Orissa (7.07%).
• The northeastern states, which make up only 7.76% of India’s land area, have about 25% of the country’s total forest cover.
• In the northeastern states, forests cover about 66.81% of the land, much higher than the national average of 21.02%.
• Since 2005, the northeastern states have gained 598 square kilometers of forest cover.
• For the first time, forest cover has been assessed in different altitude zones.
• Areas between 1000 and 2000 meters above sea level have the most forest cover (72.19%).
• More than half of India’s forest cover is found in areas between 1 and 500 meters above sea level.
• For the first time, we have information about the forest cover in different types of forests in India.
• About one-third of India’s forests are tropical moist deciduous, while tropical dry deciduous forests make up 30.16%.
• Tropical wet evergreen forests cover 8.75% of India’s land.
• West Bengal has almost half of the mangrove forests in India.
• India’s mangrove cover has increased by 58 square kilometers.
• The decrease in mangrove cover in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is because of the tsunami.
• Maharashtra has the largest tree cover in India (9466 square kilometers), followed by Gujarat (8390 square kilometers), Rajasthan (8274 square kilometers), and Uttar Pradesh (7381 square kilometers).
• There is a lot of deforestation in the areas where rivers start in the Himalayan region.
• We need to protect our natural vegetation to keep our environment healthy. To protect our forests, we need to take some important steps.

1. We need to stop people from cutting down trees without thinking about the consequences.
2. We need to make sure that animals don’t eat too much grass and plants in the forests.
3. We need to be careful not to start forest fires.
4. We need to stop a type of farming called “Jhuming,” where people burn down forests to clear land for farming.
5. We need to plan how we use our cities and towns so that they don’t take over too much forest land.
6. We need to encourage people to plant trees for commercial purposes and to get involved in taking care of forests.

According to a report from 2011, India has a total forest cover of 6,92,027 square kilometers, which is about 21% of the country’s total land area. Out of this, 83,471 square kilometers are very dense forests, 32,073 square kilometers are moderately dense forests, and the rest are open forests.

• India’s forest area is about 6,92,027 square kilometers, which is 21.05% of the country’s total land area.
• The tree cover in India is estimated to be 90,844 square kilometers, which is 2.76% of the total land area. Tree cover includes patches of trees smaller than 1 hectare with a canopy density of over 10%.
• The National Forest Policy of 1988 set a goal to increase the forest cover in India to about 33.3%.
• Compared to the previous assessment in 2009, there has been a net decrease of 367 square kilometers of forest cover in the country. However, after considering changes in the assessment methods, there is actually a net increase of 1128 square kilometers of forest cover compared to 2009.
• Arunachal Pradesh has the highest proportion of its geographical area under dense forest cover, with 20,868 square kilometers.
• Haryana has the lowest area under forest cover, with only 1068 square kilometers.

Largest Forest Cover:

• Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under forest cover, which is 77,700 square kilometers.

Highest Percentage of Forest Cover:

• Mizoram has the highest percentage of forest cover compared to its total geographical area. It has 90.68% of its land covered by forests.

Forest Cover in Hill Districts:

• India has 124 hill districts, and 39.74% of their total area is covered by forests.
• However, the forest cover in these hill districts has decreased by 548 square kilometers.
• All districts in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, and Uttarakhand are considered hill districts.
• These nine states together have 63.07% of their geographical area covered by forests.

Forest Cover in Tribal Districts:

• India has 188 tribal districts, and 37.25% of their total area is covered by forests.
• Unfortunately, the forest cover in these tribal districts has also decreased by 679 square kilometers.

Changes in Natural Vegetation:

• As one goes higher up the mountains, the temperature drops, and the type of natural vegetation changes accordingly. In the Himalayas, we can find different types of vegetation at different heights. Up to 500 meters above sea level, we find tropical vegetation. From 500 to 1500 meters, we find sub-tropical vegetation. From 2500 to 3500 meters, we find temperate vegetation. Above 3500 meters, we find cold desert vegetation.

In southern India, the change in vegetation type happens at higher altitudes because it is closer to the equator and has a tropical climate.

Types of Forests in India

1. Evergreen Forests (Tropical): These forests are found in areas where the rainfall is between 200 and 300 centimeters per year. They are found in the Western Ghats and the sub-Himalayan regions. These forests have coniferous trees, which have needle-shaped leaves. They provide valuable timber such as teak, rosewood, mahogany, pine, and bamboo.

2. Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests): These forests are found in areas where the rainfall is between 150 and 200 centimeters per year. They are found in parts of the Deccan Plateau, stretching across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. These forests provide fine timber such as teak, sal, and sandalwood.

3. Dry Forests: These forests are found in the desert regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat. They have thorny trees and shrubs that are adapted to the dry climate.

4. Tropical Deciduous Forests:

• Found in areas with rainfall between 75-100 cm per year.
• Trees include Babul, Neem, and Tamarind.

5. Semi-Desert and Desert Vegetation:

• Found in regions with rainfall below 50 cm per year, like central and western Rajasthan.
• Plants include scrubs, thorny bushes, and cactus.

6. Hill Forests:

• Found in southern India and the Himalayan regions.
• Provide timber.
• Major trees include Oak, Deodar, Pines, and Chir.

7. Tidal Forests (Mangrove):

• Found in coastal plains that are often submerged, especially on river deltas on the east coast (Ganges, Mahanadi, Godavari).
• The forests on the Gangetic delta in Bengal are called Sunderbans, named after the Sundari trees found there.
• Mangrove cover in India is 4639 km² (0.14% of India’s geographic area) and is spread across 12 states and union territories.

Forests as Carbon Sinks:

• Over the past two decades, forests have played a crucial role in absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, helping to mitigate climate change.

India’s Forest Conservation Efforts

India’s national forestry laws and policies focus on protecting and sustainably managing forests. These efforts have helped to reverse deforestation and turn India’s forests into a significant absorber of carbon dioxide (CO2).

Carbon Dioxide Removal

The CO2 absorbed by India’s forests and trees is enough to offset 11.25% of the country’s total greenhouse gas emissions. This is equivalent to eliminating all CO2 emissions from residential and transportation energy use or 40% of emissions from agriculture.

A Major Carbon Sink

India’s forests and trees play a vital role in mitigating carbon emissions, both for India and the world.

Coral Reef Areas in India

India has an estimated 2375 square kilometers of coral reefs.

Coral Reefs for Conservation

Four important coral reef areas have been chosen for special care and management:

1. Gulf of Mannar
2. Gulf of Kachchh
3. Lakshadweep
4. Andaman and Nicobar

Agriculture

• In India, about 65-70% of people work in farming. Over 50% of the country’s land is used for growing crops.

Crop Seasons

• India has two main crop seasons:

1. Kharif
2. Rabi

Kharif Season

• Crops are planted in June or July and harvested in September or October.
• Examples of Kharif crops include rice, jowar, bajra, ragi, maize, cotton, and jute.

Rabi Season

• Crops are planted in October or December and harvested in April or May.
• Examples of Rabi crops include wheat, barley, peas, rapeseed, mustard, and grams.

Main Crops and Producers

• Wheat is mainly grown in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana.
• Rice is mainly grown in West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
• Gram is mainly grown in Madhya Pradesh.

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Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation.

Note: Telangana is carved out of Andhra Pradesh as the 29th States. The information above has Andhra Pradesh that includes Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.

Green Revolution

• The green revolution was started in 1967-68 to make farming better in two steps:

First Green Revolution:

• The first Green Revolution mainly focused on the states of Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, which were already known for their wheat production.

Second Green Revolution:

• In 1983-84, the Green Revolution was expanded to include eastern and central states like West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.

Results of the Green Revolution:

• As a result of the Green Revolution, wheat production more than doubled, and rice production increased by 53%.

Dairy Farming:

• Operation Flood I (1970-81):

  • This program was launched in collaboration with the World Bank.
  • The goal was to gain control of the liquid milk market in big cities.

• Operation Flood II (1981-85):

  • This program was launched in 1981 and expanded to almost all states.

• Operation Flood III (1985-90):

  • This program was launched in 1985 under the Seventh Five Year Plan.

• Implementation:

  • These programs were carried out by the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) and the Indian Dairy Corporation (IDC).

Results of the Dairy Farming Programs: India’s Milk Production and Surplus

India has become the world’s largest producer of milk. As a result, the availability of dairy milk per person has increased from 107 grams to 232 grams. However, this increase has also led to a problem of surplus milk.

Irrigation Methods in India

1. Wells: Wells are the most common method of irrigation in India, accounting for nearly half of the total irrigated area. They are mainly used in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra.
2. Tanks: Tanks are used for irrigation in central and southern India, especially in Andhra Pradesh. They account for about 10% of the total irrigated area.
3. Canals: Canals are the primary source of irrigation in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Haryana. They provide water for about 40% of the total irrigated area.

Mineral Resources of India

India has a wealth of mineral resources, including iron, mica, manganese, and bauxite. The country is also self-sufficient in antimony, building materials, cement materials, clay, chromite, lime, dolomite, and gold. However, India is deficient in copper, lead, mercury, zinc, tin, nickel, petroleum products, sulfur, and tungsten.

Table 3.6: Important Minerals

Minerals found in India

Taka: Found in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat.

Crude oil: Found in Assam, Tripura, Manipur, West Bengal, Ganges Valley, Himachal Pradesh, Kutch, Andhra Pradesh, off West Bengal, Orissa, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.

Lignite: Found in Tamil Nadu, with some deposits also found in Gujarat, Puducherry, Rajasthan, and Jammu and Kashmir. India ranks third in the production of lignite.

Gold: Found in Karnataka, with small quantities found in Andhra Pradesh.

Magnesite: Found in Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, and Karnataka.

Gypsum: Found in Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, and Tamil Nadu.

Lead-zinc: Found in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Sikkim, and Rajasthan.

Chromite: Found in Orissa, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Manipur.

Dolomite: Found in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and Arunachal Pradesh.

Diamond: Found in Madhya Pradesh, with traces found in Andhra Pradesh.

National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in India

• National Parks: There are about 94 national parks in India. They cover an area of about 33,988 square kilometers, which is about 1% of India’s total land area.
• Wildlife Sanctuaries: There are about 501 wildlife sanctuaries in India. They cover an area of about 1,07,310 square kilometers, which is about 3% of India’s total land area.

Table 3.7: Important Sanctuaries and Parks

Corbett National Park

• Location: Nainital, Uttaranchal
• Area: 1318.54 square kilometers
• Wildlife: Tigers, leopards, elephants, sambar

Dachigam Sanctuary

• Location: Srinagar/Pulwama, Kashmir
• Area: 141 square kilometers
• Wildlife: Kashmiri stag or Hangul, Himalayan bear, musk deer, exotic Himalayan birds

Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary

• Location: Mandsaur and Neemuch, Madhya Pradesh
• Area: 368.62 square kilometers
• Wildlife: Chital, sambar, chinkara, barking deer, wild birds

Ghana Bird Sanctuary

• Location: Bharatpur, Rajasthan
• Area: 29 square kilometers
• Wildlife: Water birds, black-buck, chital, sambar

Gir Forest

• Location: Junagarh, Gujarat
• Area: 1412.13 square kilometers
• Wildlife: India’s biggest wildlife sanctuary famous for Gir lions

Kaziranga National Park

• Location: Jorhat, Assam
• Area: 430 square kilometers
• Wildlife: Rhinoceros, wild buffalo, swan, deer, hog, elephant, leopard, langoor, python

Pakhal Sanctuary

• Location: Warangal, Andhra Pradesh
• Area: 874.20 square kilometers
• Wildlife: Tiger, panther, sambar, nilgai, chital, spotted deer

Important Towns and Locations

Table 3.8: Indian Cities on River Banks

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Note: Telangana is carved out of Andhra Pradesh as a separate state. The 29th state of India is Andhra Pradesh. The information above includes Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.

Indian Tribes and Their Habitat:

Radesh,Chhattisgarh:

• The Radesh people live in the state of Chhattisgarh.

Bhils:

• The Bhils live in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra.

Bhotias:

• The Bhotias live in the Garhwal and Kumaun regions of Uttarakhand.

Birhor:

• The Birhor people live in the Hazaribagh district of Jharkhand.

Chenchus:

• The Chenchus live in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.

Gaddis:

• The Gaddis live in the states of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.

Gallong:

• The Gallong people live in the North-east Himalayan tract.

Garos:

• The Garos live in the state of Meghalaya.

Gonds:

• The Gonds live in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh.

Khas:

• The Khas people live in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Bengal, Sikkim, and Bhutan.

Khasis:

• The Khasis live in the states of Assam and Meghalaya.

Khonds:

• The Khonds live in the states of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.

Kol:

• The Kol people live in the states of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.

Kolam:

• The Kolam people live in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.

Kotas:

• The Kotas live in the Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu.

Kuki:

• The Kuki people live in the state of Manipur.

Lahora:

• The Lahora people live in the states of Nagaland and Assam.

Lepchas:

• The Lepchas live in the state of Sikkim.

Lushais:

• The Lushais live in the state of Tripura.

Mina:

• The Mina people live in the state of Rajasthan.

Mikirs:

• The Mikirs live in the state of Assam.

Monpa:

• The Monpa people live in the state of Arunachal Pradesh.

Mundas:

• The Mundas live in the state of Jharkhand.

Murias:

• The Murias live in the state of Madhya Pradesh.

Oaraons of Kurukh:

• The Oaraons of Kurukh live in the states of Jharkhand and Orissa.

Onges:

• The Onges live in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Santhals:

• The Santhals live in the states of West Bengal, Jharkhand, and Orissa.

Tribes of India

• Ssa: Found in Bihar.
• Sema: Found in Nagaland and Assam.
• Sentinelese: Found in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Shomens: Found in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Tangkhul: Found in Nagaland and Assam.
• Todas: Found in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu.
• Uralis: Found in Kerala.
• Warlis: Found in Maharashtra.

Hill Stations in India

• Almora: Located in the Kumaon Hills of Uttarakhand, at an elevation of 5500 feet.
• Cherrapunji: Located 30 miles south of Shillong in Meghalaya, at an elevation of 4455 feet.
• Coonoor: Located in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu, at an elevation of 6740 feet.
• Dalhousie: Located in Himachal Pradesh, at an elevation of 7867 feet.
• Darjeeling: Located in West Bengal, at an elevation of 7168 feet.
• Gulmarg: Located in Jammu and Kashmir, at an elevation of 8850 feet.
• Kalimpong: Located near Darjeeling in West Bengal, at an elevation of 4000 feet.
• Kasauli: Located near Shimla in Himachal Pradesh, at an elevation of 7200 feet.
• Kodaikanal: Located in Tamil Nadu, at an elevation of 7200 feet.
• Kullu Valley: Located in Himachal Pradesh, at an elevation of 3999 feet.
• Lansdowne: Located in Garhwal, Uttarakhand, at an elevation of 5597 feet.
• Mahabaleshwar: Located in Maharashtra, at an elevation of 4500 feet.
• Mt Abu: Located in Rajasthan, at an elevation of 3900 feet.

-Uttarakhand:

• Mukteshwar: 7,500 feet above sea level

• Mussoorie: 7,500 feet above sea level

• Nainital: 6,365 feet above sea level

• Himachal Pradesh:

• Shimla: 7,000 feet above sea level

• Tamil Nadu:

  • Ootacamund (Ooty): 7,500 feet above sea level

Census 2011:

• Population:

  • Total: 121 crore
  • Males: 62.37 crore
  • Females: 58.65 crore

• Population Growth:

  • Total increase: 18.15 crore
  • Growth rate: 17.64%

• Population Density:

  • Rural: 83.30 crore
  • Urban: 37.71 crore
  • Overall: 382 persons per square kilometer

• Sex Ratio:

  • Rural: 947 females per 1,000 males
  • Urban: 926 females per 1,000 males

• Literacy Rate:

  • Males: 82.14%
  • Females: 65.46%

• Population Density:

• North East Delhi has the highest population density, with 37,346 people per square kilometer.

• Dibang Valley has the lowest population density, with only 1 person per square kilometer.

• Sex Ratio:

• The sex ratio in India is 940 females for every 1000 males.

• Mahe district in Puducherry has the highest sex ratio, with 1176 females per 1000 males.

• Daman district has the lowest sex ratio, with 533 females per 1000 males.

Literacy Rate:

• The literacy rate in India has increased from 64.83% in 2001 to 74.04% in 2011.
• Serchhip district in Mizoram has the highest literacy rate, with 98.76%.
• Alirajpur district in Madhya Pradesh has the lowest literacy rate, with 37.22%.

Population Growth Rate:

• Kurung Kumey district in Arunachal Pradesh registered the highest population growth rate of 111.01%.
• Longleng district in Nagaland registered a negative population growth rate of -58.39%.

Most and Least Populated Districts:

• Thane district in Maharashtra is the most populated district, with a population of 1,10,54,131.
• Dibang Valley in Arunachal Pradesh is the least populated district.

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• Lakshadweep is the Union Territory with the smallest population.
• Sikkim is the state in India with the smallest population (6,07,688).
• Daman and Diu had the highest percentage growth of 55.50%.
• Meghalaya had the lowest percentage growth of -0.47%.
• Delhi NCR has the highest population density of 11,297 people per square kilometer.
• Arunachal Pradesh has the lowest population density of 17 people per square kilometer.
• Kerala has the highest sex ratio, with 1084 females for every 1000 males.
• Daman and Diu has the lowest sex ratio (618) among the union territories.
• Haryana has the lowest sex ratio (877) among the states.
• Kerala has the highest literacy rate of 93.91%.
• Bihar has the lowest literacy rate among states (63.82%), but it had the highest growth in literacy rate during the decade of 2001-11.

Table 3.11: Basic Data

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Note: The GDP per capita is calculated by dividing the state’s GDP by its population.

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Srinagar (summer capital); Jammu (winter capital).

As per 2011 provisional figures.

Note: Telangana is carved out of Andhra Pradesh as the 29th States. The information above has Andhra Pradesh that includes Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.